Psychology 2019 IB HL Notes

IB 2019 PSYCHOLOGY NOTES - by mango#7926
good luck!
IB EXAM STUDY SHEET - Which Studies you could use for the different topics & approaches
WHAT TO EXPECT FROM THE EXAMS;

thanks to @mythic_fci#1141 for the following guidelines!
PAPER 1 (SL & HL)

2 hour exam, (mostly) same format for SL & HL. Covers the core 3 units, i.ed. the psychological
approaches (sociocultural, cognitive, biological). Consists of:
Section A
- 3 SAQs (Short Answer Questions), 1 per approach, 250-400 words (aim to spend 20mins per
SAQ), no choices & SL content only (no HL extensions for SAQs)
- You will be asked to outline (give an overview of), describe (give a detailed description) or
explain (give reasoning for why) a topic area within that approach.
Section B
- 1 ERQ (Extended Response Question) out of 3 possible choices, ~750 words (aim to spend
60mins on this section), should be supported by several (2+) pieces of research
- If HL, at least one choice will be on the HL extension content for each of the approaches. i.e.
globalization for sociocultural, cognition in digital world for cognitive, ethics in animal research
for biological (NOTE: It is technically possible for all 3 HL student ERQ choices to be on HL
extension content, but this is unlikely)
- You will be asked to contrast (compare the differences of), d iscuss (consider various aspects of),
or evaluate (analyze the merits of) a content area (e.g. cognitive biases) OR explain (provide a
detailed description of) or state to what extent (assess the extent of) a certain element of
psychology (e.g. research methods, ethics, etc.) impacts a topic area within a given approach
PAPER 2 (SL & HL)

Covers the option units studied (1 option for SL, 2 for HL).
SL students:
- 1 hour exam covering the 1 option unit studied
- 1 ERQ out of 3 possible choices for that option
HL students:
- 2 hour exam covering the 2 option units studied
- 2 ERQs, each from different options (YOU MUST WRITE YOUR TWO ERQs ON DIFFERENT
APPROACHES), 3 possible choices for each option unit
Both SL & HL follow the same format for ERQs in this paper (same as Paper 1), i.e.:
- Roughly 750 words each (aim to spend 60mins per ERQ), should be supported by several (2+)
pieces of research
- You will be asked to contrast (compare the differences of), d iscuss (consider various aspects of),
or evaluate (analyze the merits of) a content area (e.g. for abnormal psychology, biological
etiologies of disorders) OR explain (provide a detailed description of) or state to what extent
good luck!
(assess the extent of) a certain element of psychology (e.g. research methods, ethics, etc.) impacts
a topic area within a given approach(edited)
PAPER 3 (HL ONLY)

Covers aspects of research methodology (methods/design, sampling, ethics, validity/credibility, etc.). 1
hour exam based on a provided stimulus material (a 300-400 word overview of a piece of research)
Consists of 5 questions in 3 areas (spend 20mins per area); the questions have been standardized by the IB
(i.e. these are the questions that will appear on the exam):
1. Methods & Sampling--3 short (2-4 sentence) responses (3 marks each). Questions are:
- “Identify the method used & outline two characteristics of the method” [1 mark for
correct identification, 2 for correct characteristics]
- “Describe the sampling method used in the study.” [1 mark for correct identification, 2
for correct description]
- “Suggest an alternative or additional research method giving one reason for your choice.”
[1 mark for a valid additional research method, 2 marks for providing a valid reason &
rationale for it]
2. Ethics--1 short-paragraph-length response (6 marks). 1 of these 2 possible questions will appear:

- “Describe the ethical considerations that were applied in the study and explain if further
ethical considerations could be applied.”
- “Describe the ethical considerations in reporting the results and explain ethical
considerations that could be taken into account when applying the findings of the study.”
3. Theoretical Understandings--1 SAQ-length response (9 marks). 1 of these 3 possible questions
will appear:
- “Discuss the possibility of generalizing the findings of the study.”
good luck!
- “Discuss how a researcher could ensure that the results of the study are credible.”
- “Discuss how the researcher in the study could avoid bias.”
ERQs
● EVALUATIONS:
○ ‘In spite of the fact that this study supports ____ it is important to evaluate the study w.
Regard to both it’s [method] and it’s [ethics]’
○ “Whilst there are many strengths [list these] the over approach is too simplistic. In other
words several of the theories/models make too many assumptions.”
○ To borrow a latin phrase; Post hoc ergo propter hoc, afterwards therefore because of”
○ SOCIOCULTURAL
■ “Behaviour should be studied in its natural environment”
■ Key issues: deception, ecological validity, ethics
■ Eg. ASCH & TAJFEL - lacks personal meaning, not possible to isolate all
variables, SIT can describe but not predict behaviour, SCT ignores ‘free will’,
use of children
○ TEACUP- to evaluate theories
■ Testability: is it possible to set up an experiment to test the theory?
■ Empirical evidence: is there res. to support or contradict the theory?
■ Application: can the theory be used to explain or change behaviour?
■ Construct validity: are the concepts that make up the theory well-defined? Are
they observable and measurable?
■ Unbiased: is the res. Ethnocentric (culture)? Androcentric (Gender)? Is the res.
upon which the theory is based representative of a global population?
■ Predictability: does the theory enable us to predict trends or an individual’s
behaviour?
○ MAGEC (pronounced magic) - to evaluate research
■ Methodological flaws
■ Alternative arguments
■ Generalizability
■ Ethical considerations
■ Cultural Differences
○ How would you react if someone said that a study was perfect and needed to be taught
everywhere?
○ CARDUD - ethics
■ Consent
good luck!
■ Anonymity
■ Right to Withdraw
■ Debrief
■ Undue stress or harm
■ Deception
● Discuss / To what extent
○ Think broadly/outside the scope of the research
● ERQ Plan
○ 1. Define/explain
○ 2. Relevant study #1
○ 3. Relevant study #2
○ 4. Critical points
■ A.
■ B.
■ C.
○ Considered Judgement
SAQs
● SAQ Plan
○ 1. Define
○ 2. Explain/study
○ 3. Considered judgement
KEY ACRONYMS:
P./P.’s Participants/Participant’s
R./R.’s Researcher/Researcher’s
Res. Research
Mem. Memory
Beh. Behaviour
G1/G2... Group 1/Group 2...
+ve/-ve Positive/Negative
s.a. Such as
whc which
→ Conclusion
good luck!
Sociocultural Approach
Ethics in sociocultural research
ASCH (1956) - Lines for conformity
● AIM: Show that people are likely to conform to group norms even if it includes going against
going against one’s personal judgement of something that is obviously true.
● PROCEDURE:
○ 7-9 participants in a classroom
○ Visual discrimination experiment - match standard line to one of three other lines
○ All but the critical subject (participant) asked to give an incorrect responses
○ Answers were said out loud and the C.S. was next to last - clearly heard incorrect answers
○ R. carried on as if nothing was wrong
● FINDINGS:
○ Some conformed more than others - approximately 75% of 100 P. conformed w/ majority
on at least one trial (some on all trials)
● EVALUATION:
○ Used deception
■ Did benefits outweigh permanent consequences?
○ Individual responses not kept private
○ Temporal validity - outdated data
○ Generalization - apply to different cultures/ages
○ Easily replicated - high validity
○ Extensive debriefing
The Individual and the group

Essential understandings
1. Our behaviour is influenced by others, even when we believe that we are acting independently.
2. We have both an individual and a social identity which influences our behaviour.
3. Behaviours our learned through our interaction and observation of others.
4. Stereotypes affect behaviour.
Social Identity Theory

Social Identity Theory: Suggests that the groups we join automatically become the in-group and all other
groups become out-groups. Can lead to discrimination and intergroup conflicts in extreme situations
TAJFEL (1970) - Giving points to art groups

● AIM: See if intergroup discrimination would take place when put into different groups regardless
of any prior prejudice
● PROCEDURE:
○ 48 boys aged 14-15
○ Rate 12 paintings and told that they were placed in groups based on ratings (but was
random)
good luck!
○ P. had to award points to a boy from each of the two groups using one of two point
allocation systems
■ SYSTEM 1: Points linked, sum of points was 15 - the other boy given remainder
of points
■ SYSTEM 2: G.1 member gave higher value to in-group, out-group would receive
more points. Mid-range values were equal for both groups, if low value for
in-group, only 1 point awarded to out-group.
● FINDINGS:
○ SYSTEM 1: More points given to in-group (in-group favouritism)
○ SYSTEM 2: Less points given to in-group to maximise difference of points between
groups. P. Left study w/ fewer points than if they gave each other max. points.
○ Shows natural tendency of P. to favour in-group - intergroup conflict not needed for
discrimination to occur
● EVALUATION:
○ High level of control - confounding variables minimized
○ Task was highly artificial - lacks ecological validity (may not reflect actual behaviour in
naturalistic setting)
○ P. may have shown demand characteristics - try to please researchers
■ May have interpreted the task as competitive and tired it ‘win’
○ Procedure can be replicated to establish reliability
○ Hard to generalize to women, adults or other cultures - sampling bias (BR Schoolboys)
ABRAMS ET AL. (1990) - Asch’s Line Paradigm & SIT

● AIM: Investigate the effect of social identity (in- and out-group) on conformity
● PROCEDURE:
○ Independent measures design - in- & out-group changed, along with if responses were
kept private or public
○ 50 undergraduate students, in introductory psychology course
○ Entered room with confederates which P. were led to believe were psychology (in-group)
or ancient history (out-group) students
○ Task was to identify which line (of three) shown matched the stimulus line shown prior
○ In 9 trials, peers gave correct response, other 9 trials confederates agreed on incorrect
response beforehand
● FINDINGS:
○ Majority (77%) of P. conformed at least once with in-group, most conformity with
in-group public condition
○ Only minority conformed with out-group peers (although private in- and out-group
results didn’t differ significantly)
○ → One’s behaviour (here: conformity) influenced more by in-groups when public
■ SIT: desire to elevate one’s in-group above out-group overrules the reasonable
response; demonstrates effect of social categorisation on behaviour
● EVALUATION:
○ Consider evaluative points for ASCH (1956)
good luck!
○ Demand characteristics: P. being psychology students may have known of Asch line
paradigm and therefore deduced aim of experiment or known that they should answer
with their own personal opinion & disregard conformity
Social Cognitive Theory

Social Cognitive Learning Theory: assumes that human beings learn behaviour through observational
learning.
● Involves attention, retention and motivation
BANDURA ET AL. (1961) - Bobo doll

● AIMS: See if children would imitate aggression modelled by an adult
○ see if children were more likely to imitate same-sex models
● PROCEDURE:
○ 36 boys & 36 girls ages 3-6 divided into groups
○ Group 1 exposed to adults who show aggression by bashing an inflatable ‘Bobo’ doll /
verbal aggression
○ Group 2 observed non-aggressive adult who assembles toys
○ Group 3 served as control and did not see a model
○ Some children in G1 & G2 watched same-sex models while others did not
○ After watching, children placed in a room w/ toys - but were soon placed in a room with
the ‘Bobo’ doll under explanation that the toys were for other children - P. experienced
frustration & anger
● FINDINGS:
○ G1 was significantly more aggressive - clear signs of observational learning
○ Girls more likely to imitate verbal aggression - boys more likely to imitate physical
violence
○ P. more likely to imitate same-sex models
● EVALUATION:
○ Ecological validity - short time w/ model, intentionally frustrated, ‘Bobo’ doll (general
aggression or highly specific situation)
○ Children also imitated cartoons - imitate regardless of people or cartoons
○ Aggression by adult not completely standardized - film was standardized
○ Demand Characteristics
○ Ethics - use of young children (teaching violent behaviour) - observing violent adults may
be frightening
CHARLTON ET AL. (2002) (ST. HELENA STUDY)

● AIM: Investigate effects of the introduction of television on aggression in children
● PROCEDURE:
○ TV was introduced, amount of violent content shown was equivalent to that of the UK
○ Cameras set up in playgrounds of the two primary schools
● FINDINGS:
good luck!
○After 5 years, aggression in children did not increase - good behaviour prior to the
introduction of the TV maintained
● EVALUATION:
○ Culture - very remote location
○ Method - not all violence is displayed physically, not certain that there was no change
○ Not all effects of TV are negative - positive influences not studied
Considered Judgement of SCT

● Helps explain why behaviours may be passed down in a familiar culture
○ Why children can acquire behaviour w/o trial & error learning - although the behaviour
may not always be demonstrated,
○ difficult to establish 100% certainty that the behaviour established if from observation
● Does not explain why some people never learn a behaviour - in spite of conditions being met
Stereotyping
Stereotypes: Social perception of an individual in terms of group membership or physical attributes
Formation of Stereotypes:
● HAMILTON AND GIFFORD (1976) - stereotypes are the result of an illusory correlation:
people see relationships between two variables when there are none
○ Example of cognitive bias - a person’s tendency to make errors in judgement based on
cognitive factors
HAMILTON AND GIFFORD (1976)

● AIM: See whether minority groups were associated w/ negative traits
● PROCEDURE:
○ P. listened to statements made about 28 people in two groups
■ A: 26 members - B: 13 members (minority group)
■ Positive or negative statements - A & B had the same proportion of +ve & -ve
comments
○ P. asked how many people in each group had +ve or -ve traits
● FINDINGS:
○ Overestimated -ve traits in minority group
■ B is smaller in number - negative traits appeared more distinctly & representative
● Explains why -ve stereotypes may be common for minorities
Confirmation bias: overlook information which contradicts what they already believe (SNYDER AND
SWAN (1978)) - once illusory correlations are made, people tend to look for informations that supports
the relationship
Effects of Stereotyping:
Stereotype threat: occurs when one is in a situation where there is a threat of being judged or treated
stereotypically, or fear of doing smth that would confirm stereotypes
good luck!
STEELE AND ARONSON (1995)

● AIM: Investigate existence & consequences of stereotype threat
● PROCEDURE:
○ 30 minute verbal test consisting of v. difficult multiple choice questions
■ Both African-american P. & Europeans
○ G1 told test was diagnostic test of verbal abilities
○ G2 presented w/ same test - but was not diagnostic of their ability
○ Second experiment carried out where P. had to fill a personal information form
■ Half of the forms asked participants to identify race
● FINDINGS:
○ 1st experiment: when told it was diagnostic of verbal ability - AA scores
decreased/significantly lower than those of W participants
■ When told it was not diagnostic of their abilities, not significant difference
○ 2nd experiment: AA who had to identify race did poorly - those that did not did just as
well as the other P.
○ → Making stereotypes of ability can lead to disruptions of ability
■ Even reminding a P. of their identity before performing a task with associated
stereotypes relating to their identity can lead to stereotype threat
JANE ELLIOT BROWN EYES / BLUE EYES STUDY

● AIM: Emphasize effects of discrimination & group bias on personal self-esteem
● PROCEDURE:
○ 3rd grade class of 28 students
○ Divided the class into two blue eyes & brown eyes
■ Told class blue-eyed P. are better & smarter
○ Brown-eyed P. had to wear collars to that eye-color could be identified from a distance
○ Roles reversed next day
● FINDINGS:
○ Blue eyes better:
■ became arrogant & discriminated against brown-eyes - performed better
academically
■ Brown-eyes became timid & compliant - performed worse academically
○ & vice versa
● EVALUATION:
○ High ecological validity
○ Reliable - repeated w/ different ages and obtained similar results
○ Ethically questionable
Culture, behaviour and cognition
ETIC APPROACH EMIC APPROACH

good luck!
Plans out research before arriving in the field Develops RQs after spending time w/ local
community
Applies research findings globally; assumes that Applies findings to the local community that is
behaviour is universal being investigated
Uses standardized tests/theories from their own Develops tests in consultation w/ local experts to
culture and applies them to local people apply to community. Theories are generated after
spending time within the culture.
Gathers data as soon as they arrive in the field Collects data only after they are familiar w/ local
culture
Tend to study a singular culture in depth w/ goal

of improving some aspect of the lives of
individuals in that culture
Cultural Dimensions
Dimensions: how the values of a society affect behaviour
INDIVIDUALISM COLLECTIVISM
Uniqueness is valued Social harmony is valued
Speaking one’s mind is important Modesty is important
Self is defined by ind. achievement Self is defined by group membership
Freedom & autonomy is valued Common fate/history guide one’s decisions
Self-actualization is goal Advancing interests of group is goal
Everyone has a right to privacy Privacy is not expected
Rule-breaking leads to guilt/loss of self-respect Rule-breaking leads to shame/loss of face
Self reliance seen as a virtue Shared responsibility & interdependence is a way

of life
BERRY (1967)
● AIM: See if the dimension (individualism vs. collectivism) plays a role in the level of conformity
● PROCEDURE:
○ 3 different cultures - Temne of Sierra Leone (collectivistic), Inuit people of Baffin Island
in Canada (individualistic) and Scots (reference group) (urban & rural scots)
■ Temnes and Inuits made up of people who had either never had western
education & people in transition (western education/western employment)
○ Approx 120 P. in each group
good luck!
○ P. brought into a room by themselves & given a set of 9 lines

