PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

ACLC COLLEGE OF TACLOBAN

SHS DEPARTMENT

LECTURE NOTES

Lesson 6
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data
Your research report talks about the Review of Related Literature and Studies which
provided you with a starting point of your study. You are supposed to continue where other researchers
have left or are lacking. Thus, you must take careful note of the variables used in their studies, their
research methodology, their findings and conclusions, and you must be able to spot strong and weak
points of their studies.
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the different quantitative research designs that
are often used in practice. This chapter outlines the research design, the sampling plan, the instruments to
be used, data collection and the quantitative analysis performed. Guidelines in writing the methodology
will also be presented in this chapter.

Key Terms with definition:

 Research design refers to the overall plan and scheme for conducting the study. Thus, the
researcher may utilize a historical design, descriptive design, or an experimental design. These
designs are discussed in detail in separate sections of this chapter.
 Sampling is the process of selecting and getting the respondents of the study with the minimum
cost such that resulting observations will be representative of the entire population. The ultimate
purpose of all the sampling designs is to imitate the behavior of the entire population based on a
few observations only. By studying the sample, you may fairly generalize your results back to the
population from which they were chosen. There are established results in statistics known as the
family of the laws of large numbers that will ensure the validity of the various sampling plans.
 Instruments are the data-gathering devices that will be used in the study. It is a testing device, for
measuring a given phenomenon, such as a paper and pencil test, questionnaire, interviews,
research tools, or set of guidelines, for observations. There are three characteristics of an
instrument that we need to consider: usability, validity, and reliability.
 Quantitative analysis is the technique utilized for analyzing the data gathered. Analysis of data
may be statistical in nature or it may be deterministic. For our class, we have focused on
statistical analysis though there are other methods for analyzing data.

RESEARCH DESIGNS
1. Descriptive Research Designs
The purpose of this design is to describe the status of an identified variable such
as events, people, or subjects as they exist. Descriptive research usually makes some type
of comparison contrasts and correlation and sometimes, in carefully planned orchestrated
descriptive researches, cause-effect relationships may be established to some extent.

Examples of descriptive research design are the following:

 Descriptive Normative Surveys

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This type of descriptive research design describes the trends in a large population
of individuals. In this case, a survey is a good procedure to use. Survey designs are
procedures in quantitative research where you administer a survey questionnaire to a
small of people (called the sample) to identify trend in attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or
characteristics, of a large group of people (called the population).
The descriptive normative survey approach attempts to establish norms or
standards based on a wide class of survey data. The survey data may be demographic data
or they may include also data on “average perceptions” of a set of respondents. In early
days, survey was usually connected with demographic data.

(for example: if you want to make a research on knowing the profile of all the
principals of public and private schools in the Philippines you may include in your
instrument variables like age, sex, educational attainment, IQ, languages spoken, civil
status, average family size, and others. Since normally in normative surveys the number
of respondents is so large, one can make generalizations or norms based on the data.

 Correlational Research Studies

If you intend to estimate the extent to which different variables are related to one
another in the population of interest, make use of correlational studies. The elements of
this design include identification of the variables of interest, the group of subjects or
respondents where the variables will be applied, and the estimation procedure to
determine the extent of relationships. In his design you will have two or more
quantitative variables from the same group of subjects. You will determine if there is a
relationship (or covariation) between the two variables (a similarity between them, bot a
difference between their means). Theoretically, any two quantitative variables can be
correlated (for example; financial support to family and self-concept) as long as you have
scores on these variables from the same participants. However, it is a waste of time to
collect and analyze data when there is little reason to think these two variables would be
related to each other.
In correlational studies, you may make use of the results of the descriptive
normative surveys. For example, if it is desired to determine the extent of the relationship
between managerial effectiveness and the variables age, educational attainment, and
mental ability, then you can start by using correlational technique among principals of the
public and private schools in the Philippines.
In correlational studies. When you attempt to determine whether a relationship
exist between two or more quantifiable variables and to what degree it is important to
remember that, if there is a significant relationship between two variables, it does not
follow that one variable causes the other. “Correlation does not mean causation”.
When two variables are correlated you can use relationship to predict the value on one
variable for a participant if you know that’s participant’s value on the other variable.
Thus, correlation implies prediction but not causation. The researcher frequently reports
the correlation coefficient and the p value to determine the strength of the relationship.
(For example, if you found out in your research that the managerial effectivity
and the age and educational attainment of the public and private school principals are
significantly correlated, it does not follow or it does not mean that the age or the
educational attainment is the cause of managerial effectivity. You would have to conduct
another research to prove that.)

 Descriptive Evaluative Studies

The purpose of the descriptive evaluative studies is to judge the “goodness of a
criterion measure”. Longitudinal studies establish the changes in that criterion measure

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over a long period of time. Thus, if one were to study the changes in the IQ levels of
children 9-10 years over a five-year period, the researcher must see to it that the same
group of children is tested for IQ over the five-year period. Cross sectional studies are
designed to evaluate changes over time by comparing at the same point in time, different
people representing different stages of development. For example, to establish changes in
IQ for children 9-10 years old, one may simultaneously test, children 9-10, 11-12, 13-14,
15-16, 17-18, years old to see changes in the criterion measure.