■ Match the line below to the one that had the most resemblance to the top line
○ Practice test to make sure instructions are understood
○ On 3rd trial (of 6) P. told that they would be given a hint on what the other people of their
community said - last two trials false answers were given
○ DV: no. of lines that they were away from the correct line
● FINDINGS:
○ Temnes - much higher rate of conformity
○ Inuits - lower conformity rate than the scots
○ No significant difference within groups - if P. was traditional or highly exposed to
western culture
○ → Cultural dimension more significant in an individual’s level of conformity rather than
their current relationship w/ that cultural identity
● EVALUATION:
○ Ecological fallacy: When one looks at two different cultures, it should not be assumed
that 2 members from 2 diff. cultures must be different, or that a single member will
always demonstrate dimensions which are the norm of that culture
○ Correlational research in nature - not possible to argue that culture causes these
behaviours
Culture and Cognition

e remember
Culture affects what w
COLE AND SCRIBNER (1974)

● AIM: See if the culture has a different effect on how one memorizes
● PROCEDURE:
○ Tribal people in rural Liberia compared to US kids - Lib. children both in & out of school
○ Given free-recall task - shown a large number of objects one at a time & asked to
remember
○ 20 objects shown (in four distinct categories) - made sure Liberian P. were familiar w/
words
● FINDINGS:
○ Children not attending school - no regular increase in memory performance after age of 9
or 10 - learned approx. 10 items on the 1st trial & could only remember 2 more after 15
practice trials
○ Liberian children attending school learned objects rapidly - much like children of the
same age in the US
○ Liberian & US school-children categorized similarities of items to aid recall - non-school
children did very little clustering
■ When the objects were in a later study, presented in a meaningful way,
unschooled children easily recalled objects
● EVALUATION:
good luck!
○ Ability to remember is universal, but the strategies aren’t - people learn to remember in
ways that are relevant for their everyday lives
KEARINS (1981)
● AIM: see how the aborigines spatial memory compares to those of australian children
● PROCEDURE:
○ 44 adolescents (27 boys & 17 girls) of aboriginal origin and 44 adolescents (28 boys &
16 girls) of australian origin
○ As the concept of "standard" testing situations is culturally foreign to Aboriginal student,
no testing was done until students had time and opportunity to ask questions. This study
was done outdoors.
○ Placed 20 objects on a board divided into 20 squares - allowed to study for 30 seconds
■ Several variations of the tasks
○ Objects gathered in center & P. asked to place objects on the board in the same
arrangement
● FINDINGS:
○ Indigenous australian adolescents correctly allocated more objects than white australians
- way of life has a significant impact on what one remembers
■ 18% of white australian children had obtained a perfect score, while 75% of
indigenous Australians had at least one perfect score
○ The survival of Aboriginals in the harsh desert landscape had encouraged and rewarded
their ability to store and encode information using visual retrieval cues.
○ This suggests that survival needs may shape and reward a particular way of encoding
information in memory.
● EVALUATION:
○ Difficult to know exactly the reason behind the results. There must be an evolutionary
root to this behaviour, however it is very unlikely that their memory strategies are
genetic.
KULKOFSKY ET AL (2011)
● AIM: See if there was a difference in rate of flashbulb memories in collectivistic &
individualistic cultures
● PROCEDURE:
○ 275 adults from China, Germany, Turkey, the UK and the USA
○ Given a memory questionnaire which mirrored the questionnaire used by BROWN &
KULIK 1977; given a series of nine events and asked about the circumstances where they
first heard about the event - when yes, P. asked to write an account of their memory &
rate it on a scale of personal importance and asked if they had a flashbulb memory of
personal events
■ Asked about when and how they learnt about the events recalled by P. in 5
minutes, and then about the personal importance of the event
○ In native language of the participants
● FINDINGS:
good luck!
○ Collectivistic cultures (China): personal importance & intensity of emotion played less of
a role in predicting flashbulb memories
○ More individualistic cultures - opposite
○ Less rehearsal of the triggering event compared to P. of other cultures lowered chances of
developing a FBM, so significant difference in creation of FBM if event was of national
importance
Cultural influences on individual attitudes, identity and behaviour

Culture and Identity
Enculturation: Learning and maintenance of the necessary and appropriate behaviours & norms of our
own culture
Sojourner: Someone who voluntarily temporarily moves to another country to study
ODDEN & ROCHAT (2004)

● AIM: investigate Social Cognitive Learning Theory on development of cultural norms in Samoa
● PROCEDURE:
○ Longitudinal study - 25 months & 28 children
○ Samoan culture is a very hierarchical - high power distance index
■ Children left to learn things by themselves - don’t fish with experienced adults
○ Then 46 12 year olds given a multiple choice test of basic knowledge
● FINDINGS:
○ Male children observed without direct instruction
■ 10 year olds would experiment w/ fishing equipment without adult supervision
● By 12, most children could fish
○ Used the same method to learn social rules & how the behave w/ adults
○ Multiple choice test showed that they had a broad understanding of the concepts & rituals
of society
○ Cultural norms are not taught directly, learned through observation by children of adults
in the community
○ → Observational learning is key in enculturation (learning cultural norms, skills etc.); at
least in some cultures (s.a. those with a high-power distance index)
DEMOREST ET AL. (2008)

● AIM: Investigate if memory performance would be better for music from their home culture than
for an unfamiliar culture
● PROCEDURE:
○ 150 trained and untrained participants from the USA and Turkey
○ P. listened to several music excerpts from both familiar and unfamiliar cultures (western,
turkish & chinese)
○ Then completed recognition memory task
● FINDINGS:
○ P. significantly better at remembering music from their native culture
○ Musical expertise did not correlate with these findings
good luck!
○ → Enculturation influences musical memory on a deep level, cognitive schemas are

formed for musical information
Acculturation: the phenomenon where groups of individuals having different cultures come into
continuous contact, resulting in the change of the original culture patterns of either or both groups
Berry (2004):
Process of cultural & psychological change that takes place as a result of contact between two or more
cultural groups
Assimilation: when an individual abandons their own culture & adopts the values & norms of their new
culture
Separation: maintain own culture & minimize contact with one’s new culture
Marginalization: not possible to maintain one’s own culture, but because of exclusion or discrimination
it’s not possible to assimilate to the new culture
Integration: interest in adopting behaviours & values of the new culture while still maintaining their own
culture
Possible positive relation with new culture

BERRY’S
ACCULTURATION MODEL Yes No
Importance of Yes Integration Seperation

maintaining
original culture No Assimilation Marginalization
Acculturation gaps: generational differences in acculturation, and how this leads to conflict within
families
Acculturative stress: psychological, somatic & social difficulties that may accompany acculturation,
often resulting in anxiety, depression & other forms of physical & mental stress
MIRANDA AND MATHENY (2000)

● AIM: See which factors in the lives of Latino immigrants in the US would decrease the level of
acculturative stress - the psychological, somatic and social difficulties that may accompany
acculturation
● PROCEDURE:
○ Random sample of 197 members of social service agencies
○ Completed questionnaires and tests for family cohesion, level of acculturation,
acculturative stress & coping strategies for stress
● FINDINGS:
○ Immigrants with good coping strategies, good proficiency in english and a strong family
structure were less likely to experience acculturative stress
○ Immigrants who had spent longer time in the US were less likely to demonstrate stress
and had a higher level of acculturation
○ Suggests there are many protective factors which influence the extent to which an
individual acculturates & the effect it will have on mental health
good luck!
● EVALUATION:
○ Only looks at latino immigrants - possible that acculturation affects diff. cultures
differently, possibly as they may have differing ways of coping with acculturation
LUECK AND WILSON (2010) - Everybody stress in america!

● AIM: Investigate variable that may predict acculturative stress in a nationally representative
sample of Asian American immigrants
● PROCEDURE:
○ 2095 Asian Americans (AA) -1271 were 1st generation Asian immigrants (AI) from
several Asian cultures
○ R. carried out semi-structured interviews - interviewers had similar cultural & linguistic
backgrounds to participants of the same population
○ Random sample of P. contacted to validate data from interviews
○ Interviews measured: level of acculturative stress, impact of language proficiency,
language preference, discrimination, social networks, family cohesion and the effect of
socioeconomic status on acculturative stress
● FINDINGS:
○ 70% of P. had acculturative stress (AS) according to the sample
○ Bilingual preference, positive treatment, sharing family values and satisfaction with
socioeconomic status seemed to be protective factors
● EVALUATION:
○ Giving tests to immigrants - language barriers (understanding vocabulary and interpreting
questions)
○ Psychologists make assumptions about what ‘healthy’ acculturation is
○ Age during migrations, length of residency, education, sexual orientation, religion, class
& traumatic experiences may influence the experiences of immigrants
■ Difficult to find representative samples that can be used to generate theories - but
such studies have a high attrition rate & low rate of participation
○ Ethical considerations - P. may not be aware of their rights, R. seen as an Authority
figure, which may hinder the subjective experience of P.
○ Illegal or undocumented immigration - R. must consider this issue when publishing
findings, and keep identities protected so that P. are not at risk
Globalization and behaviour

Globalization and Identity
Globalization: The process of integration & interaction among people of different nations
OGIHARA & UCHIDA (2014)

● AIM: Research the relationship between individualistic values, subjective well-being and the
number of close relationships in Japan and the USA
● PROCEDURE:
○ 114 uni. students in Japan & 62 uni. Students in the US
good luck!
○ Questionnaires related to individualistic & collectivistic orientation, subjective well-being

& nature of the relationships
● FINDINGS:
○ In Japan, having a individualistic orientation was negatively related to subjective
well-being & fewer close relationships - not the case in the US
OGIHARA & UCHIDA (2014) FOLLOW UP

● AIM: investigate the effect of working in an individualistic workplace would have on the
subjective well-being of Japanese women.
● PROCEDURE:
○ 334 adult japanese women - working for a large insurance company
○ Performance & achievement-oriented goals posted on walls of the office
○ Answered questions from the first study
● FINDINGS:
○ Even in workplace’s achievement-oriented environment, P. who were
achievement-oriented scored lower on well-being & had fewer close friends
● EVALUATION:
○ Study unable to directly test causal relationships between individualistic orientation &
decrease in no. of close friends - could be that people with few close friends were drawn
to an individualistic workplace
→ globalization is leading to a movement toward individualism in the workplace, while maintaining the
traditional collectivistic values in general society
Anthony Giddens (1991):

Identity in the globalized, postmodern world is a ‘reflective project’ where individuals choose their
lifestyles & relationships - individuals have to work out a role for themselves
Erikson (1963):
Adolescents go through an important state in identity development - if they are not able to do this
successfully, they experience identity confusion
To escape identity confusion, individuals mich form/join self-selected cultures
Delocalization: People who have a global conscious but v. little connection to the place where they live -
feelings of alienation (result of a lack of a clear cultural identity)
KAUFMAN (1991)
● PROCEDURE:
○ Case study of US women who grew up in secular jewish homes but converted to
orthodox Judaism
○ Interviews
● FINDINGS:
○ Orthodox judaism offered ‘a definite place in the world’
○ Tradition & clear guidance for how to live their lives was comforting
○ Complained about secular comparative nature of modern society - choice to join the
culture of orthodox judaism has at least partly to reject secular values of globalization
good luck!
Globalization & Behaviour

Positive changes in society - values of gender equality, human rights & healthy behaviours have beome
norm
DELAFOSSE ET AL. (1993)

● AIM: See if identity confusion as a result of the rapid westernization of the country would play a
role in behaviour
● PROCEDURE:
○ Ivory coast - young Ivorians aged 16-20
○ Clinical interviews & data from police and social workers
● FINDINGS:
○ Increase in suicide attempts, drug use, prostitution & interpersonal aggression - attributed
to the conflict experienced between the values of their traditional culture & values of the
west
○ Problem of marginalization - when an individual experiences identity confusion as a
result of losing faith in the local culture in the course of exposure to globalization but at
the same time feels excluded from global culture
NORASAKKUNKIT & UCHIDA (2014)

● AIM: Test hypothesis that the Japanese youth may not see the benefit of conformity & social
harmony and yet do not feel that they are a part of the globalized community & its values.
● PROCEDURE:
○ Sample of Japanese university students
○ Given standardised test to see if they were at high risk/low risk for Hikikomori
○ Given test to measure attitudes about social harmony & social conformity
■ Looked at three levels - perception of their current self, ideal self & general
japanese society
○ Given test to measure sense of local identity (high social harmony and collectivism) and
global identity (individualism & achievement)
● FINDINGS:
○ High risk: ranked social harmony much lower when assessing ideal/current self, would
ideally like to be lower on social harmony seeking & conformity than what they percieve
to be the norm in Japan, scored lower on both local and global identity
○ Local culture may alienate many japanese youths - may decide not to conform, but do not
identify with the globalized culture - thus withdrawing from society
● EVALUATION:
○ Method: High-risk students did not have the disorder - more research needs to be done to
see if the results of study are found on actual patients
good luck!
Cognitive Approach
Cognitive Processing
Cognition: The mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and comprehension
Core Principles
1. Humans are active information processors
2. Mental Processes can be studied scientifically
3. Mental representations guide behaviour
4. Models can be used to understand complex processes such as memory & decision making
Schema Theory
Schemas: mental representations derived from prior experience & knowledge
Scripts: patterns of behaviour that are learnt through our interaction with the environment - developed
within cultural contexts & thus aren’t universal
Schema Theory: theory of how humans process incoming information, relate it to existing knowledge
and use it - based on assumption that humans are active processors of information
BARTLETT (1932)
● AIM: Investigate how the memory of a story is affected by previous knowledge
● PROCEDURE:
○ P. told a native american legend - P. were british, thus unfamiliar with the names and
concepts
○ P. allocated one of two conditions
■ Repeated reproduction: P. heard story and told to reproduce it after a short time
& then repeat this after a period of days, weeks, months and years
■ Serial reproduction: Recall story & repeat to other P.
● FINDINGS:
○ No significant difference between the way groups recalled story
○ Three patterns of distortion - 1) became more consistent w/ P.’s own cultural
expectations. 2) became shorter (after 6/7 reproductions, it was 180 words). 3) change the
order of the story in order to make sense of it using terms more familiar to the culture of
P. - and added details/emotions
● EVALUATION:
○ No standardized intervals of reproducing the story
○ No Significant independent variable
○ Low reliability
○ No standardized procedure
BREWER AND TREYENS (1981)

● AIM: Investigate role of schema in the encoding and retrieval of memory
● PROCEDURE:
○ 86 university psych students
good luck!
○ Seated in a room made to look like an office - P. asked to wait in the professor’s office
while the R. checked to make sure the previous participant had completed the experiment
(did not realize experiment had already begun)
○ All P. had the same vantage point
○ After 35 seconds P. called into another room & asked to remember what was in the office
- P. given a questionnaire asking if they expected to be asked to recall the office
○ P. allocate 1 of 3 conditions
■ Recall: asked to write & describe as many objects possible - location, shape &
size
● After, given a verbal recognition test in which they had to rate items in a
booklet for how certain they were that the object was in the room
■ Drawing: P. given an outline of room & asked to draw what they could
remember
■ Verbal recognition: P. asked to read a list of objects and simply asked whether
they were in the room/not
● FINDINGS:
○ 93% did not expect to recall
○ When P. asked to recall by writing/drawing: more likely to remember items congruent w/
an office - more likely to forget incongruent items (skull, bark, screwdriver) in
comparison to the verbal recognition
○ When asked to select items on a list, P. more likely to remember incongruent items even
though they might not have recalled it in verbal recall
■ But also had a higher rate of identifying congruent items not in the room
EVALUATION OF SCHEMA THEORY

● Seems useful for understanding how people categorize and interpret information - contributes to
understanding of memory distortion and false memories
● Not clear how schemas are acquired in the first place or the exact way they influence cognitive
processes
● Cannot account for why the schema-inconsistent info is sometimes recalled
● However, seems like a robust theory that has/still does generate a lot of research
good luck!
Multi-store memory model - Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
Assumptions of the M-SMM

1. Separate memory stores
2. Stores are sequential
3. Each store is independent
Primary effect: ability to recall words at the beginning of a list as they have been transferred to LTM
Recency effect: ability to recall words that have just been said as they are in STM
GLANZER AND CUNITZ (1966)

● AIM: Show there are two processes involved in retrieving information
● PROCEDURE:
○ Free recall of a list of 15 items combined w/ and interference task
○ P. had to recall words under three conditions - recall w/ no delay, recall w/ 10s delay and
recall w/ 30s delay (for 10s and 30s participants had to count backwards)
● FINDINGS:
○ No delay - first 5 and last 3 words recalled best
○ 10s/30s delay - little effect on words at the beginning but poor recall of later items
■ Suggests that later words were held in STM and lost bc of interference - while
earlier words were passed to LTM
● EVALUATION:
○ Primary and recency effect
○ Low ecological validity - people don’t recall random objects IRL
PETERSON AND PETERSON (1959)

● AIM: Investigate duration of STM & provide empirical evidence for M-SMM
● PROCEDURE:
○ Lab experiment - 24 P. had to recall trigrams, meaningless three-consonant syllables
○ Prevent rehearsal - P. asked to count backwards in 3s/4s from a specified number until a
red light appeared
● FINDINGS:
○ Longer interval delay, less trigrams recalled - P. could recall 80% after 3s, less than 10%
after 18s
○ STM has limited duration when rehearsal is prevented
good luck!
○ STM is different from LTM in terms of duration - supports M-SMM

● EVALUATION:
○ Low ecological validity - people don’t recall trigrams IRL
HM - MILNER (1966)
● CASE STUDY
○ Example of biological evidence that STM and LTM are located in a different store in the
brain
○ HM had anterograde amnesia
■ Could not transfer new information into LTM - but still had access to many of his
memories prior to his surgery
■ Fact that he could create new procedural memories shows that mem. may be
more complex than the M-SMM predicts
EVALUATION OF MULTI-STORE MEMORY MODEL

● STRENGTHS:
○ Significant supporting research (both cognitive and biological case studies of patients w/
brain damage)
○ Model’s historical importance - gave psychologists a way to talk about memory & much
of the research which followed was based on the model
● LIMITATIONS:
○ Over-simplified: assumes that each store works as an individual unit
○ Does not explain memory distortion
○ Does not explain why some things may be learnt w/ minimal rehearsal
■ Or why sometimes it is repeatedly rehearsed but not transferred to LTM
Working Memory Model- - Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
Central Executive: Attention control system that monitors and coordinates the operations of the other
subordinate compounds
good luck!
Phonological Loop: (Verbal STM) Auditory component of STM

Visuospatial Sketchpad: Visual component of STM (inner eye) - temporary store for visual and spatial
information
Episodic Buffer: Temporarily holds several sources of information active at the same time, while one
considers what is needed in the present situation
LANDRY AND BARTLING (2011)

● AIM: Investigate if articulatory suppression would influence recall of a list w/ phonologically
dissimilar letters in serial recall
● PROCEDURE:
○ 34 P. assigned 1 of 2 groups - tested individually
○ Control group which performed no concurrent task, Experimental group which performed
articulatory suppression while memorising a list
○ Exp. grp: given a list of letters to recall while saying ‘1’ & ‘2’ at a rate of two #/s
○ Control: viewed list for 5s, wait 5s then write correct order - repeated 10x (both grps had
10 trials)
○ 10 lists consisting of 7 phonetically dissimilar letters
○ R. presented 1 letter series at a time, then received a paper w/ 7 blocks in each row
○ P. presented with a sample list to acquaint them with the experiment
● FINDINGS:
○ Experimental scores much lower than control scores
■ Mean % accuracy in control was 76% while experimental was 45%
■ Standard deviation nearly identical
○ Supports WMM, disruption of phonological loop creates less accurate working mem.
KF - WARRINGTON AND SHALLICE (1970)

● AIM: To demonstrate a case where LTM remained intact while STM was damaged
● PROCEDURE:
○ Case Study
○ KF’s LTM in-tact but showed impairment of STM
■ Problem recalling lists of words/numbers but was able to learn
○ Clearly moved information from STM to LTM
● FINDINGS:
○ Although KF quickly forgot words/numbers when presented orally, he could remember
them when presented visually - supports theory that there are separate STM stores
○ Longitudinal - Warrington and Schallice could later find that although KF could not
recall words or letters orally, he had no difficulty recalling cats meowing or telephones
ringing
■ R. concluded that accident had resulted in damage due to a STM store that was
auditory & not visual, and also verbal rather than non-verbal
● Supports theory that STM is much more complicated that suggested by
M-SMM
good luck!
EVALUATION OF WMM
● STRENGTHS
○ Supported by considerable experimental evidence
○ Brain scans have shown that a different area of the brain is active carrying out verbal
tasks than w/ visual tasks - supports idea that there are different parts of memory for vis.
& ver. Tasks
○ Case studies of patients w/ brain damage supp. theory that there is more than one STM
store
○ Helps us understand why we are able to multitask in some situations
● LIMITATIONS
○ Role of Central Executive is unclear, although Baddeley and Hitch suggest it’s the most
important part
○ How various components of the model interact is unclear
○ Only explains STM and so tells us v. little about processes involved in LTM
○ Does not explain memory distortion or role of emotion in mem. formation
Thinking and decision making

Decision making: the process of identifying and choosing alternatives based on the values and
preferences of the decision maker
Problem-solving: thinking that is directed toward solving specific problems by means of a set of mental
strategies
DUAL PROCESS MODEL- STANOVICH AND WEST (2000)
SYSTEM 1 SYSTEM 2
Context dependant - focus on existing evidence & Abstract

ignores absent evidence
Concerns everyday decision making Conscious reasoning
Generates impressions & inclinations Logical and reliable
Not logic bases & prone to error Slow & requires effort
Operates quickly/automatically w/ little/no effort Transfers info from one situation to another
WASON (1968)
● AIM: Illustrate intuitive system one thinking → prove S1 is prone to error
● PROCEDURE:
○ Participants shown four cards, two numbers and two colored cards & asked which card(s)
must be turned over to test idea that if a card shows an even number, it is red
● FINDINGS:
○ Most choose 8 & red, incorrect
good luck!
■ Decision based on matching bias, in an abstract problem we tend to be overly

influenced by wording/context of the question
○ Evan & Wason (1976) found that when asked, P. could not clearly explain their choice -
provides important evidence for the dual process model
GOEL (2000)
● AIM: Intended to provide biological support for the dual process model
● PROCEDURE:
○ Participants carried out a logic task as w/ Wason
■ Some cases, task was abstract in nature, some concrete in nature
● (Griggs & Cox (1982) found that w/ non-abstract tasks, we tend to not
show matching bias)
■ P. had to decide correct choices in an fMRI
● FINDINGS:
○ Although there were many common areas of the brain that were active in solving the
problems, there was a clear difference
○ Abstract: the parietal lobe was active - spatial processing
○ Concrete: the left hemisphere temporal lobe was active
○ Indicates that the brain processes these two types of info differ - may not be seen as
support for the model
EVALUATION OF THE DUAL PROCESS MODEL

● STRENGTHS
○ Biological evidence that different types of thinking may be processed in different parts of
the brain
○ Wason selection task & other tests for cognitive biases are reliable
● LIMITATIONS
○ Overly reductionist: does not clearly explain (or even if) these models of thinking interact
or how our thinking & decision making could be influenced by emotion
○ Definitions of S1 and S2 are not always clear
■ Fast processing indicates use of system 1 processing but experience can influence
system 2 processing to go faster
Reliability of Cognitive Processes
Essential Understandings
1. Memory is a reconstructive process & is therefore open to distortion
2. Emotion may affect memory
3. Humans are cognitive misers
4. Biases affect our abilities
good luck!
LOFTUS AND PICKERELL (1995)

● AIM: Determine if false memories of autobiographical events can be created through the power
of suggestion
● PROCEDURE:
○ 24 participants - mostly female
○ Before the study - parents/siblings asked for 3 childhood memories of the P. and if the P.
ever remembered being lost in a mall, data only used if they weren’t ever lost in a mall
○ P. received a questionnaire in the mail asking to write about 4 memories & mail reply
■ 3 real events and 1 false (about getting lost in a mall) - if didn’t recall, simply
instructed to write ‘I do not remember this’
○ P. interviewed 2x over a period of 4 weeks
■ Asked to recall as much information as possible for the events - and asked to rate
information on confidence from 1-10
○ After 2nd experiment P. debriefed & asked if they could guess which was the false mem.
● FINDINGS:
○ 25% recalled the false memory - but also less confident in the memory
● EVALUATION:
○ Although the study is often seen as strong evidence in the power of suggestion in creating
false memories, only 25% recalled the event
○ Study does not tell us why some P. more susceptible to these memories than others
■ But does show that the creation of false mem. is possible
Reconstructive Memory
LOFTUS AND PALMER (1974)

● AIM: Investigate where the use of leading questions would affect an eyewitness’ estimate of
speed
● PROCEDURE:
○ 45 students divided into 5 groups of 7 students
○ 7 short films of traffic accidents shown (taken from driver’s education films)
○ When P. had watched the film twice they were asked to give an account of the accident
seen & then answered a questionnaire about the accident
■ 1 critical Q.: asked P. to estimate speed - asked in the same way using different
verbs of different intensities
● FINDINGS:
○ Mean estimates highest in the ‘smashed’ condition (40.8mph), lowest in
‘contacted’(31.8mph)
○ More intense verb - higher the speed estimate
SECOND EXPERIMENT
● PROCEDURE:
○ 150 students randomly allocated 1 of 3 conditions
good luck!
■ P. asked one of 2 questions - had to estimate speed of car - either smashed or hit
each other
■ Control group - was not asked anything
○ P. asked to come back a week later w/o rewatching the video
○ Asked if there was broken glass at the scene of the car crash
● FINDINGS:
○ Those w/ originally more intensive verb were more likely to recall seeing broken glass
○ Loftus argues - when different verbs used, schemas are activated which have a different
sense of meaning
● EVALUATION:
○ Controlled lab experiment - low ecological validity, situation is v. artificial - lowers
external validity
○ When watching a video of a car the same emotions as IRL aren’t triggered
○ Problem in using closed questions
○ All sample P. are students - sample bias
○ Research begs Q. of how well people can estimate speed
YUILLE AND CUTSHALL (1966)

● AIM: Investigate whether leading Q. would affect memory of eyewitnesses at a crime scene
● PROCEDURE:
○ Crime scene in vancouver
○ Took place in front of the shop → had 21 eyewitness interviews
○ Researchers contacted eyewitnesses four months after the event, 13 gave their account of
the incident & asked questions
○ 2 leading Q. used, ½ group asked if they saw a yellow panel on the car
○ Asked to rate stress on a 7-point scale
● FINDINGS:
○ P. v. reliable
○ Recalled large amount of detail that can be confirmed by police reports
○ Did not make errors resulting from leading questions - most distressed P. had more
accurate memories
● EVALUATION:
○ Field study - very strong ecological validity compared to L&P
BAHRICK ET AL. (1975)

● AIM: Investigate reliability of autobiographical memory over time (specifically the names and
faces of people)
● PROCEDURE:
○ Nearly 400 P. aged 17-74 tested
○ Some P. out of school HS for 2 weeks, or 57 years
○ In order for P. to be selected, a published yearbook for the graduating class had to be
available
○ Completed 5 tests
good luck!
■ Free recall test: name as many people as possible from the grad. class
■ Photo recognition test: 10 cards, each with 5 pictures taken from the yearbook
■ Name recognition test: 10 lists of names, w/ only one name from the graduating
class - P. asked to identify which one
■ Matching tests: 10 cards each w/ 5 pictures and a name written at the top of the
page. P. asked to match name to picture
■ Picture cueing test: P. presented w/ 10 portraits one by one and asked to write the
name of the person in the portrait
○ Free recall test always given first
○ For each test, P. asked to rate their confidence on a 3 point scale (1=guess, 3=certain)
● FINDINGS:
○ P. tested within 15 years of graduation were 90% accurate in recalling faces & names
■ After 48 years, 80% were accurate in identifying faces and names
○ Free recall was worse
■ 15 years: 60%, 48 years: 30% accurate
● EVALUATION:
○ Cross-sectional study: cannot account for P. variability
○ Large sample size: able to establish a trend in the data
■ Demonstrates that facial recognition has high reliability
Emotion and Memory

Flashbulb Memory Theory: a highly detailed, exceptionally vivid ‘snapshot’ of the moment when a
surprising & emotionally arousing event happens
BROWN AND KULIK (1977)

● AIM: Investigate whether shocking events are recalled more vividly than other events
● PROCEDURE:
○ Interviews w/ 80 P.
○ Given a series of nine events and asked about the circumstances where they first heard
about the event - when yes, P. asked to write an account of their memory & rate it on a
scale of personal importance
○ Asked if they had a flashbulb memory of personal events
● FINDINGS:
○ P. sait they had v. clear memories of where they were/what they did
○ 99% of P. recalled circumstances from when they heard the news
○ 73/80 P. had flashbulb memories associated w/ a personal shock
○ Observed much lower rate of FBM among white P. than black P. to the assacinations of
Malcolm X & MLK Jr.
■ Shows link between personal imp. of an event in creation of FBM
● EVALUATION:
○ No way to determine whether mem. Are accurate
○ No way to test P. level of surprise upon hearing the event
○ Probability of demand characteristics is v. high - bc. National events
good luck!
SHAROT ET AL. (2007)

● AIM: Determine potential role of biological factors in the FBM
● PROCEDURE:
○ 3 years after 9/11
○ 24 P. in New York during 9/11
○ Brain activity observed using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
■ Presented word cues: including ‘summer’ or ‘september’ to link events of their
summer or 9/11 with the other word
● Brain activity recorded
○ After fMRI P. rated memories for vividness, detail, confidence & arousal
■ & asked to write personal memories
● FINDINGS:
○ Only ½ of participants reported having Flashbulb memories
■ This ½ was also closer to World Trade Center at the time of event
● Included more specific details
○ Activation of amygdala was higher when recalling memories of the terrorist attack for P.
closer to the event
■ P. further away had equal levels of response for events of preceding summer &
attack
○ Strength of amygdala activation correlated w/ FBM
■ Suggests close personal experience may be critical in engaging neural
mechanisms which produce vivid memories s.a. those of FBMT
● EVALUATION:
○ Dot not explain why someone who simply saw it on TV may claim to have a FBM
○ Correlational: does not establish a cause and effect relationship w/ memory attribution in
the amygdala
■ Post hoc ergo propter hoc
NEISSER AND HARSCH (1992)

● AIM: Investigate the reliability of FBM theory
● PROCEDURE:
○ 28 Jan. 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger incident
■ 24 hours after the accident student were investigated for their mem.
○ P. interviewed 2 ½ years later - 2nd questionnaire: P. also had to rate confidence in mem.
● FINDINGS:
○ P. v. confident in their memories
○ But 40% of P. hat distorted mem.
○ Post-event info. Could influence mem.
○ Emotional intensity associated w/ greater confidence in memories - but not accuracy
good luck!
KULKOFSKY ET AL. (2011)
EVALUATION OF FBM
● STRENGTHS
○ Biological evidence which supports the role of emotion in memory formation
■ McGAUGH & CAHILL (1995) and SHAROT (2007)
● LIMITATIONS
○ Neisser argues that it’s one level of confidence - not accuracy which defines FBM
○ Often w/ real-life research on the topic, impossible to verify accuracy of mem.
○ Research indicates that cultural diff. may show that rehearsal may play most important
role in formation
○ Not possible to measure emotional state at the time of event - making it impossible to
demonstrate a clear causal explanation
Biases in thinking and decision making