 Assessment/Evaluation Studies
Assessment evaluation studies attempt to determine the effectiveness or
efficiency of certain policies or practices when applied to a group of respondents.
Assessment studies imply measurement of certain key indicators without attaching any
judgment to them. However, evaluation implies putting judgment and valuing to the
measurements obtained and is therefore at a much deeper level than assessment.
Assessment and evaluation always go together for one cannot make judgment without
basis for such. For example, one can make a study on the Relative Effectiveness of the K
to 12 Program say six years from now on the basis of such factors as cost, efficiency, and
impact on quality. Assessment and evaluation studies are fairly common in the
Philippines and are often used as basis for legislation and policy formulation.

 Descriptive Comparative Studies

Descriptive-comparative studies endeavor to establish significant differences
between two or more groups of subjects on the basis of a criterion measure. No attempts
to control the effects of extraneous factors are made. For example, may be desired to
compare the managerial effectiveness of three groups of managers A, B, and C. A study
may employ a descriptive design which combines two or more designs mentioned above.
This type of research usually involves group comparisons. The groups in the
study make up the values of the independent variable; for example, gender (male versus
female), preschool attendance versus no preschool attendance, or children with a
working mother versus children without a working mother. In comparative research the
independent variable is not under the researchers’ control; that is, the researcher cannot
randomly assign participants to a gender classification (male or female) or socioeconomic
class, but has to take the values of the independent variable as they come. The dependent
variable in a study is the outcome variable.

General Considerations in Descriptive Research

Most educational researchers utilize the descriptive method of research. This is partly justified by
the fact that the types of information generated by descriptive researchers are valuable baseline data for
policy-formulation and decision-making. Educational processes are constantly changing with times. So,
there is a need keep abreast with such changes through constant updating of information.
However, there are certain limitations of this design that a researcher must be aware of:
 The lack of control variables in descriptive designs make them less reliable in terms of
actual hypothesis testing. Statistical test may yield different results when applied to
different samples of the same population.
 Unless the design is a normative survey where entire population is considered,
conclusions drawn from descriptive designs are at best tentative.

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2. Experimental Research Designs
Experimental studies are also known as longitudinal or repeated-measures, studies, for
obvious reasons. They are also referred to as interventions because you do more than just observe
the subjects. Experimental research design uses the scientific method to establish the cause-effect
relationship among a group of variables that make up a study. The true experiment is often
thought of as a laboratory study, but this is not always the case; a laboratory setting has nothing to
do with it. A true experiment is any study where an effort is made to identify and impose control
over all other variables except one. An independent variable is manipulated to determine the
effects on the dependent variables. Subjects are randomly assigned to experimental treatments
rather than identified in naturally occurring groups.
If the treatment effect is unlikely to wash out between measurements, a control group has
to be used. In these designs, all subjects are measured, but only the experimental group receives
treatment. All groups are then measured again, and the change in the experimental group is
compared with the change in the control group.
An enormous difference between the descriptive method of research and experimental
method of research is the presence of control in the latter and the absence of the same in the
former. A factor called treatment is introduced into the research investigation and the researcher
attempts to isolate the effects of such treatment by means of control.

(In the Physical Sciences, isolating the effects of a treatment may be achieved through
actual physical control. For example, if it is desired to determine the weight of an atom of
carbon, then the measurement can be taken in a vacuum to assure that no contamination of other
elements is present in the set-up. In the Social Sciences, controls are much harder to establish
and the effects of the treatment are usually obtained through implications.
Thus, if group 1 receives a treatment while group 2 does not, then provided sufficient
safeguards are made to isolate the effect of the treatment, the difference in the end-results of 1
and 2 can be attributed to the treatment effect.)
The whole point of all experimental designs is to make sure that the effects of the
treatment is carefully isolated or measured. There are many designs that would allow this kind of
control and we will discuss a few of these designs as follows:

 Pre-test/Post-test Control Group Design

This design requires two groups of equivalent standing in terms of a criterion
measure (achievement or mental ability). The first group is designated as the control
group while the second group is experimental group. Both groups are given the same pre-
test. The control group is not subjected to a treatment while the experimental group is
given the treatment factor. After the experimental period, both groups are again given the
same post-test.
The researcher may now conduct a comparison of the post-test results or gains in
scores (pre-test – post-test) between the experimental and control groups. This design is
threatened by certain factors: maturation (or aging of the subjects from the pre-test to the
post-test period), test-wiseness (or memorizing the contents of the pre-test to score higher
on the post-test), and natural attrition (death of subjects or drop-outs from the
experiment).

 Single Group Pre-test Post-test Design

In experimental conditions where a limited number of subjects are available, the
single group pre-test post-test design may be used. The group is first given a pre-test
followed by the usual treatment and then a post-test is administered. A new pre-test is
then administered to the group followed by the experimental treatment factor and a final

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post-test. This design is very delicate because a researcher must see to it that situations
are equivalent before and during the experimental factor is introduced. As one might
suspect, this design is more open to threats to internal validity such as Hawthorne effect
(or test-wiseness), maturation, and attrition.

 Solomon Four Group Design

The Solomon four group design makes use of four equivalent groups. The first
two groups follow the pre-test post-test control group design. The third
group is given no pre-test but with experimental treatment and a post-test. The fourth
group is given no pre-test, no treatment but with a post-test. This design eliminates the
Hawthorne effect, effects of maturation and attrition but has the main disadvantage of
requiring a large number of respondents.
In this design the subjects are randomly assigned to two study groups and two
control groups. Pre-test measures are used for one of the study groups, and one of the
control groups. Following exposure of the study groups to the intervention or experiment,
post-test measures are collected on all four groups.