Cognitive biases: patterns of decision making/thinking that’re consistent, but inaccurate
Anchoring bias: tendency to rely too heavily on the 1st piece of information offered when making
decisions
ENGLICH AND MUSSWEILER (2001)

● AIM:
○ Experiment 1: Investigate if anchoring bias could play a significant role in determining
sentences in courtrooms
○ Experiment 2: To examine the role of experience in decision making of trial judges
● PROCEDURE:
○ Exp. 1: 44 german law students given a rape case, and given questionnaire; half told that
the prosecutor recommended 34 months, the other half told 12 months recommended
■ P. asked to indicate if sentence was too low, adequate or too high. Also asked to
indicate sentence they would personally give
○ Exp. 2: 16 trial judges with mean 15y experience, scenario and questionnaire identical to
Experiment 1
● FINDINGS:
○ Exp. 1: P. told that recommendation was 34 months sentenced average 8 months longer in
prison than P. told that 12 months was recommended
○ Exp. 2: Same as Experiment 1 - sentences were higher when anchor was higher
○ → no difference btwn experiments, meaning experience does not influence obtained
effects
■ Anchoring bias has a large effect on decision making, P. hold onto initial piece of
information to make subsequent judgements based on the given information
■ Based personal opinions on info given, using automatic system 1 thinking
● EVALUATION:
○ Lab experiment - lacks ecological validity
good luck!
○ P. may have been emotionally affected by rape case
STRACK AND MUSSWEILER (2001)

● AIM: Test influence of AB on thinking & decision making
● PROCEDURE:
○ 69 german P.
○ P. answered q. on computers - had 2 components; make comparative judgement (question
acted as anchor) and asked to make an absolute estimate for target information
■ Did Mahatma Gandhi die after the age of 9? [low anchor, implausible] Or Did
Mahatma Gandhi die before or after the age of 140? [high anchor, implausible]
along with two plausible and low and high anchors
○ Final question was how old was Mahatma Gandhi when he died?
● FINDINGS:
○ P. anchored by most recent/relevant info
○ Implausible anchor also affected info
○ Implausible low anchor had more influence than implausible high anchor (age 50.1 vs
66.7)
■ High implausible anchor could have seemed impossible instead of implausible
Peak-end Rule: people judge an experience based on how it felt as its peak and end, instead of the whole
experience
KAHNEMAN ET AL. (1993)

● AIM: Investigate the idea that P. will judge an experiment based on the peak & end of the
experience
● PROCEDURE:
○ P. had to hold their hand in painfully cold water - with the free hand, P. recorded the
strength of the pain with their fingers
○ Repeated measures - conditions: 60s, 14˚C at end, P. given a warm towel, or first 60s at
the same conditions, then 30s slightly warmer water entered the tub, raising temperature
by 1˚C
○ Had to then chose to repeat 1 or 2
● FINDINGS:
○ 80% chose condition 2 - even though 1 would be better
○ Clear example of Peak-end rule - based choice on how the condition ended
● EVALUATION:
○ Not ethical
Framing Effect: people react to choices depending of presentation, when we expect success we would
rather have a definite win, when defeat is expected we would rather have a uncertain loss
TVERSKY AND KAHNEMAN (1981)

● AIM: Test influence of positive and negative frames on decisions
● PROCEDURE:
○ 307 volunteers of self-selected students
good luck!
○ Make a decision between two options in a hypothetical scenario of the outbreak of a

violent disease
○ Condition 1: given positive frame, certain (A)(200 people will be saved) less certain
(B)(⅓ probability that 600 people will be saved, ⅔ probability that no one will be saved)
○ Condition 2: given negative frame, certain (C), less certain (D)
○ All conditions pretty much the same
● FINDINGS:
○ 1st condition, 72% A, 2nd condition, 78% D
○ Demonstrates influence of frame
○ Positive - certain option, negative - uncertain option
EVALUATION OF BIASES IN DECISION MAKING

● Difficult to measure the actual use of biases in RLS
● Not very good at explaining thinking processes - explanations are most likely rationalizations
● Studies in this chapter are mostly completed w. Western university student samples - lack
ecological validity & cross-cultural support, assumes that cognitive biases are universal
Reliability of System 1 thinking

Thin slicing: making very quick inferences about the state, characteristics or details of a individual or
situation w/ minimal amounts of information
SPAFF: specific affect coding system developed by Gottman to thin slice the way married couples
communicate
CARRERE AND GOTTMAN (1999)

● AIM: test the usefulness of the SPAFF system to predict long-term relationship success based on
thin-slicing of interactions between couples
● PROCEDURE:
○ 124 newlywed couples requited
■ Purposive sampling method: range of economic and ethnic demographics in
seattle area
○ Completed a survey separately & discussed results w/ a researcher to identify 1 or two
problematic issues in their relationship - used as a basis for a 15-minute discussion
recorded & coded using SPAFF
○ Couples checked 1 time a year for 6 years to check marriage status
○ SPAFF scored from og discussions compared for husbands & wives still married & those
divorced, results based on first 3 minutes of the discussion
● FINDINGS:
○ Results clearly show that observers using SPAFF rated communication between couples
who would divorce as more negative - more indicators of negative emotions & fewer
positive emotions
○ True for both husbands and wives - more successful applied to husbands - tendency for
men to be less emotionally honest in terms of acknowledging negative aspects of
relations
good luck!
○ Gottman’s research suggests we can learn to improve our intuitive thinking - what could
this mean in terms of relationship between S1 and S2 thinking
Emotion and decision making
DAMASIO, 1994: Somatic marker hypothesis

● suggests good decision making depends on an ability to access appropriate emotional information
linked to the situation in which the decision is made
● Ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) involved in somatic markers of emotions associated
with thoughts and memories
○ Somatic markers: feelings in the body associated with emotions
BECHARA ET AL. (1999)

● AIM: Determine the role of damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) on decision
making
● PROCEDURE:
○ Developed iowa gambling task to test SMH
○ P. saw four decks of cards on a computer screen, labelled A ,B, C & D
○ P. could click on any of four decks - everytime a deck was chosen the card’s face
appeared and P. was informed of how much money was won/lost
■ 100 trials, but not told the amount of trials
○ Test of skin conductance response given to test emotional response
○ 13 healthy P. w. vmPFC damage
○ A&B would give high rewards initially but deliver lg losses as the game progressed,
C&D deliver small initial rewards but v. small losses later - should favour these
● FINDINGS:
○ Control P. quickly learnt best strategy, but P. with vmPFC did not
○ Control developed anticipatory skin conductive responses to A&B
■ P. w/ damaged vmPFC had significantly lower SCR and no clear difference in
SCR between conditions
○ Increased emotion seems to be one way we can ‘know’ when we are making the right
decision
DE MARTINO ET AL. (2006)

● AIM: Explore the interaction of emotion in a financial decision-making topic
● PROCEDURE:
○ Volunteer sample of 20 British undergrads
○ Complete a simple financial decision-making task while brain activity was measured with
an fMRI scanner
○ Information presented in a positive or negative frame
■ Positive: you had 50€ and got to keep 20€
■ Negative: you had 50€ but lost 30€
● Outcome is the same, you didn’t have 20€ before
○ Positive frame: P. offered a chance to gamble (risky: outcome unknown) or keep 20€
good luck!
■ ‘Loss aversion’ predicts people will prefer second option

○ Negative frame: P. offered a chance to gamble or lost 30€
■ Loss aversion predicts P. will chose 1st option
● FINDINGS:
○ P. more likely to chose to gamble in negative frame condition
■ Even though condition are the same
○ fMRI demonstrated a interesting pattern of activity in the amygdala (a part of the limbic
system, regarded to be central to emotion)
■ P. recorded a significant increase in activity whenever they selected the ‘loss
averse’ option (regardless of frame used)
● EVALUATION:
○ direction of causality
■ Difficult to be sure if the emotion associated w/ increased activity in the
amygdala is guiding decision making or if it is a consequence of decision making
● Either way it’s clear that emotion & decision making are interacting
EVALUATION OF SMH:
● Most research done uses Iowa gambling task - rases Q. of how robust the theory is in explaining
decision-making behaviour
● In one version of this study (Bechara et al. (1997)) the team demonstrated that vmPFC patients
continued to select cards from from A&B even after telling researchers that they knew it was
disadvantageous
○ Indicates that it’s not solely a lack of emotional feedback leads to the patients poor
behaviour-making
● Wright and Racow (2017) computerized test, balloon analogue risk task (BART), P. presented w/
a balloon & offered chance to earn money by pumping the balloon - each pump gave greater risk
& reward
○ Found that ‘bad’ decisions did lead to increased emotional response (galvanic skin
response)
○ Did not find evidence that SMH helped to avoid bad decisions in future tasks
○ May demonstrate that decision making is improved by access to emotion which is
relevant to the specific decision
■ But what about decision making during periods of intense emotion not related to
the decision?
The Digital World
Essential understandings
1. Research on the effects of technology is relatively new and not yet highly reliable
2. Interacting with the digital environment has both positive & negative effects on our cognitive
processes
good luck!
MUELLER AND OPPENHEIMER (2014)

● AIM: To test the theory if using a laptop or other devices, instead of taking notes by hand, may
hinder learning
● PROCEDURE:
○ 109 students, mainly female, given a laptop or pen and paper - instructed to take notes on
four lectures, a video of a graduate student reading from a teleprompter
○ Told that they would be tested in one week, half of each respected group couldn’t study,
and the other group had 10 minutes before the test to study
○ Test: 40 Q., both factual and conceptual
● FINDINGS:
○ Longhand study wass best, but was very similar to the laptop no-study (25.6 vs 20.6)
● EVALUATION:
○ Research is inconclusive - could be coincidence
○ Sample could be used to taking notes in other methods, leading to inefficient note-taking
○ Lectures disconnected from the interests of undergrads
○ Rather artificial: lacks ecological validity
KRAMER ET AL. (2014)

● AIM: Test the idea that info in an individual’s facebook feed could cause emotional contagion
● PROCEDURE:
○ Collaboration w/ facebook to alter the content of the news feed - almost 700,000
facebook users
○ Used an algorithm & software to identify posts w/ positive and negative language
○ Some P. had 10%-90% of positive posts omitted, and others had the same for negative
posts
○ Control group: proportion of feed omitted at random
○ R. never viewed/altered posts manually - done by algorithms
○ Words used by P. in own posts analysed during the week of experimental manipulation -
% of positive & negative words used was recorded
● FINDINGS:
○ When positive content was omitted, P. were less likely to use positive language - and vice
versa
○ Concluded that the emotional content which we are exposed to does indeed affect our
own emotional state
● EVALUATION:
○ Ethics - reducing demand characteristics comes with a cost, lack ecological validity
○ Manipulation of facebook feeds to investigate emotional response - Kramer believed that
the significance of the research outweighs the costs of failing to provide consent
good luck!
Memory in the digital world

Positive effects of technology on cognition
ROSSER ET AL. (2007)

● AIM: Investigate whether playing videogames results in better surgery performance in
laparoscopic surgeons
● PROCEDURE:
○ Correlational study of 33 laproscopic surgeons
○ As part of their surgical training, P. participated in series of drills s.a. Lifting and moving
triangular objects by putting a needle through a loop at the top of the triangle
○ R. measured amount of mistakes made and completion times of drills, serving as an
indicator of performance during surgery
○ Playing videogames assessed in two ways;
■ self-report questionnaire used to assess videogame experience outside of res.
■ P. asked to play 3 games for 25 minutes & score obtained in the game served as
an indicator of game mastery. Games selected as they required fast reactions &
precise movements
● FINDINGS:
○ Videogame mastery highly correlated with less time and fewer errors in performing drills
○ P. who played videogames for more than three hours per week made 37% fewer errors in
surgery drills and performed surgery 27% faster than their non-playing colleagues
○ → when playing games, P. improved their motor skills and attention & subsequently able
to transfer the skills to a new situation
■ Highly specific situation, not yet known whether interacting with digital
technology has any effects on a wider domain
SANCHEZ (2012)
● AIM: Investigate how transferrable the effects of playing videogames are to wider domains (such
as science learning)
● PROCEDURE:
○ 60 university students in independent measures design experiment randomly allocated to
two groups
■ 1) Spatial training: played first-person shooter game (Halo: Combat Evolved)
■ 2) Non-spatial training: verbal game involving combining letters to form words
(Word Whomp)
○ After playing allocated game P. read complex text about plate tectonics without
illustrations, describing theoretical model of volcanic eruptions
○ After reading, P. required to write an essay
■ Independant scorers read essays & assessed extent to which it demonstrated
understanding of concepts of plate tectonics
● FINDINGS:
good luck!
○ P. who played first-person shooter game gained higher scores on the essay, showing a
better understanding of plate tectonics
○ → Reading about model of plate tectonics without illustrations requires one to encode
verbal information and translate it to spatial representations
■ Although somewhat different to what is expected from a first-person shooter, the
research demonstrates that skills acquired in the game are somewhat
generalizable to wider domains
Negative effects of technology on cognition

Google effect: the belief that people are using the internet as a personal memory bank
Transactive memory systems: system wherein data is dispersed across many different members of a
group which can then each be depended upon to supply that data when required - frequent reliance on
search engines & databases may represent a new type of TMS
SPARROW ET AL. (2011)

● AIM: Investigate idea that we would invest less effort in committing info to mem. if we believe
we can simply retrieve the info from an external memory store s.a. Google at a later date
● PROCEDURE:
○ P. asked to type 40 trivia facts into a computer, some facts expected to represent new
knowledge - some likely to already be known
○ 2x2 independent samples design - 2 IV at 2 diff. Levels
○ ½ of P. told computer would save everything, others told it would be erased
■ Within each of these groups, ½ of P. explicitly told to remember new info.
● FINDINGS:
○ Being asked to remember the info made no sig. difference in P. ability to recall facts but
was significantly different if P. believed that the info was stored
○ P. who believed that they would be able to retrieve the info appeared to make far less
effort to remember the info
● EVALUATION:
○ Cannot measure ‘level of effort’
FOLLOW UP STUDY
● AIM: Measure how well people recall where info can be found compared to the info itself
● PROCEDURE:
○ P. asked to read & type a series of trivia facts
■ After typing, P. given the name of a specific folder that the info would be stored
in
● Six folders in total, but P. not explicitly given this info or asked to recall
folder names
○ P. given 10min to write down as much of the trivia facts as possible - then given part of a
statement & asked which folder it was located in
● FINDINGS:
○ % of correct answers regarding recall of facts/info - data not significant
good luck!
○ P. more likely to recall folder than the statement itself - highest recall was for the folder
name when the fact was forgotten (30%)
■ P. prioritizing the mem. of where the info is stored, as expected - if we are using
internet as an external store in a TMS
STORM ET AL. (2016)

● AIM: Test the idea that successful use of google to retrieve info made it more likely that P. would
rely on google in the future than recalling info from individual memory stores
● PROCEDURE:
○ 60 undergrad volunteers randomly allocated to internet, memory or baseline
○ First phase of procedure:
■ Internet: told to use google to answer a series of eight difficult general knowledge
questions
■ Memory: answer the same Q.s but rely entirely on memory
■ Baseline: not asked Q.s
○ Second phase: P. asked to answer 8 easy general questions as fast as possible
■ All P. given access to google but w/o explicit instruction to use it
■ DP: proportion of Q. for which P. chose to use google in 2nd phase
● FINDINGS:
○ Results clearly suggest that using search engines to retrieve info makes us more likely to
do so (83% of internet P. used google) (less likely to use own memory)
EVALUATION
● Both studies clearly manipulate 1 or more IV & demonstrate a clear relationship between IV &
DV
○ But both rely on trivia information - does this compromise ecological validity
● Provide important information
● Research is relatively new
○ Need to be tested for reliability
○ Advisable not to draw definitive conclusions could open you up to confirmation bias
good luck!
Biological Approach
Assumptions:
1. Complex human behaviours may be reduced to biological origins
2. Behaviours can be inherited - mapping of human genome has led to assumption that will
eventually know how specific genes are related to behaviour
3. Animal research can provide insight into human behaviour - chimps are 97% genetically
analogous, mice are 99% genetically analogous to humans
The Brain and Behaviour
Essential understandings:
1. Our brain and neurochemistry - including neurotransmitters, hormones and pheromones play a
role in human behaviour
2. As brain imaging has improved, so has our ability to investigate the biological origins of human
behaviour
3. Our physiology is a dynamic system that may change though our interaction w/ the environment
Interactionist approach: uses different approaches - biological, cognitive & sociocultural - to get a
richer understanding of behaviour
Reductionist approach: studies a complex behaviour by studying the simplest, most basic mechanisms
that are believed to be responsible for the behaviour
Methodology of the biological approach

Case Studies: Often provide researchers w/ a situation they could never ethically reproduce in a lab
→ often longitudinal to observe both short-term and long-term effects of damage
Longitudinal Studies: Correlational research that involves repeated observations of the same variables
over long periods of time
→ holistic: range of effects of the damage (rather than one behaviour)
- Use triangulation: may include interviews w/ family, psychometric testing
(IQ/Personality testing), experiments and observations
- Triangulation: involves using multiple data sources, multiple researchers or
multiple research methods to reach a richer understanding of a
behaviour/cognitive process
LIMITATIONS
● Researchers do not manipulate an IV
○ No cause & effect relationship can be established
● Case studies are individual: cannot be generalized to all humans
● Cannot be replicated as it naturally occurring
● May be difficult to verify info about P. before incident
○ Info on patients IQ, problem solving skills, memory or interpersonal skills is often reliant
on memory of family
○ Not accurate measure & memory may not be accurate
STRENGTHS
● Provide important info to study effects of brain damage over time & spark new research
● Psychologists often use similar research to verify findings
good luck!
○ May perform research on animals to investigate hypothesized relationship between

damage to a specific area of the brain & behaviour
Study of HM (MILNER (1966))

● WILLIAM SCOVILLE performed experimental surgery: removed tissue from medial temporal
lobe (inc. hippocampus) on both side of HM’s brain
○ After op. HM remembered childhood well & personality was unchanged
○ HM suffered from anterograde amnesia
■ No longer able to transfer info from STM to LTM
● AIM: To study the role of the hippocampus on memory formation in a longitudinal case study
● PROCEDURE:
○ Example of method triangulation
■ Psychometric testing: 12 tests were given, and results were above average
■ Direct observation of behaviour
■ Interviews w/ HM & family members
■ Cognitive testing: memory recall & learning tasks (s.a. reverse mirror drawing)
■ MRI to determine extent of damage done (CORKIN 1997)
● FINDINGS:
○ HM could not acquire new episodic knowledge (memory of events) or new semantic
knowledge (general knowledge about the world)
■ Suggests brain structures removed important for LTM (explicit memory)
○ Was able to form a cognitive map of the spatial layout of his home
○ Had capacity for working memory, as he could hold a normal conversation
○ Procedural memories w ell maintained
■ Showed improvements on performance of new skills (s.a. Rev. mirror drawing)
○ According to MRI scan from 1997 & 2002 (CORKIN) the temporal lobe (inc.
hippocampus) had most damage: explains problem of transferral of STM to LTM
○ → Researchers conclude Hippocampus plays critical role in converting memory from
STM to LTM
● Not site of storage of STM or LTM, but plays role in organisation &
storage of permanent memory elsewhere in brain
● EVALUATION:
○ Met high ethical standards of consent, confidentiality, and protection from harm.
The Use of Technology in Brain Research

Allows R. to see localization of function - f unctions of parts of brain & how they react to behaviour
MRI
→ HM: Milner 1966; Maguire 1999; Eugene Pauly
(functional-) Magnetic resonance imaging
- Gives 3D picture of brain structure
- Used with HM to determine extent of damage
good luck!
- Uses magnetic field & radio waves to map activity of hydrogen molecules present in different
brain tissue to different degrees
- Can be viewed as slice from any angle or 3D view of the brain
ADVANTAGES
● Non-invasive process: minimal potential of harm
● High resolution: gives R. good idea of brain structure
LIMITATIONS
● Only indicates structure
○ Does not map what is actually happening
● Correlational in nature: no clear cause & effect can be established
fMRI
→ Baumgartner et al. 2008; Harris & Fiske 2006; Sharot et al. 2006
- Shows brain activity & indicates which areas of brain are active when engages in
behaviour/cognitive processes
- Measures changes in blood flaw in active brain
- Oxygen level as measurement of neural activity
- Active brain uses more oxygen & blood flow increases
ADVANTAGES
● Higher resolution than PET scans
● Easier to carry out
● non-invasive : no radio-isotope necessary
● Produces a film that demonstrates change in brain activity
LIMITATIONS
● Non-natural environment for cognition
○ Lack of ecological validity
● P. may experience anxiety due to claustrophobic nature of machine
○ Artefacts in imaging: brain activity may be related to anxiety/reaction to machine
■ Artefacts: Something observed in a scientific investigation/experience that is not
naturally present but occurs as a result of an investigative process
● Use of color may be exaggerated
○ Much of activity in brain is spontaneous & not a reaction to stimuli
■ Difficult to know exactly which areas of the brain are active in a behaviour
● For both MRI and fMRI iron objects must be removed
○ Sample size may be reduced due to metal implants
PET
Positive emission tomography
- Observe metabolic processes in brain by detecting gamma rays emitted by a traceer
- Based on the assumption that areas of high radioactivity are associated w/ brain activity
- P. given safe dose of radioactive tracer compound
- Through modified glucose molecules (FDG)
- Injected into blood & can enter brain
- More glucose needed in active areas, and thus PET detects redioactive tracer
- 30min-2hrs
good luck!
- Produced multi-colored image of where brain is most active

ADVANTAGES
● Allows participants to perform psychological tasks while brain activity is observed
LIMITATIONS
● Injection w/ small amount of radioactive material
○ Not cause harm but is an invasive practice & raises ethical concerns
● Slow & poor resolution
Localization and Plasticity

Distributive processing: several parts of the brain working together to help create & retrieve memories
Connectome: creating a map based on the neural connections in the brain
Cerebral cortex (Cerebrum): largest part of the brain, associated with higher brain functions such as
thought and action, divided into 4 sections called lobes which play a key role in behaviour
1. Frontal lobe: executive functions - planning, decision making & speech
2. Occipital lobe: visual processing
3. Parietal lobe: perception of stimuli
4. Temporal lobe: auditory processing & memory
Limbic system: (emotional brain) major focus of psychological research for it’s role in memory &
emotion
1. Amygdala: plays role in formation of emotional memory & fear responses
2. Basal ganglia: plays role in habit-forming and procedural memory
3. Hippocampus: responsible for transfer of STM to LTM
4. Hypothalamus: involved in homeostasis, emotion, thirst, hunger, circadian rhythms & control of
the autonomic nervous system. control s pituitary gland
5. Nucleus accumbens: plays role in addiction & motivation
EUGENE PAULY - LARRY SQUIRE ET AL. (1992)

● CASE STUDY
○ EP diagnosed with viral encephalitis - amygdala and hippocampus destroyed (similar
symptoms as HM)
○ Several tasks require on procedural memories
■ Make transition from involving an active frontal lobe to simply an active basal
ganglia
● When we are learning a task, it is often cognitive in nature, over time it is
no longer cognitive but becomes an associative task
○ EP could also take a walk around the block by himself - but when asked where he lived,
he didn’t know - if sidewalk was being repaired, and EP had to leave original path, EP
would get lost
■ Reverts task back to cognitive - did not have the capacity to solve the problem,
memory was only procedural - could not complete/make use of episodic
memories
○ SQUIRE ET AL. c arried out several different research methods
good luck!
■ Interviews w/ EP & family, Psychometric tests (IQ testing) and observational

studies
■ MRIs used to determine extent of damage done to EP’s brain
● Indicated that Basal ganglia was undamaged
○ Believed that Basal Ganglia is responsible for this type of
procedural memory
● EVALUATION:
○ Privacy - we know the name of the Case Study - ethical?
Brain Plasticity
Plasticity: refers to brain’s ability to alter its own structure following changes within the body or in the
external environment
Dendritic branching: dendrites of neurons grow in numbers & connect w/ other neurons when we learn
something new
ROSENZWEIG, BENNET & DIAMOND (1972)

● AIM: Illustrate dendritic branching and brain plasticity
● PROCEDURE:
○ Placed rats into one of two environments - measure effect of enrichrichment or
deprivation on development of neurons in cerebral cortex
■ Enriched environment: rats placed into cages w/ up to 11 other rats, stimulus
objects as well as maze training
■ Deprived environment: rat alone w/ no stimulation
○ Rats spent 30/60 days in respective environment & then killed to measure effect of
environment on brain structures
● FINDINGS:
○ Rats in stimulating environment had increased thickness in the cortex as a result of
increased dendritic branching compared to rats in deprived environment
○ Frontal lobe - associated w/ thinking/planning/decision making was heavier in rats in
stimulating environment
■ Combination of company & toys created best conditions for developing cerebral
thickness
● EVALUATION:
○ Raises question of importance of stimulation and education in the growth of new
synapses - seen in Maguire et al. (2000)
○ Use of sacrificing animals
■ Often sacrificed - key issue that psychology needs to address
■ Some experiments would be more ethically unacceptable when carried out on
humans
■ Studies must ensure that this degree of suffering is absolutely necessary
● Potential benefits justify procedure
● Minimum number of rats used
● Approval is obtained from Ethics committee
○ Although there are similar physiological elements to rats
good luck!
■ Significant differences such as free will

● Can’t give indications
● If psychology is studying human behaviour in its natural environment
why are we still using rats to understand human behaviour
MAGUIRE ET AL. (2000)

● AIM: See whether the brains of london taxi drivers would be somehow different as a result of
exceptional training they have to do to be certified
● PROCEDURE:
○ 16 right-handed male london taxi drivers
○ brains were MRI scanned & compared w/ MRI scans of 50 right-handed males who don’t
drive taxis (control)
○ In order to take part in study, P. had to complete ‘the knowledge’ & have licenses for at
least 1.5 years
○ Controls taken from MRI database
■ Included range of ages so that age wasn’t confounding variable
○ Study is correlational
■ IV is not manipulated, but is naturally occuring
○ R. looking to see if there was a relationship between no. of years driving a taxi &
anatomy of one’s brain
■ double-blind study - researcher did not know whether they were looking at a taxi
scan or control
● FINDINGS:
○ Posterior hippocampi of taxi drivers were significantly larger than control
■ Anterior hippocampi significantly smaller
○ Volume of right posterior hippocampi correlated w/ amount of the time spent as a taxi
driver
○ No other differences observed in other parts of the brain
○ Maguire argues that this demonstrates that the hippocampus may change in response to
environment and demands
● EVALUATION:
○ Double-blind; no researcher bias
○ Age is not a confounding variable
○ Can it be generalized to women?
Neurotransmission
Neurons: send electrochemical messages to the brain so that people can respond to stimuli
- Process is called Neurotransmission
- Electrical impulse that travels along body of neuron is called an action potential
ROGERS AND KESNER (2003)

● AIM: Investigate the role of acetylcholine on the formation and retrieval of memory
● PROCEDURE:
good luck!
○30 rats trained to learn a simple maze, but before memory was transferred into LTM, rats
put into three groups
■ G1: injected with scopolamine, intended to block the reception of acetylcholine -
a neurotransmitter - this was the the no acetylcholine condition
■ G2: injected with physostigmine, blocking cholinesterase, a drug which “cleans
up” acetylcholine from receptor proteins, allowing the acetylcholine to continue
to act. This was the high acetylcholine condition
■ G3: injected with an inert saline solution - this was the control group
○ Rats then placed back into the maze and ran multiple trials over two days, learning and
memory was measured by comparing the amount of mistakes made while completeing
the maze
○ First five and last five trials on day 1 taken as a measure of encoding, while the last five
trials one day 1 and first five trials on day 2 were taken as a measure of retrieval
● RESULTS:
○ The no-acetylcholine group showed a deficit in encoding, but not retrieval, making more
mistakes during the last five trials of day 1
○ High-acetylcholine showed no deficit in encoding - made fewer mistakes during the last
five trials on day 1 - but showed a deficit in retrieval
○ → acetylcholine plays an important role in memory encoding, however too much
acetylcholine may interfere with memory retrieval
● EVALUATION:
○ Questions about whether one can generalize results to humans as results may not be
wholly applicable
○ Effects of neurotransmitters are difficult to isolate as the alteration of a neurotransmitter
may influence changes in other neurotransmitters too
○ Results indicate that drugs such as physostigmine may be applicable in the treatment of
memory disorders
○ Rigorously controlled experiment w/ control to avoid confounding variables
○ Able to establish cause-and-effect relationtionship, but overly reductionist un
understanding of memory
■ There are several types of mem. & the process of mem. consolidation is v.
complex
ANTONOVA (2011)
● AIM: To look at the importance of acetylcholine in encoding spatial memory in humans
● PROCEDURE:
○ 20 healthy male adults partaking in double-blind study
○ P. injected with either scopolamine - antagonist which blocks acetylcholine receptor sites,
decreasing availability of acetylcholine - or a placebo 70-90 min before task
○ Participants put into fMRI while playing “arena task”
■ Virtual reality game in which goal was to navigate a map and reach a pole, P.
then had 30 seconds to rehearse path taken before being dropped at a new starting
point. Spatial memory was used to get to the pole
good luck!
■ P. trained in the game so they were familiar with rules and controls
○ After training P.’s brain activity measured for 6 trials
○ P. returned 3-4 weeks later and redid the task with the opposite treatment of their first
trials
● FINDINGS:
○ When P. were injected with scopolamine a significant reduction in the activation of the
hippocampus was demonstrated in comparison to the placebo
■ Scopolamine impairs memorisation of new information by decreasing activity
within the hippocampus
○ → acetylcholine may play a key role in the encoding of spatial memory in both rats and
humans
● EVALUATION:
○ Difference in mistakes made between groups not significant → the task at hand may not
have been the best way to show performance differences if it wasn’t for fMRI
○ Repeated measures design - no participant variability and the study was
counter-balanced, controlling for practice effect
○ Double-blind study; controls for R. bias
○ During debriefing participants recorded being stressed because of fMRI or injection of
unfamiliar drug - this could influence working of hippocampus as stress may interfere
with encoding of memory (seen with NEWCOMER ET AL. 1999 & MEANEY ET AL.
1988)
○ Small sample size - would need to be replicated to investigate the reliability of the results
Hormones
- Secreted by glands in endocrine system
- Released directly into bloodstream: take longer to produce changes in behaviour
- But effects last longer than action potential
- Can only produce reaction in target cells: have appropriate cell for hormone
- When hormone binds to the target cell it either increases or decreases function
- Some hormones ‘act as neurotransmitters’, and work in the brain by targeting receptor sites on
neurons synaptic gap even though it’s secreted by endocrine gland.
Adrenaline Secreted by adrenal glands: responsible for arousal/’fight or flight’ response.