Period one Time Period two

(pre-test) (post-test)
Experimental Group One R O1 X O3
Control Group One R O2 O4
Experimental Group Two R X O5
Control Group Two R O6

O = Observation
R = Random Assignment
X = Treatment

Marczyk, G.R. et al 2005. Essentials of Research Design and Methodology, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley
and Sons

3. Historical Research Designs

The purpose of a historical research design is to collect, verify, and synthesize evidence
from the past to establish facts that defend or refute your hypothesis. It uses secondary sources
and a variety of primary documentary evidence, such as logs, diaries, official records, reports and
archives, and non-textual information like maps, pictures, audio and visual recordings. The
limitation is that the sources must be both authentic and valid.
Quantitative history deals on studies that focus on small groups of people and others that
include huge populations. Some quantitative studies use original data collected in numeric for,
such as tax assessments or business ledgers; others involve the conversion of non-numeric
evidence, such as city directories or church membership lists, into numeric form as a first step of
analysis. Some quantitative studies employ rudimentary mathematical techniques (such as
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) to analyze numeric data; others make use of
highly sophisticated statistical procedures and mathematical model-building based on complex
theoretical assumptions. Sometimes, quantitative history is called cliometrics by economic
historians. These historians also called for social scientists to make historical research and
consciously examine the temporal nature of the social phenomena they explored.
Classical historical research methodology relies upon textual records, archival research
and the narrative as a form of Historical writing. The historian describes and explains particular
phenomena and events. Quantitative history has similar goals but takes as its subjects the
aggregate historical pattern of multiple events and phenomena. It creates a different set of issues
for analysis. A classic historical analysis, for example, may treat a presidential election as one

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element in the universe of all presidential elections and are interested in patterns which
characterize the universe or several units within it.
The creation of quantitative data set requires the historian to carefully compile consistent
information about the phenomenon to be investigated and apply the techniques of statistical data
analysis to the data set to answer the research questions. Thus, to make effective use of
quantitative evidence and statistical techniques for historical analysis, practitioners have to
integrate the developing skills of the social sciences, including sampling, statistical data analysis
and data archiving into their historical work. That task led to the development of the new training
programs in quantitative methods for historians (Anderson, 2007).

Quantitative historians have to acquire the skills necessary to prepare and present
statistical results in print. Historians use visual images, audio, and video in the presentations, not
as ‘illustrations’ to enhance or supplement an analysis but as core evidence for analysis. Steckel
(2005) proposed an agenda for what he called ‘Big Social Science History’, which would extend
the capacities of quantitative history and translate some of its methods of work to non-
quantitative projects. Thus, collaborative efforts to manage the enormously expanding data
infrastructure and the computer technologies digitalized historical evidence, and developed
appropriate theoretical approaches to such historical work.

Major Processes of Historical Research

1. Data collection
The historian collects data from the past through relics, fossils or documents found int the
activities or through personal interviews with key informants. Old newspaper clippings,
memoirs, diaries, and the like are rich source of historical data.
2. Analysis of Data
The historian brings together the data collected to the state of knowledge about the past
event and use simple to complex statistical tools for any analysis.
3. Report of findings
The historian reports his/her findings by carefully explaining discrepancies noted and the
probable causes of such discrepancies.

SAMPLING PLANS, DESIGNS AND TECHNIQUES

Sampling is the process of getting information from a proper subset of population. The
fundamental purpose of all sampling plans is to describe the population characteristics through the values
obtained from a sample as accurately as possible. It is therefore evident that if one were to draw
conclusions based on a small sample then the sample must imitate the behavior or characteristics of the
original population as closely as possible.

A sampling plan is a detailed outline which measurements will be taken at what times, on which
material, in what manner, and by whom that support the purpose of an analysis. Sampling plan should be
designed in such a way that the resulting data will contain a representative sample of the parameters of
interest and allow for all questions, as stated in the research objectives to be answered.

The following are are the steps involved in developing a sampling plan:
1. Identify the parameters to be measured, the ranged of possible values, and the required solution
2. Design a sampling scheme that details how and when samples will be taken
3. Select sample sizes
4. Design data storage formats
5. Assign roles and the responsibilities

Once the sampling plan has been developed, it can be verified and then passed on to the
responsible parties for implementation.
For the quantitative analysis, the sample’s composition must accurately represent the target
population, a requirement that necessitates a careful sampling plan.
Among the issues to consider are these five questions:
1. From where within the target population should we collect samples?
2. What type of samples should we collect?

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3. What is the minimum amount of sample for each analysis?
4. How many samples should we analyze?
5. How can we minimize the overall variance for the analysis?

When you collect any sort of data, especially quantitative data, whether observational, through
surveys or from secondary data, you need to decide which data to collect and from whom. This is called
the sample. There are a variety of ways to select your sample. Make sure that it gives you results that will
be reliable and credible.
Given a population frame, the first questions that a researcher often asks is the question of
sample size. How large a sample must one take in order to be certain that the values calculated from this
sample will not be too far from the actual values of the population parameters? Unfortunately, this
question cannot be answered as stated. We need to know more. For example, if we know that the
underlying population is normally distributed then if we have some estimate of the variability of the
population such as the sample variance S2, then the formula for the sample size is:

n = 4 s2/e 2

Where e = error tolerance (about .05 or .01) for a confidence coefficient of a = .05
For confidence coefficient of a = .01, then the formula becomes:

n = 9 s2/e 2

In the event of lack of knowledge about the behavior of the population, the Slovin’s Formula may
be applied:

N
n= 1+ N e2
where N = number of population; e = error balance (.05)

Example: Find the sample size required for a population size N=1000 if an error of e=.05 is tolerated.