Plays role in emotional memory formation.
Cortisol Secreted by adrenal glands: helps control blood sugar levels, regulates
metabolism. Reduces inflammation & assists memory formation.
Melatonin Secreted by pineal gland: signals relaxation & lowers body temperature, which
help with restful sleep.
Neuropeptide Y Produced by hypothalamus: acts as neurotransmitter in brain. Stimulates: food

intake, reduces anxiety & stress, reduces pain perception, affects circadian
rhythm. Higher level of NPY linked to higher levels of resilience.
good luck!
Oxytocin Produced by hypothalamus & secreted by pituitary gland: acts as a

neurotransmitter when affecting brain. Plays role in mother-child attachment,
possibly in social bonding & trust between people
Testosterone Produced by testes: plays role in aggressive behaviour → does not cause
aggression but higher levels of testosterone leads to higher levels of aggression
Adrenaline
● Fight-or-flight response (→ cannot predict individual responses to stress)
○ Hormone Cascade: hormones triggering more hormones
● Release if part of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (MPA axis)
○ When stimulus threatens us, hypothalamus responds by activating pituitarty gland → then
released hormone activating adrenal glands (on top of kidneys)
■ Both cortisol & adrenaline released into bloodstream to provide enverger
■ Adrenaline increases heart rate, blood pressure & respiration
● Chesley sullenberger (Flight 1549)
CAHILL & MCGAUGH (1995)

● AIM: Investigate role of adrenaline & amygdala on memory
● PROCEDURE:
○ P. divided into 2 groups
■ Each group saw 12 slides each accompanied with a very different story
○ 1st condition: rather boring story about a woman & her son paying a visit to the father in
a hospital where they witnessed a disaster preparation drill of a simulated accident victim
○ 2nd condition: story where boy was involved in a car accident where the feet were
severed → quickly brought to hospital where limbs were reattached. Stayed in the
hospital for weeks & returned home with his mother
○ 2 weeks after participating, P. asked to come back - memories of specific detailes were
tested
■ Recognition task consisting of series of questions about slides with 3 answers to
choose from
● FOLLOW UP STUDY
○ P. in ‘traumatic story’ condition injected with beta-blocker propranolol
■ Interferes w/ release of adrenaline→ prevent activation of amygdala to prevent
formation of emotional memory
● FINAL FINDINGS
○ Original version: P. w/ more emotionally arousing story demonstrated a better recall of
specific story details & slide details
○ Follow up: 2nd group was no better than the 1st
○ → adrenaline & activation of the amygdala play a significant role in the creation of
memory linked to emotional arousal
● EVALUATION
good luck!
○ Cause-and-effect relationship can be established as adrenaline was blocked in the

follow-up
○ Lack of ecological validity: study is artificial in nature & highly controlled
○ Easily replicated
■ Standardized procedure allows other research to test reliability
○ Demonstrates internal validity
■ Significant difference between total recall of P. in both conditions
Cortisol
Produced in the adrenals, and it affects arousal, stress hormone and memory
NEWCOMER ET AL. (1999)

● AIM: investigate how levels of cortisol interfere with verbal declarative memory
● PROCEDURE:
○ self-selected sample of 51 normal and healthy people aged 18-30
○ randomized, controlled, double-blind experiment
○ 1st condition: high level of cortisol (tablet of 160 mg per day), equivalent to cortisol
levels in the blood as a consequence of a major stressful event
○ 2nd condition: low level of cortisol (tablet of 40 mg per day), equivalent to cortisol levels
in the blood as a consequence of a minor stressful event
○ 3rd condition (control): placebo (tablet of no active ingredient)
○ P. asked to recall parts of a prose paragraph, testing their verbal declarative memory
● FINDINGS:
○ Group 1 performed worse on the declarative memory test than Group 2
○ Group 1 performed below Group 3 after day one
○ Group 2 showed no memory decrease
● EVALUATION:
○ controlled randomized experiment
■ possible to establish a cause-effect relationship between levels of cortisol and
scores on a verbal declarative memory test
○ ethical issues observed with informed consent
○ negative effect of taking high doses of cortisol was reversible
■ Caused undue harm on participants
EVALUATION
● Certain environmental factors trump neurons & hormones
● Conformity seems to be a bigger trigger to predicting behaviour than hormones/neurons
● Authority may be a stronger influence than empathy
Pheromones
● Chemical substance produced & released into environment by animals (s.a. humans)
○ Affecting behaviour/physiology of others of its species
■ Known to play a significant role in signalling between members of same species
to affect various behaviours
good luck!
● Not clear if this is true for humans

Primer pheromones: cause slow, long-term physiological changes s.a. hormonal effects
→ some evidence of primer pheromones in humans
- For all research saying there is an effect, there’s an equal number saying there are no
effects
Signalling pheromones: produce rapid behavioural effects s.a. Mating
McCLINTOCK (1971)
● AIM: Study if menstrual cycles of females in close proximity will align
● PROCEDURE:
○ 135 female residents of college dormitory
■ Questionnaires to determine onset date of menstruation among roommates &
friends
● FINDINGS:
○ Significant increase in synchronization of onset dates over time
■ Could be pheromonal response or result of other process
○ Did not take physiological data to indicate if results were due to pheromones
● EVALUATION:
○ Study done by Trevethan (1993) on 29 lesbian partners to see if cycle aligned found no
evidence of synchronicity
■ Same goes for Yang and Shrank’s (2006) s tudy on 186 chinese women living in a
dormitory
○ Argue that results were not statistically significant & therefore due to chance
DOUCET ET AL. (2009)

● AIM: Investigate the role of secretion of areolar glands in sucking behaviour of 3-day-old infants
● PROCEDURE:
○ R. administered diff. secretions to infants nasally & measured behaviour & breathing rate
○ Compared reactions to seven diff. Stimuli
■ Secretions of areolar glands, human milk, cow milk, formula milk & vanilla
● FINDINGS:
○ Infants only began sucking when exposed to the secretions of areolar glands
○ Significant increase in breathing rate
○ → stimulus of areolar odor may initiate chain of behavioural & physiological events
leading to progressive establishment of attachment btwn mother & infant
■ More research necessary to draw these conclusions
EVALUATION OF PHEROMONES (PROBLEMS WITH PHEROMONE ARGUMENTS)

● Human sense of smell is very complex
○ 400 diff. kinds of odor receptors & each has genetic variations
○ V. difficult to see how pheromones work in humans
● Body odors not caused by secretions but by bacteria that mix w/ secretions
good luck!
○ 20% of population does not have this bacteria & therefore don’t create the same scent
■ Makes a universal finding of pheromones unlikely
● Culture plays a key role in our sense of smell
○ We learn what smells bad/good
○ Potential confounding variable when trying to determine role of pheromones on
behaviour
Genetics and Behaviour

Methodology in genetic research
Human Genome Project
● 1990, world-wide initiative
● Goal was to map & sequence the human genome
○ Completed 2004
■ However, exact role of specific genes in many behaviors is still unknown
Twin studies, family studies and adoption studies
Monozygotic (MZ): genetically identical, formed from one fertilized egg that splits into two (identical
twins)
Dizygotic (DZ): develop from two diff. fertilized eggs (fraternal twins)
Concordance rate: probability that same trait will be present in both twins
- High CR for MZ compared to DZ: genetic component to the behaviour
- High CR for both: environmental factors play a large role in observed behaviour
Equal environment fallacy: assuming twins grow up in same environment
Genetic research after the Human Genome Project

Linkage analysis: matching genetic variations (polymorphisms) w/ frequency of behaviour
→ polymorphisms referred to as genetic markers
Genome-wide Association Studies: examination of a genome-wide set of genetic variations in a large
sample of individuals to see if any variant is associated with a trait
Epigenetics and depression

- Epigenetics a rgues that in order for a behaviour to occur, genes must be ‘expressed’
- Complex chemical reaction to environmental or physiological changes that allow a gene
to ‘do its job’
- Stress, exercise or diet can cause genetic expression, or the lack thereof
- Individual could have gene that leads to behaviour but if the gene is not
expressed, the behaviour won’t occur
- Concordance rate is never 100% (even in MZ twins) as environmental stressors differ
Genetic arguments for depression
- Depression (aka Major Depressive Disorder - MDD) considered the common cold of mental
health
- R. curious to know if there was a genetic predisposition
- Investigated w/ twin studies
good luck!
KENDLER ET AL. (2006)

● AIM: Replicate finding saying MDD heritability is 35-40%
○ Investigate extent to which genetic/environmental factors influence MDD
● PROCEDURE:
○ 42,000+ twins in Sweden
○ Data collected from swedish twin registry
○ Letters sent to random sample describing study
○ Trained interviewer assessed twins over phone
■ Standardised interview
● FINDINGS:
○ Concordance rate for MDD
■ MZ: FF: 0.44, MM: 0.31
■ DZ: FF: 0.16, MM: 0.11
○ MDD had moderate heritability basis
■ MZ higher than DZ
○ Difference not predicted by years lived together, freq. of contact etc.
■ Environmental factors not cause
○ No age bias in sample & showed no time era environmental factors
● EVALUATION:
○ Fact that CR is below 100% does not mean it’s not genetically inherited
→ Modern research focuses on genetic mapping

- Recent research used DNA markers to try identify gene/genes involved in depression
- Human genome project allowed us to see there are up to 11 genetic markets/variations
that correlate w/ MDD
5-HTT: Plays role in serotonin pathways that R. believe are involved in controlling mood,
emotions, aggression, sleep & anxiety
Allele: Variant form of gene
CASPI ET AL. (2003)

● AIM: Determine possible role of 5-HTT gene in depression after experience of stressful events
● PROCEDURE:
○ 897 New Zealand 26 year-olds
■ Prospective, longitudinal study
■ Members of a cohort that had been assessed for mental health on an
every-other-year basis until 21
○ Divided into groups based on 5-HTT alleles
○ G1: 2 short alleles
○ G2: 1 short, 1 long allele
○ G3: 2 long alleles
■ Mutation of 5-HTT gene has shorter alleles
good luck!
○ Asked to fill in ‘stressful life events’ questionnaire

■ Asked about frequency of 14 events, s.a. Financial, employment, health &
relationship stressors between ages of 21-26
● FINDINGS:
○ P. w/ one + short version of the allele demonstrated more symptoms t=of MDD &
suicidal ideation in response to stressful life events
■ Simply inheriting wasn’t enough to lead to depression
■ Effect strongest for those with 3+ stressful events
● Gene interacting w/ stressful life events increased likelihood of
developing depression
● EVALUATION:
○ Correlational, no cause & effect can be established
○ Assumes that serotonin causes depression
○ Info about life events was self-reported
■ May be salience of negative life events that plays role in MDD
● Those that recalled them easily may have a greater tendency towards
MDD
● More resilient P. may not recall negative life events as easily
○ Theory acknowledges interaction between biological & environmental factors in MDD
→ more holistic approach, rather than reductionist
○ Some P. did not carry gene mutation & became depressed
■ Cannot say gene expression alone causes depression
EVALUATION FOR GENETIC ARGUMENTS FOR DEPRESSION

STRENGTHS
● Twin studies shown to be highly reliable
● Modern research has allowed us to locate genetic variations using v. large sample sizes
● Modern research not reductionist: recognized interaction of biological & environmental factors in
MDD
LIMITATIONS
● Correlational: don’t & can’t establish cause & effect relationship
● Twin studies have problem w/ population validity
○ Not representative of general population & tend to be small
Population validity: type of external validity that describes how well sample can be generalized to pop
- Impossible to isolate variables & separate out role of environmental factors
- Although genetic markers identified, not clear how genetic markets interact to produce behaviour
associated w/ MDD
Evolutionary Psychology
Evolutionary arguments for behaviour
thanks to @mythic_fci#1141 for the following information on Evolutionary explanations for behaviour!
good luck!
- Theory of Evolution proposed by DARWIN (1859) suggests organisms are driven by their need to
survive & reproduce
- Organisms which are best suited for their environment survive, and pass their useful traits
on through genes, while the lesser-fitted organisms die off faster/reproduce less, and
eventually die off → Natural selection
- Organisms driven to reproduce as much as possible & ensure the greatest chances
of survival for them and their offspring; good/useful traits need to be passed on,
and mates need to be selected which ensure this → Sexual selection (subset of
natural selection)
- Various human behaviours, including mating behaviours, exhibit characteristics supporting the
Theory of Evolution
BUSS (1989)
● AIM: Investigate cross-cultural similarities in mate preferences worldwide
● PROCEDURE:
○ >10,000 people, 33 countries
○ Quasi-experimental study
○ P. given questionnaires asking them when they preferred to get married; desired age
difference between them and their significant other; desired number of children; to rate
various characteristics of a partner as desirable/undesirable such as financial stability,
physical attractiveness, chastity, etc.
● FINDINGS:
○ Consistently across all countries/cultures
■ Female P. preferred older mates with good financial prospects
■ Male P. preferred younger, more attractive mates
○ → Theory of Evolution (sexual selection) supported
■ Males valuing physical attractiveness & youth (assuming both are related to
fertility) consistent with ToE suggesting the drive of organisms to reproduce as
much as possible
■ Females valuing good financial prospects & older (assuming more
experienced/mature) consistent with ToE suggesting the drive to survive (ensure
resources & protection/care)
■ Also demonstrates (in humans) that males are driven to maximise offspring while
females are driven to maximise chances of survival
● EVALUATION:
○ R. acknowledged that sample was not fully representative; sample size varies sig. across
countries, rural/less educated P. under-represented
Major histocompatibility complex (MHC): genes which influence one’s immune system - offspring
with diverse MHC genes from parents have a strong immune system & better chances of survival
WEDEKIND (1995)
● AIM: Investigate influence of MHC genes on mate selection in females
● PROCEDURE:
good luck!
○ Quasi-experimental study, 49 females and 44 males

○ Female P. asked to report if using oral contraceptives, given nose spray to ensure nasal
health, given a book to sensitize smell perception
○ Male P. asked to wear shirt for two nights in a row, keep the shirt in a plastic bag between
nights, given scentless soap & detergent to ensure natural smell, asked not to partake in
activities which may alter their scent, i.e. smoke, drink alcohol, engage in sexual
activities etc.
○ When Female P. in second week after menstruation (when most sensitive to odor) P. were
asked to rate odor of 7 shirts on intensity, sexiness and pleasantness
■ 3 male P. with similar MHC genes, 3 with d issimilar MHC genes and 1
(unworn) control shirt
■ Shirts placed in a cardboard box → double blind study
● FINDINGS:
○ Female P. not on oral contraceptives rated dissimilar MHC higher on pleasantness, vice
versa for P. on oral contraceptives
○ Odors of MHC-dissimilar men reminded females of current/former mates
○ → MHC diversity seems to influence mate selection supporting ToE (inc. survival)
■ As oral contraceptives imitate steroids naturally released during pregnancy, P.
may prefer partners who can help them take care of the children
● EVALUATION:
○ Highly replicable
○ Attractiveness =/= mate selection: other factors also play a role - arguably too
reductionist, ignoring cognitive and sociocultural factors
EVALUATION OF EVOLUTIONARY ARGUMENTS

● Neither study demonstrates the ToE in action, only support the effects of evolution
● Impossible/very difficult to observe evolution in action → animal models could possibly be used
in future research
● Evolutionary theories based on assumption that behaviors are inherited
○ Difficult to know extent to which behaviors are genetically inherited
● May be difficult to empirically test some evolution-based theories
○ R. may be susceptible to confirmation bias
● Much of research testing evolutionary theories highly artificial & lack ecological validity
● Little known about early behaviour → statements about humans ‘used to be’ are hypothetical
● Evolutionary arguments often underestimate role of cultural influences in shaping behaviour
Ethical Considerations
● If misused, genetic info can be stigmatizing & can affect people’s ability to get jobs/insurance
● In any study P. should know their privacy and confidentiality is protected
○ Along with genetic info/material obtained in study
● Aim & procedure should explained in a language that P. can explain
○ Sign an informed consent paper showing they have a clear understanding of the study
they’re participating in & implications thereof
good luck!
● Confidentiality & privacy can be protected by:

○ Coding information
○ Anonymizing the sample
■ Can limit scientific value of study by preventing follow-up opportunities and
further investigation
● Information revealed by genetic research can cause undue stress/harm in P.
○ S.a. misattributed paternity.unrevealed adoptions
● Genetic testing could lead to self-fulfilling prophecies
Self-fulfilling prophecy: when a person unknowingly causes a prediction to come true, due to the fact
that they expect it to come true
● Genetic determinism i s an ethical concern in genetic testing
○ Important that their P. understand that their genetic makeup is not their ‘destiny’
■ Possible that w/ effective counselling after test results are available that ppl will
understand that they aren’t passive victims to their genetic code
● Can take specific actions, s.a. Stress reduction, exercise & diet changes
to prevent development of said disorders
Animal Research
Essential Understandings:
1. Animal models are used to gain insights into human psychology & behaviour
2. There are concerns when generalizing research findings from animal models to people
3. There are ethical concerns about the use of animal in biopsychological research
● 29 mil. animals used annually in experiments in the EU and US