1000
Answer: Here, n= 1+(1000) ( .05 ) .05 ¿
❑¿

1000
n= 1+(1000)(0.0025)❑

1000
n= 1+ 2.5

1000
n= 3.5

n = 286
Our sampling plan calls for the behavior of the sample to follow the behavior of the population. Suppose
that our population categorized by sexes behave as follows:

SEX FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE

Male 350 35.00/35%
Female 650 65.00/65%
Total 1000 100.00/100%

Then, our sample frame must follow this behavior. If e = .o5 then our sample size is 286. Thus, 35% of
286 must be males and 65% must be females. Our sampling table will be as follows:

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SEX FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
Male 100 35.00/35%
Female 186 65.00/65%
We will randomly select 100 male respondents and 186 female respondents.

The logic of this plan can be carried forward for two-way, three-way, and multifactor tables. For example,
if the following population distribution is observed by level of high school students

SEX
Male Female Total
Junior High School 200 350 550
Senior High School 150 300 450
Total 350 650 1000

It follows that 200/1000=20% of our population are males with junior high school
150/1000=15% of our population are males with senior high school
350/1000=35% of our population are females with junior high school
300/1000=30% of our population are females with senior high school

Our sampling plan calls for 20% of 286 (.20 x 286 = 57), 57 males JHS from this category
15% of 286 (.15 x 286 = 43), 43 males SHS from this category
35% of 286 (.35 x 286 = 100), 100 females JHS from this category
30% OF 286 (.30 x 286 = 86), 86 females SHS from this category

SEX
Male Female Total
Junior High School 57 100 157
Senior High School 43 86 129
Total 100 186 286

We will therefore select 57 males who are junior high school graduates and 100 females who are
junior high school graduates: 43 males who are senior high school graduates and 86 females who are
senior high school graduates.
We assume that the entries for all are obtained through an appropriate random mechanism. The
extent to which generalizations can be made from the results of a research depends much on the sampling
technique used and how appropriate it is. If the research findings are not generalized to some degree
beyond the sample used on the study, then the research cannot provide new knowledge, cannot advance
education as a science and is largely a waste of time. Sampling should be carefully designed for
satisfactory generalizations.

Sampling Technique
 Probability Sampling
Probability Sampling refers to a sampling technique in which samples are obtained using
some objective chance mechanism, thus involving randomization. They require the use of sampling
frame (a list/map of all the sampling units in the population). The probabilities of selection are
known. They are generally referred to as a random sample from a finite population. They allow
drawing of valid generalizations about universe/population whose sampling error can be ascertained.
The definition of a probability sample does not require equal probabilities of inclusion in the sample
for all elements in the population.
Probability sample is the only approach that makes possible representative plans. Below are
the commonly used probability sampling techniques:

1. Simple Random Sampling is the basic probability sampling design, in which the sample
is selected by a process that does not only give each element in the population a chance
of being included in the sample but also makes selection of every possible combination of

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the desired number of cases equally likely. The sample is selected in one of two ways: by
means of a table of random numbers or by using lottery technique.
2. Systematic Random Sampling is affected by drawing units at regular intervals form a
list. The starting point or the first units to be taken is a random choice. It differs from one
simple random sampling where each member of the population is not chosen
independently. Once the first member has been selected, all the other members of the
random sample are automatically determined. The population list in the systematic
sampling must be in random order.
(for example: if your respondents are the students of ACLC and you decided that
you are going to use Systematic sampling then you will have to use the class list
of every blocks then you may choose every 3 rd or 4th student in the list. The
interval that you will set in selecting your respondents will depend on your total
number of respondents.)
3. Stratified Random Sampling is selecting sub-samples proportionate in size to the
significant characteristics of the total population. Different strata in the population are
defined and each member of the stratum is listed. Simple random sampling is applied to
each stratum. The number of units drawn from each stratum depends on the ratio of the
desired sample in the population. Stratified sampling assures the researcher that his/her
sample will be representative of the population in terms of certain critical factors that
have been used as the basis for stratification. It also assures adequate cases for sub-group
analysis.
4. Cluster Sampling is a technique in which the unit of sampling is not individual but the
naturally occurring group of individuals. The technique is used when it is more
convenient to select individuals from a defined population. It considers a universe
divided mutually exclusive sub-groups called clusters. It has simpler frame requirements.
It is administratively convenient to implement and its main advantage is saving time and
money.
(If your respondents are grade 12 students and it can be just ANY grade 12
student, then you may make use of this sampling. Say you need 200 respondents
and each block has 50 students then you can just select the first four blocks to be
your respondents.)
5. Multi-stage Sampling refers to the procedure as in cluster sampling which moves
through a series of stages from more inclusive to the less inclusive sampling units until
arriving at the population elements that constitute the desired sampling.

 Non-Probability Sampling
This is a technique when there is no way of estimating the probability that each element
has being included in the sample and no assurance that every element has a chance of being
included.