○ Rats and mice 80% of total → we are 99% similar in genetic terms
● # of animals in experiments have halved in the past 30 years
Advantages of Animal Research

● Humans and animals are somewhat biologically and genetically identical
○ Some aspects can be generalized to humans
● Studies w/ animal research produced useful results
○ drugs & antibiotics discovered in animal research
● Lifespan significantly shorter
○ Effects of a variable (i.e. stress) can be studies over lifetime & several generations
○ Studied under controlled conditions which is impossible for people
● Control of confounding variables
○ Eg. “Knockout” technique allows R. to switch off genes in DNA sequence
● Animal subjects are easily accessible, easy to handle & manage
● Research procedures may be unethical on humans
○ Isolation and invasive procedures (surgery)
Disadvantages of Animal Research
● Even if we’re biologically similar, they can be psychologically different
○ When looking at animal models of depression, not possible to measure human symptoms
good luck!
■ Psychologists argue they can study animals w/ specific endophenotype related to

certain behaviours associated w/ MDD
● Endophenotype: the measurable biological, behavioural or cognitive
markers that are found more often in individual organisms w/ a disease
than in general pop.
○ Animal models help us understand biochemical & genetic factors that may lead to
MDD/other disorders
● Current techniques for examining human brain still not able to study neural systems in way that
animal models allow
○ Brain lesions in case studies often damage other parts of the brain
■ Not as accurate
○ The brain may have changed structure to accommodate lesions due to the plastic nature
of the brain
● Ethical issues
● External validity: extent to which results of study are generalizable to other situations, or in the
case of animal models, to people
○ Drug therapies → we still need to replicate studies with humans to ensure generalizability
■ Questionable if it’s due to lack of predictability or ecological validity
○ Highly controlled environments; issues with ecological validity - animals may behave
differently in natural habitat
● Theoretical generalization: when findings of study contribute to development of further theories
○ Animal models alone can’t be generalized to humans, many studies that are successful in
animals fail to achieve same results with humans
■ Important that R. find evidence in humans that can be explained through animal
models
● Animal research may lead to inferences about human behaviour
○ Quality of data: animals can’t communicate responses
■ Can only be observed
● We can’t know cognitive processes
■ Research open to researcher bias
Methods of Animal Research

The value of animals in the study of the brain and behaviour
● Experiments used to study behaviour
○ Animal experimentation often invasive - injecting drug, removing part of brain or causing
permanent harm w/ goal of establishing a cause and effect relationship
ROSENZWEIG, BENNET & DIAMOND (1972)
ROGERS AND KESNER (2003)
HETHERINGTON AND RANSON (1942)

● AIM: to see the role of the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) on eating behaviour
● PROCEDURE:
good luck!
○ Lesioned VMH
● FINDINGS:
○ Rats increased food intake dramatically & often doubled their weight
○ →assumed that the hypothalamus acts as a break on eating
● EVALUATION:
○ Lesioning can be imprecise
■ Actual part responsible for overrating may not be the VMH
○ Invasive surgery performed on the brain
BRADY (1958)
● AIM: Study effect of stress on business executives
● PROCEDURE:
○ Monkeys allocated one of two conditions
■ ‘Executive monkey’ or ‘yoked monkey’
○ Both monkeys would receive electric shock every 20s for 6hrs at a time over a period of
three weeks
■ Exec. monkeys could pull a lever to stop shocks, while yoked monkeys could not
& were restrained in a the cage
● FINDINGS:
○ Executive monkeys developed ulcers & eventually died
○ Yoked monkeys shows no negative health effects
○ → high levels of stomach acid as a result of stress led to ulcers & eventual death of
animal
● EVALUATION:
○ Highly criticized
○ Monkeys not randomly chosen
■ Monkey that learned to pull lever faster given ‘executive’ position
○ Highly unethical
○ Lacks external validity
■ Assumes being in charge is more stressful than not being in control of one’s
environment
● Research in psychology shows that people lower in social hierarchy who
don’t get to make decisions tend to have higher levels of heart disease &
other health problems
WARREN & MARSHALL (1983) found that humans develop ulcers from bacteria
good luck!
● Stress lowers one’s immune system

○ Increase in lvl of bacteria in stomach - eat through stomach lining - leads to ulcers
■ Regardless of stress, if you don’t have bacteria, you won’t develop ulcers
The value of animals in the study of Hormones
SAPOLSKY (1978)
● AIM: Determine correlation between the level of stress & hierarchy in baboons
● PROCEDURE:
○ (quantitative) correlational studies
○ Dart guns to obtain blood samples from higher-ranking & lower-ranking baboons
○ Looked for lvl of hormones s.a. Glucocorticoids & adrenaline in blood system
○ Observed for 25 years in natural habitat (western kenya)
● FINDINGS:
○ Showed long-term effects of adrenaline & cortisol
○ Long-term exposure to stress (being at bottom of hierarchy) led to higher lvls of
glucocorticoids (i.e. cortisol)
■ Resulting in higher levels of heart disease, lower fertility rates & lower life
expectancy
■ Increase in cortisol indicated by stress
● EVALUATION:
○ Naturalistic: ecologically valid
○ Animals not manipulated: ethical
■ Helped R. study the role of stress on human health w/o harm
MEANEY ET AL. (1988)

● AIM: Determine the effect of glucocorticoids on memory
● PROCEDURE:
○ Independent samples design, rats allocated to one of two conditions
■ Treatment group: stayed with mothers and brushed by researchers to stimulate
grooming for the first three weeks of life
■ Control group: taken away from mothers but not handled
○ To measure the effect of stress, two year old rats then placed into milky water & R.
tracked route taken to the platform in the water based on the rat’s previous attempts of
escaping the water
● FINDINGS:
○ High levels of glucocorticoids in rat’s early life accelerated hippocampal neuron loss &
cognitive impairments in aging
■ Groomed rats took a rather straightforward route to platform, while ungroomed
rats took a circuitous route
○ Pronounced spatial memory deficits emerged in ungroomed rats with age, as long-term
exposure to cortisol (a glucocorticoid) leads to hippocampal cell death, leading to lower
levels of acetylcholine - needed to encode memory, as seen with Rogers and Kesner
(2003)
good luck!
● EVALUATION:
○ Questionable to what extent we can generalize these findings to humans, but research has
shown a link between lower levels of acetylcholine & high levels of glucocorticoids in
alzheimers patients
○ Stimulated further research
○ Provides a cause-and-effect relationship, but process was not explained
■ Epigenetics caused hippocampal cell loss - not understood by Meaney when
doing the res.
Ethics in Animal research

See: Animal Research
Animal Research in genetics

The value of animals in the study of genetics
Selective breeding experiments: when animals are bred w/ goal of producing specific phenotype
- Often uses transgenic mice: mice that have a single gene which can be changed or removed
- AKA ‘knockout mice’
CASES ET AL. (1995)

● AIM: Investigate genetic origins of aggression
● PROCEDURE:
good luck!
○ Used transgenic mice where the gene that regulates production of monoamine oxidase A
(MAOA) enzyme that breaks down serotonin & norepinephrine was ‘knocked out’
● FINDINGS:
○ High levels of serotonin & norepinephrine found in offspring
■ High levels of aggression in male pups found
○ → confirmed by CASPI ET AL. (2002)
● EVALUATION
○ Mice were laboratory-bred to obtain necessary gene
■ Invasive
■ Such studies must be carefully justified & approved by ethics committee
CASPI ET AL. (2002)

● AIM: see if not only gene had effect on aggression in children as they developed
○ Whether environmental stressors may interact w/ gene to determine behaviour
○ Interested in gene-environment interaction and which is important to epigenetics
● PROCEDURES:
○ 26-year study of 1037 children (442 boys)
■ Born Dunedin NZ
○ Looked at genotype of boys (particularly gene that controls production of MAOA)
● FINDINGS:
○ By age 11, 36% of children had been maltreated
■ Rejection by mother, physical and/or sexual abuse
○ If abused boy had version of MAOA gene which resulted in lower levels of enzyme
production, more likely to bully others & engage in aggressive, anti-social behaviour
○ As adults, 85% of severely maltreated children who also had gene for low MAOA
activity developed anti-social outcomes
■ s.a. violent criminal behaviour
■ Boys who were abused which didn’t have gene did not show any more
aggression than boys who weren’t abused
○ → supports theory of genetic influence in aggressive behaviour
good luck!
Option Topics
Abnormal Psychology: Etiologies of [depressive] disorders
Essential Understandings:
1. Biological, cognitive and sociocultural factors play a role in the origin of psychological disorders
2. The prevalence rates of disorders are not universal and may change over time
WHO estimates around 350mil. people are affected by MDD
Symptomatology: common behaviour & psychological signs of mental illness
Aetiology: to find out why people suffer from a disorder
- Much more difficult to establish for psychological disorders than illnesses
- Not possible to establish a clear cause
Prevalence: estimated proportion of people in particular population that have a specific behaviour
Lifetime prevalence: proportion of people that at same point in their life experience a disorder
- Statistic does not give whole picture & previous research isn’t stable
Depressive Disorders:
● May be association between stress & depression but not all people exposed to high stress develop
a depressive disorder
○ Caused by a combination of factors
■ I.e. genetic vulnerability, neurotransmitter malfunctioning, psychological
problems or life events/lifestyle
● HALSER (2010) suggests that depression is a complex disorder that involves an interaction of a
number of factors
○ Why diff. People have diff. Symptoms of a disorder & not everyone exhibits symptoms
to same extent
Symptoms of MDD (ABC’S)
● A - Affective symptoms: guilt/sadness, lack of enjoyment/pleasure in familiar activities/company
● B - Behavioural symptoms: passivity; lack of initiative
● C - Cognitive symptoms: frequent negative thoughts; low self-esteem; suicidal thoughts;
irrational hopelessness; difficulty in concentration & inability to make decisions
● S - Somatic symptoms: loss of energy; insomnia/hypersomnia; weight loss/gain; diminished
libido
Biological approach to depression

Genetic Factors
KENDLER ET AL. (2006)

→ support for hypothesis that genetic factors might predispose ppl to MDD
- Concordance rate for MZ twins far below 1: indicates MDD may be result of genetic
predisposition - genetic vulnerability
- Doesn’t contradict argument that MDD is genetically inherited
Role of onset of MDD in children
→ not a single gene resulting in MDD but rather several genes acting together
good luck!
CASPI ET AL. (2003)
CAI ET AL. (2015)

● AIM: Establish whether telomere length & mtDNA represent markers of stress-related illnesses
● PROCEDURE:
○ Researchers analysed DNA sequenced from 5303 chinese women w/ MDD & 5337
controls
● FINDINGS:
○ In this GWAS R. found genetic sequences that seemed to be linked to depression
■ One of the sequenced was mitochondria )important for energy-producing
cell-structures)
○ Correlations confirmed in study of over 3000 men & women w/ MDD & 3000 controls
● EVALUATION:
○ This research allows us to understand role of genetics more precisely & consider how this
information may assist in treatment
EVALUATION FOR THE GENETIC ARGUMENTS OF MDD

STRENGTHS
● Twin studies have been highly reliable in their results
● Modern research has allowed us to actually locate genetic variations using very large sample sizes
● Modern research recognized interaction of environment & biological factors & doesn’t use a
solely reductionist approach
LIMITATIONS
● Correlational studies don’t establish a cause & effect relationship
● Twin studies have the problem of population validity - twin samples don’t necessarily represent
general population
● Impossible to isolate variables & social factors in twin studies
● Genetic arguments don’t account for the variations in symptomatology in different cultures
● Not clear yet how genetic markers interact
● Ethical considerations; self-fulfilling prophecies
Role of Serotonin and Cortisol in MDD

●Difficult to know whether low levels of certain neurotransmitters are the case of disorder or the
symptoms of the disorder
○ Bidirectional ambiguity
SEROTONIN HYPOTHESIS (1990)
● Reduce in serotonin leads to increased predispositions to MDD
○ Lower levels of serotonin linked to mood swings, worrying, insomnia & sadness
○ CASPI’S RESEARCH on genetic origins of MDD demonstrates potential link to
serotonin - genes studied linked/responsible for serotonin transmissions
● Yet: antidepressants based on regulation of serotonin lvls (SSRI) commonly prescribed
○ Nearly half of patients fail to respond to available medications
good luck!
NEUROGENESIS THEORY OF MDD

● Depression result of cessation on neuron birth in hippocampus as well as in other neural networks
related to serotonin, dopamine & norepinephrine (cortisol seems to be main reason of the lack of
neurogenesis)
○ Patients with MDD display HPA-axis hyperactivity
■ results in over-secretion of cortisol, leading to reduced serotonin and other
neurotransmitters including dopamine (linked to depression)
Evidence for Neurogenesis theory
1. Depressed patients seem to have smaller hippocampi than general population
a. Hippocampi smaller during periods of depression
2. Glucocorticoids (stress hormones) elevated in depression & appear to inhibit neurogenesis in
hippocampus of rodents/non-human primates
3. Chronic administration of antidepressants increase neurogenesis in hippocampi of rodents
MALBERG ET AL. (2000)

● AIM: Investigate effect of antidepressants on hippocampal neurogenesis in adult rats
● PROCEDURE:
○ Injected antidepressants into rats
■ Including monoamine oxidase & and SSRI (regulation of serotonin levels)
○ Some rats received electroconvulsive shock
○ All of these methods were successful in treatment of MDD patients in past
● FINDINGS:
○ All treatments increase neurogenesis in hippocampus
■ Proposed that this increase is a mechanism to fight MDD
● EVALUATION:
○ Not a lot of research that this is the case in humans
○ Invasive
VIDEBECH AND RAVNKILDE (2004)

● AIM: To investigate the relationship between small hippocampi in patients w/ depression
● PROCEDURE:
○ Performed meta-analysis of 12 studies using brain scans to compare hippocampal volume
in patients w/ diagnosed MDD (351) & controls (279)
● FINDINGS:
○ 10% reduction of hippocampus in brains of depressed patients
○ Shrinking of hippocampus significantly correlated in number of depressive episodes
○ → hippocampal reduction could explain common symptom of memory problems in
MDD patients
● EVALUATION:
○ Cross-sectional and data correlational
■ Can’t assume small hippocampi is result of lack of neurogenesis & reason for
MDD
good luck!
○ Researchers argue we don’t know whether MDD causes shrinkage or small hippocampi
more vulnerable to MDD
■ Promising study/theory that needs longitudinal studies before anything can be
concluded
EVALUATION OF BIOCHEMICAL
STRENGTHS
● Several longitudinal & case studies/animal research supporting theories
● Practical application of theories lead to successful drug treatments
LIMITATIONS
● Correlational research: causation can’t be established & bidirectional ambiguity can’t be resolved
● Treatment aetiology fallacy: mistaken notion that success of a given treatment reveals cause of
disorder
● Biological explanations cannot explain range of symptoms associated with MDD → maybe
cultural & cognitive factors
Cognitive approach to depression

Role of Schema in depression
● Aim to explain why some people more vulnerable to MDD when confronted with negative events
while others only suffer mild short-term stress
○ Interpretation people give their life experiences influences vulnerability
○ Depressed cognition, cognitive distortions & irrational beliefs produce disturbances to
mood characteristics to depression
Aaron Beck: depression is rooted in a person’s ‘automatic thoughts’: negative self-schemas organized
around themes of failure, inadequacy, loss & worthlessness
→ thoughts triggered by particular stimuli leading to emotional responses
- Potential vulnerabilities for onset of MDD
BECK’S THEORY OF DEPRESSION
1. Negative cognitive triad: depressed patients have negative views of self, world & future
2. Negative schema triggered by negative life events (dysfunctional beliefs)
3. Engage in cognitive biases - ‘irrational thinking’
Schemas characteristic to MDD patients
● Ineptness schema: I always fail
● Self-blame schemas: i t’s my fault for anything that doesn’t work out
● Negative self-evaluation schema: I’m worthless
BECK’S SIX TYPES OF FAULTY THINKING
Arbitrary inference Drawing conclusions based on lifetime evidence
Dichotomous thinking An all-or-nothing approach to viewing the world
Exaggeration AKA magnification: overestimating significance of negative events

good luck!
Overgeneralization Applying a single incident to all similar incidents
Personalization Assuming that other’s behaviour is done w/ intention to hurt/humiliate you
Selective abstraction Drawing conclusions by focusing on a single part of a whole
ALLOY ET AL. (1999)