1. Accidental Sample is one which the investigator simply reaches out and takes the
cases that are at hand, continuing the process the process until the sample reaches a
designated size. This is one of the most common type sampling. This is also known
as “the man on the street” interviews conducted frequently by television news
program to get quick reading of public opinion. In clinical research, clients who are
available to medical people are usually their sample. In research, samples are usually
those who simply volunteer for the study. The problem here is the lack of evidence
that they are the representatives of the population you are interested in generalizing.

2. Purposive Sampling or Judgment Sampling is used when practical considerations

prevent the use of probability sampling. Since sampling errors and biases cannot be
computed for non-probability samples, purposive or judgmental sampling should be
situations like when the probable errors are not serious and when probability
sampling is practically impossible. Data from the judgmental samples at best suggest
or indicate conclusions but in general they cannot be used as the basis of statistical
testing procedures.
(In purposive sampling, you sample with a purpose in mind. Usually you seek
with one or more specific predefined groups. For example, you are conducting a
research on female teenagers who come from broken families, if you are going to
use this sampling technique then your criteria for selecting respondents will be

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13-19 years old girls who are products of broken families and using judgment
you will choose who you think meets your criteria.)

3. Quota Sampling is a technique with provision to guarantee the inclusion in the

sample of diverse elements in the population and make sure that these diverse
elements are taken into account in proportion in which they occur in the population.
In quota sampling, you select people randomly according to some fixed quota. There
are two types of quota sampling:

 Proportional quota sampling – in this sampling, you want to represent the

major characteristics of the population by sampling a proportional amount
of each. For example, if you know the population has 70% women and
30% men, and that you want a total sample size of 100, you will continue
sampling until you get those percentages and then you will stop. So if you
already got the 70 women of your sample, but not the 30% men, you will
continue to sample men nut even if qualified women respondents come
along, you will not sample them because you have already met your quota.
 Non-proportional quota sampling – is a bit less restrictive. In this
technique you specify the minimum number of sampled units you want in
each category. You will not be concerned with having numbers that match
the proportions in the population. Instead, you simply want to have enough
assure that you will be able to talk even to the small groups in the
population. It is usually used to assure that smaller groups are adequately
represented in you sample.

4. Snowball Sampling can be used for sensitive topics. In this type of sampling you
asked for referrals from a person who knows anyone that could fit the qualifications
of being your respondent. Then, the referred respondent will also refer you to another
probable respondent who would like to participate in your study and so on.

5. Voluntary Sampling is more often used for sensitive topics. For this type of
sampling, you only get as respondents for your study those who “volunteered” or
have presented themselves willingly.

6. Availability Sampling. In this type of sampling you set a time when you can conduct
your data gathering then whoever is available during the time you gathered your data
then they will be your respondents.

Instrumentation

An important part of the research study is the instrument in data gathering because the
quality of research output depends to a large extent on the quality of research instruments used.
Instrument is the generic term that researchers use for a measurement device like survey, test,
questionnaire, and many others. The instrument is the device while instrumentation is the course of action
which is the process of developing, testing, and using the device.

There are two broad categories of instruments namely; research-competed instrument and
subject-completed instrument.

Researcher-completed Instrument Subject-completed Instrument

Rating scales Questionnaires
Interview schedules/guides Self-checklists
Tally sheets Attitude scales
Flowcharts Personalities inventories
Performance checklist Achievement/aptitude tests
Time-and-motion logs Projective devices
Observation forms Sociometric devices

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Validity

Validity refers to the extent by which the instrument measures what it intends to measure
and performs as it is designed to perform. It is unusual and nearly impossible that an instrument is n100%
valid that is why validity is generally measured in degrees. As a process,

validation involves collecting and analysing data to assess the accuracy of an instrument. There are
numerous statistical tests and measures to assess validity of quantitative instruments that generally
involves pilot testing. There are three major types of validity: criterion, construct, and content validity.

TYPES OF VALIDITY DESCRIPTION

CONTENT VALIDITY
CONSTRUCT VALIDITY
CRITERION VALIDITY
The extent to which a research instrument accurately measures all aspects
of a construct.
 Content validity looks at whether the instrument accurately covers
all the content that it should with respect to the variable.
 IT REFERS TO THE APPROPRIATENESS OF THE CONTENT
IN AN INSTRUMENT.
 It answers the questions: “Do the measures (question,
observation logs, etc.) accurately assess what you want to
know?” or “Does the instrument cover the entire domain
related to the variable, or construct it was designed to
measure?”
The extent to which research instrument (or tool) measures the intended
construct.
 Construct validity refers to whether you can draw inferences about
test scores related to the concept being studied.
 For example, if a person has a high score on a survey that
measures anxiety does this person truly have a high degree of
anxiety?
 There are three types of evidence that can be used to demonstrate a
research instrument has construct validity:
 Homogeneity – this means the instrument measures one
construct
 Convergence – this occurs when the instrument measures
concepts similar to that of other instruments. Although if
there are no similar instruments available it will not be
possible to do.
 Theory evidence – this is evident when behaviour is
similar to theoretical propositions of the construct
measured in the instrument.
The extent to which a research instrument is related to other instruments
that measures the same variables.
 A criterion is any other instrument that measures the same
variable. Correlations can be conducted to determine the extent to
which the different instruments measure the same variable.
 Criterion validity is measured in three ways:
 Convergent validity – shows that instrument is highly
correlated with instruments measuring similar variables.
 Divergent validity – shows that an instrument is poorly
correlated to instruments that measures different
variable.
 Predictive validity – means that the instrument should
have high correlations with future criterions.

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Reliability

Reliability relates to the extent to which the instrument is consistent. The instrument
should be able to obtain approximately the same response when applied to respondents who are similarly
situated. Likewise, when the instrument is applied at two different points in time, the responses must
highly correlate with one another. Hence, reliability can be measured by correlating the responses of
subjects exposed to the instrument at two different time periods or by correlating the responses of the
subjects who are similarly situated.

An example of this is when a participant completing an instrument meant to measure

motivation should have approximately the same responses each time the test is completed. Although it is
not possible to give an exact calculation of reliability, an estimate of reliability can be achieved through
different measures. The following are the three attributes of reliability:

ATTRIBUTES DESCRIPTION
1. Internal Consistency or The extent of which all the items on a scale measure on construct.
Homogeneity  Internal consistency or homogeneity is when an
instrument measures a specific concept. This concept is
through questions or indicators and each question must
correlate highly with the total for this dimension.
 For example, teaching effectiveness is measured in terms
of seven questions. The scores for each question must
correlate highly with the total for teaching effectiveness.
2. Stability or Test-Retest The consistency of results using an instrument with repeated
Correlation testing.
 This is an aspect of reliability where many researchers
report that a highly reliable test indicates that the test is
stable over time. Test-retest correlation provides an
indication of stability over time. This definition clearly
focuses on the measurement instrument and the obtained
test scores in terms of test-retest stability.
 For example, when we ask the respondents in our sample
the four questions once in the month of September and
again in December. We can examine whether then two
waves of the same measures yield similar results.
3. Equivalence Consistency among response of multiple users of an instrument,
or among alternate forms of an instrument.
 Equivalence reliability is measured by the correlation of
scores between different versions of the same instrument,
or between instruments that measures the same construct,
such as that one instrument can be reproduced by the
other.
 Equivalence may also be estimated by measuring then
same concepts with different instruments, for example,
survey questionnaire and official records, on the same
sample, which is known as multiple-forms reliability.

NOTE: When you gather data, consider readability of the instrument. Readability refers to the level of
difficulty of the instrument relative to the intended users. Thus, an instrument in English applied to a set
of respondents with no education will be useless and unreadable.
The student who intends to use an instrument used in an earlier investigation is well advised to review the
contents of then instrument. If possible, you have to conduct a second run of validation to make sure that
the instruments you are using possess the criteria mentioned above.

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Quantitative Data Collection Methods

In quantitative research, data collection methods rely on random sampling and structured
data collection instruments that fit various experiences into predetermined response categories that
produce results that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize.

There are many methods to collect data, depending on our research design and the
methodologies employed in your research study. The following are the techniques in data gathering for
quantitative research:

Interviews
The use of interview as a data collection method begins with the assumption that the
participants’ perspectives are meaningful, knowable, and can be made explicit, and that their
perspectives affect the success of the project. The following are types of interviews that could be
used in data collection.

a. Structured interview. In a structured interview, the researcher asks a standard set of

questions and nothing more. The interview follows a specific format with the same
line of questioning. The aim of this approach is to ensure that each interview is
presented with exactly the same questions in the same order. Structured interviews
are also known as standardized interviews or a researcher-administered survey that
must be performed by skilled researchers.

b. Face-to-face interviews. This remains the most frequently used quantitative research
method. Interviews can be conducted in the respondent’s home or workplace, in halls
or even simply on the street. It has distinct advantage of enabling the researcher to
establish rapport with potential participants and therefore gain cooperation. These
interviews yield highest response rates in survey research. They also allow the
researcher to clarify ambiguous answers and when appropriate, seek follow up
information. Disadvantages include impractical when large samples are involved,
time consuming and expensive.

c. Telephone interviews. They are less time consuming and less expensive. The
researcher has ready access to anyone who has a telephone. Telephone interviews are
conducted by experienced telephone interviewers who are skilled ate building rapport
with the respondents. The response rate of this interview is not as high as the face-to-
face interview and considerably higher than the mailed questionnaire. Much of the
telephone work consists of usage and attitude surveys, customer satisfaction surveys
or exploration of the potential for new products or services. Most of the interviews
use Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing to ensure that interviewer asks the
right questions to the right people.

d. Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI) is a form of personal interview

but instead of completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along a laptop or
hand-held computer to enter the information directly into the database. This method
saves time involved in processing the data, as well as saving the interviewer from
carrying around hundreds of questionnaires. However, this type of data collection
method can be expensive to set up and requires that interviewers have computer and
typing skills.

Questionnaires
The main purpose of a questionnaire is to help extract data from respondents. It serves as
a standard guide for the interviewers who need to ask the questions exactly the same way.
Without this standard, questions would be asked in disorganized way at the discretion of the
individual. Questionnaires are also an important part in the data collection methodology. They are
the medium in which responses are recorded to facilitate data analysis.
There are normally five sections in a questionnaire namely:

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a. The respondent’s identification data include respondents’ name, address, date of
interview, and the name of the interviewer. The questionnaire will also be numbered
for purposes of entering the data into the computer.
b. An introduction is the interviewer’s request for help. It is normally scripted and lays
out the credentials of the market research company (in students’ research you lay out
you current educational background), the purpose of the study and any aspects of
confidentiality.
c. Instruction refers to the respondents’ directions on how to move through the
questionnaire such as which questions to skip and where to move if certain answers
are given
d. Information is the main body of the document and is made up of the many questions
and response codes.
e. Classification data and information establish the important characteristics of the
respondents, particularly related to the demographics which are sometimes at the
front of the questionnaire or sometimes at the end.

The following are types of questionnaires:

a. Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be sent to a large number of people and saves the

researcher time and money. People are more truthful while responding to the
questionnaires regarding controversial issues in particular due to the fact that their
responses are anonymous. But they also have drawbacks. Majority of the people who
receive questionnaires don’t return them and those who do might not be
representative of the originally selected sample.
b. Web-based questionnaire is a new and inevitably growing methodology using the
internet based research. This would mean receiving an e-mail on which you would
click an address that would redirect you to a secure website to fill in questionnaires.
This type of research is often quicker and less detailed. Some disadvantages of this
method include the exclusion of people who do not have a computer or unable to
access a computer. Also, the validity of such surveys are in question as people might
be in a hurry to complete it and so might not give accurate responses.
c. Self-Administered questionnaire are generally distributed through mail, filled out
and administered by the respondents themselves which is returned via mail to the
researcher. The questionnaires can also be distributed by means of magazine and
newspaper inserts or they can be left or picked up by the researcher. Questionnaires
enable the researcher to elicit detailed information form the respondents who may not
be accessible. Self-administered questionnaires can be used for pre-testing program
materials. In this case, the questionnaire is mailed to the respondent along with the
pre-test materials. Questionnaires often make use of checklist and rating scales.
These devices help simplify and quantify people’s behaviour and attitude.

 Checklist is a list of behaviours, characteristics or other entities that the researcher is

looking for. Either the researcher or survey participant simply checks whether each item
on the list is observed, present, or true or vice versa.
 Rating scale is more useful when a behaviour needs to be evaluated or continuum.
Rating scales state the criteria and provide three or more responses to describe the quality
of frequency of a behaviour, skills, strategies or variables of the study.

There are typical quantitative data gathering strategies that include the following:

 Experimenting or conducting clinical trials

 Observing and recording well-defined events (like counting the number of patients waiting in
emergency at specified times of the day)
 Obtaining relevant data from management information systems
 Acquiring secondary data from valid and reliable sources in the web
 Administering surveys with close-ended questions (like face-to-face and telephone interviews,
questionnaires, etc.)

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Observations
Observation is a way of gathering data by watching behaviour, events, or noting physical
characteristics in their natural setting. If respondents are unwilling or unable to provide data through
questionnaires or interviews, observation is a method that requires little from then individual for whom
you need the data.
Observation can be overt when everyone knows they are being observed and covert when no one
knows they are being observed and the observer is concealed. The benefit of covert observation is that
people are more likely to behave naturally if they do not know they are being observed. However, you
will typically need to conduct overt observations because of ethical problems related to concealing your
observation.
Observations can also be either direct or indirect. Direct observation is when you watch
interactions, processes, or behaviours as they occur; for example, observing a teacher teaching a lesson
form a written curriculum to determine whether they are delivering it with fidelity. Indirect observations
are when you watch the results of interactions, processes, or behaviours; for example, measuring the
amount of food left by students in a school cafeteria to determine whether a new food is acceptable to
them or not.
There are ways of collecting observation data. These methods can be combined to meet your data
such as recording sheets and checklists which are the most standardized way of collecting observation
data and include both present questions responses. These forms are typically used for collecting data that
can be easily described in advance like topics that might be covered in an HIV prevention lesson.
Observation Guides list the interactions, processes, and behaviours to be observed. They provide space to
record open-ended narrative data. Field Notes are the least standardized way of collecting observation
data and do not include present questions or responses. Field notes are open-ended narrative data that can
be written or dictated unto a tape recorder. These observations as qualitative data can be decoded to
quantify the variables for statistical analysis.

Tests
Tests provide a way to assess subjects’ knowledge and capacity to apply this knowledge to new
situations. Tests take many forms. They may require respondents to choose among alternatives like
selecting a correct answer or an incorrect answer to cluster choices into like groups, to produce short
answers, or to write extended response. A question may address a single outcome of interest or lead to
questions involving a number of outcome areas depending on the research study.
Tests provide information that is measured against a variety of standards, namely:

a. Norm-referenced test is the most popular test and it provides information on how the target
perform against a reference group or normative population.
b. Criterion-referenced test are constructed tom determine whether or not the
respondents/subjects have attained mastery of a skill or knowledge area. These tests provide
data on whether important skills have been achieved or not.
c. Proficiency testing is an alternative to criterion-referenced test. Proficiency tests provide an
assessment against a level of skill attainment, but includes standards for performance at
varying levels of proficiency, typically a three-or four point scale ranging from below basics
advanced performance.

Secondary Data
Secondary data is a type of quantitative data that has already been collected by someone else for a
purpose different from yours. These data are collected by researchers, government and private agencies,
institutions or organizations or companies that provide important information for government planning
and policy recommendation and theory generation. There are many sources of data and most people tend
to underestimate the number of sources and the amount of data within each of these sources. These can be
classified as:
 Paper-based sources are those from books, journals, periodicals, abstracts, indexes,
directories, research reports, conference papers, market reports, annual reports,
internal records of organizations, newspapers and magazines.
 Electronic sources come from CD-ROMs, online databases, internet, videos and
broadcasts.

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(Example of these data are from Philippine Statistics Office, Philippine Statistics on Education,
Department of Health, Department of Budget and Management, Commission on Audit, and other
government agencies and institutions. You can also use data form international sources like World Bank,
UNESCO, TIMSS, World Health Organization etc.)

Quantitative Analysis

Quantitative data analysis is a systematic approach to investigations during which numerical data
are collected and the researcher transforms what are collected or observed into numerical data. It often
describes a situation or event, answering the research questions or objectives of the study. It is often
concerned with finding evidence to either support or contradict an idea or hypothesis you might have. A
hypothesis is where a predicted answer to a research question is proposed. An example for this is you
might propose that if you expose students with varied constructivist strategies in learning mathematics
there will be an improvement of their mathematics performance and attitude towards the subject. You
could then go on to explain why a particular answer is expected – you put forward a theory to support or
contradict your findings.

Data analysis in quantitative research studies is often seen as a discouraging process. Much of
this is associated with apparently complex language and the notion of statistical tests. The researcher
should clearly identify what statistical tests were undertaken, why these tests were used and what were the
results. A rule of thumb is that, studies that are descriptive in design use only descriptive statistics;
correlational studies, quasi-experimental and experimental studies use inferential statistics.

Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics is the term given to the analysis of data that helps describe,
show or summarize data in a meaningful way such that, for example, patterns might
emerge from the data. Descriptive statistics do not, however, allow us to make
conclusions beyond the data we have analysed or reach conclusions regarding any
hypotheses we might have made. They are simply a way to describe our data. With
descriptive statistics you are simply describing what is or what the data shows
There are four major types of descriptive statistics:
 Measures of Frequency: * Count, Percent, Frequency. ...
 Measures of Central Tendency. * Mean, Median, and Mode. ...
 Measures of Dispersion or Variation. * Range, Variance, Standard
Deviation. ...
 Measures of Position. * Percentile Ranks, Quartile Ranks.

Descriptive statistics are very important because if we simply presented our raw
data it would be hard to visualize what the data was showing, especially if there was a
lot of it. Descriptive statistics therefore enables us to present the data in a more
meaningful way, which allows simpler interpretation of the data. For example, if we had
the results of 100 pieces of students' coursework, we may be interested in the overall
performance of those students. We would also be interested in the distribution or spread
of the marks. Descriptive statistics allow us to do this

Inferential Statistics
Inferential statistics is subdivided into tests to measure relationships and
differences between variables. Inferential statistics tests are used to identify if a
relationship or difference between variables is statistically significant. Statistical
significance helps researchers to rule out one important threat to validity and the result
could be due to chance rather than to real differences in the population.
With inferential statistics, you take data from samples and make
generalizations about a population. The following types of inferential statistics are
extensively used and relatively easy to interpret: One sample test of difference/One
sample hypothesis test, Confidence Interval, Contingency Tables, and Chi
Square Statistic.

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NOTE: Descriptive statistics summarize the characteristics of a data set. Inferential
statistics allow you to test a hypothesis or assess whether your data is generalizable to
the broader population.

TO ENHANCE THE READABILITY, RESEARCHERS NORMALLY PRESENT THEIR

FINDINGS AND DATA ANALYSIS SECTION UNDER THE HEADINGS OF THE RESEARCH
QUESTIONS. This can help the readers determine if the results that are presented clearly answer the
research questions. Tables, charts, and graphs may be used to summarize the results and should be
accurate, clearly identified and enhanced the presentation of results. The percentage of sample who
participated in the study is an important element in considering the generalizability of the results. AT
LEAST 50% OF THE SAMPLE IS NEEDED TO PERTICIPATE IF A RESPONSE BIAS IS TO BE
AVOIDED ACCORDING TO POLIT AND BECK (2006).

In doing a quantitative research, remember the following in reporting the results of your study:

a. Explain the data you have collected, the statistical treatment and all relevant results in relation to
the research problem that you are investigating.
b. Describe unexpected events that occurred during your data collection. Explained how the
actual analysis differs from the planned analysis. Explain how you handled the missing
data and why the missing data did not undermine the validity of your analysis.
c. Explain techniques you used to “clean” your data set.
d. Choose a statistical tool and discuss its use and reference for it. Specify any computer
programs or software used in the study such as SPSS, MINITAB PHStat and so on.
e. Describe well the assumptions for each procedure and the steps you took to ensure that
they were not violated.
f. Provide the descriptive statistics, confidence intervals, and sample sizes for each variable
as well as the value of the test statistics, its direction, the degrees of freedom, and the
significance level (report the actual p value) when you sue inferential statistics.
g. Avoid inferring causality, particularly in non-randomized designs or without further
experimentation.
h. Use tables to provide exact values and use figures to convey global effects. Keep figures
small in size and include graphic presentations of confidence intervals whenever possible.
i. Inform the reader what to look for in tables and figures.

REFERENCES:

Baraceros, Esther L. (2017). Practical Research 2. Rex Book Store, Inc., First Edition

Boholano, H., Bombita, M., Faltado, R., Pogoy, A. (2016). Practical Research 2: Quantitative

Research. Lorimar Publishing Inc.

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Sarno, Emerlita G. (2010), Tips and Techniques in Writing Research. Rex Book Store, Inc.

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