● AIM: Investigate if one’s thinking patterns could be used to predict onset of MDD
● PROCEDURE:
○ 6 year longitudinal study - quasi-experimental
○ Followed randomly selected sample of american 1st year college students
○ Prospective study: thinking style tested at beginning of study
■ Placed in ‘positive cog. group’ (low risk) or ‘negative cog. group’ (high risk)
based on tests such as cognitive style questionnaire
○ Followed up on P. through self-reports & structured interviews
● FINDINGS:
○ Only 1% of positive cognitive group developed depression
■ 17% in negative cognitive group
○ → may be link between negative cognitive style & development of MDD
● EVALUATION:
○ Only 17%: lacks significance
○ Hard to accurately define positive & negative thinking (it’s subjective)
JOINER ET AL. (1996)

● AIM: Provide evidence for assumption that negative thinking can predispose to MDD
● PROCEDURE:
○ Questionnaire to 205 university students before mid-term exams
○ Quasi-experiment
● FINDINGS:
○ P. w/ negative thoughts before exam & did badly showed increase in depressive
symptoms
■ Those that did well didn’t
○ → patterns of cognition alone not enough to lead to MDD, must also be in response to
environmental stimuli
● EVALUATION:
○ Not clear if depression causes negative thinking or vice versa
■ If negative cognitive style causes MDD the replacing of negative cognitions with
positive cognitions could improve patients condition
● What CBT (cognitive behavioural therapy) tries to do
EVALUATION - COGNITIVE
STRENGTHS
● Longitudinal, prospective studies used to support role of cognitive factors in MDD
good luck!
● Practical application of theories has led to treatment which have improved some people’s lives
LIMITATIONS
● Correlational research means no cause and effect relationship can be determined
○ Bidirectional ambiguity can’t be resolved → what does what?
● Treatment Aetiology fallacy: mistaken notion that success of a treatment reveals cause of
disorder
Sociocultural approach to MDD

Focus on factors in environment that increase/decrease risk of MDD
1. Stressors in environment
2. Resources available for coping with stressors
3. Cultural explanations for disorders & attitudes towards those that have them
→ more holistic than other approaches
BROWN AND HARRIS (1978)

● AIM: Determine the role of environmental factors in the onset of depression in women
● PROCEDURE:
○ Surveyed 458 women in London about biographical information & difficulties they faced
● FINDINGS:
○ 8% of P. had become clinically depressed in last year; nearly 90% of these had
experienced an adverse life event (loss of a loved one) or serious difficulty (abusive
relationships)
■ Only 30% of women who didn’t become depressed suffered said life events
○ Social class played significant role in development of depression in women with children
■ Working class women w/ children 4x more likely to develop depression than
middle class women w/ children
○ → Higher prevalence of depression in lower social class
Brown and Harris (1978) developed Vulnerability model of depression based on number of factors which
would increase the likelihood of depression
1. Protective factors: decrease likelihood of depression - particularly in combination with stressful
life events
2. Vulnerability factors: increase the risk of depression - particularly in combination with stressful
life events. Most significant are: 1) Loss of one’s mother before age 11, 2) Lack of a confiding
relationship, 3) More than three children under the age of 14 at home, 4) unemployment
3. Provoking agents: acute & ongoing stress
Cultural models of depression

● Affective symptoms are typical of individualistic cultures (people encouraged to ‘express
themselves’) but may be less typical of collectivistic cultures
○ Can’t look for western set of symptoms in non-western countries with western designed
tests
○ May be that symptoms aren’t different but what patients report is different in other
cultures
good luck!
PARKER, CHEAH & ROY (2001)

●AIM: Identify a set of somatic proxies of depression to assIist detection of MDD
●PROCEDURE:
○ Studied two sets of depressed out-patients living in home countries
■ Malaysian chinese & australian caucasian
○ Asked what their primary symptom was which led them to seek medical help
■ Complete survey of both physiological & cognitive symptoms of MDD
● Rank each symptom with regard to intensity & distress
● FINDINGS:
○ 60% of chinese & 13% of australians identified somatic reason for seeking help
■ Australians more likely to identify mood/cognitive difficulties
○ No significant difference in number of somatic symptoms between groups when
identifying inventory of symptoms
■ Chinese reported lower level of cognitive symptoms
KIRMAYER (2001)
● Cultures have ‘explanatory models’ for disorders
○ Cultures create socially acceptable sets of symptoms for mental disorders
○ Because cultures evolve (esp. with globalization) explanatory models may change
■ Change in explanatory models may account for ‘rise’ of disorder in a culture
● Japan: MDD was not seen as a ‘disorder’ but as rather sadness seen as a way of tightening one’s
bonds w/ family & community
○ Sadness, grief & melancholy were seen as parts of life
○ → as japan is westernized: western symptoms more common
EVALUATION - SOCIOCULTURAL
STRENGTHS
● Sociocultural approaches explain gender & cultural differences in prevalence & symptomology of
MDD
LIMITATIONS
● Cultural theories descriptive in nature & don’t adequately explain origin of disorder
`````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````swa``````
````````````````````````````````````````` - mogli
Human Relationships
Social Responsibility
Glossary
Altruism: a willingness to do things for others, even if it is a disadvantage for yourself
Prosocial behaviour: any behaviour that benefits another person/group or has positive social
consequences
Bystanderism: choosing not to help/intervene
good luck!
→ Diffusion of responsibility: when there are many people witnessing an incident, individuals
will reason that others should act first
→ Informational social influence: when in a group, individuals look to know how to react
→ Pluralistic ignorance: if no one else reactions, the the individual won’t react either
Essential understandings:
1. Biological, cognitive & social factors all play a role in our choice to help people
2. Psychological theory can be applied to increase the likelihood of prosocial behaviour
Origins of Prosocial Behaviour

Biological explanations
→ Biological altruism: based on evolutionary explanations
→ Psychological altruism: based on cognitive psychology
HAMILTON 1964 - KIN SELECTION THEORY

● Organisms try to maximise the survival of their genes; as relatives have similar genotypes,
altruism is justified
● Predictions:
○ Relatives will be the target of altruistic beh. more often than non-relatives, and the more
closely related they are the more likely they will be helped
○ Younger relatives are more likely to be helped compared to older kin as there are greater
chances of producing offspring, and healthy kin are more likely to be helped for the same
reason
● Limitations:
○ Theory relies on assumption that both humans & animals are able to identify kin from
strangers
○ Helping occurs between strangers yet the theory doesn’t explain this
○ Competition between kin cannot be explained by the theory
MADSEN ET AL. (2007)

● AIM: Investigate influence of kin selection on human altruism
● PROCEDURE:
○ Repeated measures design Experiment conducted in both the UK and South African Zulu
○ P. asked to provide a list of individuals of varied genetic relatedness (s.a. Parents, siblings
or cousins)
○ Then asked to adopt a painful position for as long as possible - for each 20 seconds the
position was held, a small amount of money was donated to said family member for
british participants, or food hampers of the same value for Zulu participants
○ 5 trials with 15 minute breaks, position held for;
■ Themselves
■ Parents or Siblings
■ Grandparents, uncle, aunt, niece, nephew
■ Cousin
good luck!
■ Local charity organisation

● FINDINGS:
○ Generally, amount of time spent in the position increased with the coefficient of genetic
relatedness
○ The effect of kinship was transcultural
○ → provides experimental evidence that kinship plays a role in altruistic behavior
■ Not to say that kinship is the only, or leading factor in determining altruism but
does play a role
● EVALUATION:
○ Made sure that P. did not live together w/ recipients to avoid confounding variable
○ Cross-cultural differences usually aren’t compatible w/ evolutionary explanations of beh.
however if the beh. evolved in humans there should be no - or few - cultural differences
○ Could be considered unethical as participants had to endure physical pain - but could
choose when to stop, and pain would not likely cause prolonged harm or distress
DAWKINS (1976): SELFISH GENE THEORY

● There is an innate drive for survival & propagations of one’s own genes
○ Organisms will try to maximise inclusive fitness: number of copies of its genes passed on
globally, not necessarily by a particular indiv.
● Research based on anecdotal data
○ Asking someone: “what were you thinking” can lead to mem. distortion & demand
characteristics
WARNEKEN ET AL (2007)
● AIM: Test if there was a difference in altruistic beh. in 18 chimps born in the wild & 22
18-month-old human infants
● PROCEDURE:
○ Independent samples design
○ Chimp condition 1: R. reach for a stick too high to reach
○ Chimp condition 2: stick too high to reach so R. stared
■ Chimps had to climb 2.5m in both conditions
○ Baby condition 1: R. dropped pen, would reach for it
○ Baby condition 2: R. dropped pen & wouldn’t reach for it
■ Baby had to cross small obstacle
○ No rewards: beh. could be considered altruistic
● FINDINGS:
○ On average, chimps & children helped more than 50% of the times
■ Chimps took longer to understand situation but helped w/ same frequency
○ → clear evidence that there may be an evolutionary root to altruistic behaviour
● EVALUATION:
○ Not a random sample
■ Had done similar exp. to select P. that had helped in previous experiment where
behaviour wasn’t altruistic
good luck!
● Having received rewards in the past may influence beh. of P. in the study
○ Not possible to test theory that altruistic beh. was naturally selected in humans over time
○ Evolutionary theory rooted in genetic arguments: no evidence of a gene/combination of
genes responsible for helping beh.
○ Too reductionist to explain complexity of human beh.
■ Human beh. more likely to be influenced by culture
Cognitive & sociocultural factors
EMPATHY-ALTRUISM MODEL
TOI & BATSON (1982): ppl can experience two types of emotion when they see someone suffering
→ personal distress (anxiety & fear) - egoistic helping
→ empathetic concern (sympathy & compassion) - altruistic behaviour
TOI & BATSON (1982)

● AIM: See if manipulation of the P. lvl of empathy would influence likelihood of helping
● PROCEDURE:
○ 84 female introductory psych students
○ P. randomly assigned to conditions
■ Low empathy: listen carefully to info presented in interview: predicted egoistical
■ High empathy: imagine how the person interviewed felt about the situation:
predicted empathetic
○ R. predicticted lvl of helping would be lower if escape was easy
○ Interview about fellow student who had broken both legs & spent a month in hospital
■ Might have to drop out of class, putting her 1 year behind schedule
○ After listening to recording P. asked to complete questionnaire abt emotional response to
interview
■ Unexpectedly given change to help students by volunteering to go over their
notes w/ her
○ P. also given chance to escape this responsibility
■ Manipulating whether P. would see the student in the future
● Easy escape: student would study at home (P. wouldn’t see her) but
transport could be arranged
● Difficult escape: P. were in same discussion grp & would see the student
○ Reminder that P. didn’t help
● FINDINGS:
○ Low-empathy condition: reported less empathetic emotion than high-empathy condition
■ Low empathy also helped less w/ easy escape than w/ difficult escape
○ → Motivation of these P. was to reduce their own stress (egoistical helping)
○ High empathy: high rates of helping even with easy escape
■ Empathy-altruism model supported
○ → Motivation most likely to red. Stress of the student (altruistic motive)
● EVALUATION:
○ Findings replicated: reliable
○ Short-term altruism in a rather artificial experiment
good luck!
■ Not taken personality factors into consideration
BARTAL, DECETY & MASON

● AIM: See if rats would actively help another rat in distress
● PROCEDURE:
○ Rat placed into a box w/ other rat trapped in a plexiglass “restrainer”
○ Spent time trying to free other rat
■ After several attempts rat learnt how to open door to restrainer
○ Beh. observed when inanimate/nothing was in restrainer
● FINDINGS:
○ When rat was freed, other rat would lick it & follow it around the cage
○ Inanimate object/nothing: rat didn’t pay attention to restrainer & didn’t open door
○ → helping beh. Based on empathy & may have biological roots
● EVALUATION:
○ Difficult to argue what we see is empathy
→ not clear why we don’t expect a predictable lvl of empathy in a given situation
Factors Influencing bystanderism

1964: Kitty Genovese stabbed to death while bystanders could hear her but did not take any action
→ Bystanderism: other people might help instead (presence of others has significant
effect on helping)
○ Diffusion of responsibility
DARLEY AND LATANE (1968)

● AIM: To show that more bystanders present in a sit. decreases chances of P. helping
● PROCEDURE:
○ Told student P. that they would be interviewed abt personal problems faced by students
arriving at uni
○ Preserve anonymity: interviewed through intercom
■ Told there were 5/2/1 other students partaking in study
○ Comments from other ‘P.’ pre-recorded
■ At one point, other ‘P.’ cries for help & choking sounds heard (epileptic seizure)
● FINDINGS:
○ 1 other ‘P.’: 85% helped
○ 2 other ‘P.’: 65%
○ 5 other ‘P.’: 31%
○ Social influence: Humans influenced by the actions of others, and look at others for
information on how to behave
■ In this case, it’s informational social influence
● Pluralistic ignorance: when someone chooses not to react in what could
be an emergency situation, just because others choose not to react.
○ → believing someone else will intervene lowers probability of P. taking responsibility
● EVALUATION:
good luck!
○ Ecological validity
○ Sample affects study
○ Ethical concerns
AROUSAL-COST-REWARD MODEL (1969)

● Arousal is a motivational factor: unpleasant & bystander wants to reduce it
● before helping, indiv. assesses costs & rewards of helping/not helping
● Linked to basic assumptions that prosocial beh. motivated by cognitions & emotions
PILIAVIN ET AL. (1969)

● AIM: Study how various situational factors may influence prosocial beh.
● PROCEDURE:
○ Opportunity sample of subway travellers, field experiment
○ Observed either:
■ Man with cane who appeared ill
■ Drunk man
● Both fell on floor 70s after departure
■ Both were 25-35 years old, acted & dressed identically
○ IV: drunk/ill victim & size of group
○ DP: freq. Of helper, gender of helper, movement away from victim & verbal comments
(qualitative & quantitative data)
○ 103 trials: 38 w/ the drunk
● FINDINGS:
○ 78% of times P. helped spontaneously (95% w/ cane, 50% of time w/ drunk)
○ 60% of times more than 1 P. helped
○ Med time to help:
■ Cane: 5s
■ Drunk: 109s
● Longer to consider costs & benefits w/ drunk
○ 90% helpers male (more men present but this was statistically significant)
○ Larger group: quicker help (no diffusion of responsibility)
● EVALUATION:
○ High ecological validity → lots of detailed data (field exp.), but less control than lab exp.
○ Although highly standardised, questionable how DV was measured accurately
○ Ethical concerns; consent + debriefing & right to withdraw
○ Women may not have helped as much as they were more insecure/afraid in the situation
Cross-cultural research
- Culture plays a role in likelihood of helping
WHITING & WHITING (1975)

● AIM: compare prosocial behavior across 6 different cultures based on child-raising practices of
each culture studied
● PROCEDURE:
good luck!
○ Naturalistic observation of children aged 3-11

■ USA, Mexico, India, Japan, Philippines & Kenya
○ Observed daily w/ emphasis on how P. interacted w/ others
● FINDINGS:
○ Definite difference: countries w/ high lvls of prosocial behaviour were those where
extended family lived in the same house
■ Children more likely to partake in chores or had responsibilities
■ Difference in prosocial beh. correlated w/ child involvement in family life
○ → Prosocial behaviour can be learned in environment that expects child to contribute for
the common good
Promoting Prosocial Behaviour
STAUB (1979)
● AIM: To see if prosocial behaviour could be learnt
● PROCEDURE:
○ Asked young children to either write letters to other children who were in a hospital, to
tutor a younger child, or to make toys for chronically ill children
○ Second group of children asked to do similar activities but ones that would only benefit
people that they knew; such as making a toy for themselves, writing a letter to their
mother or studying with a friend
● FINDINGS:
○ Children who had engaged in prosocial beh. rather than doing something for an
acquaintance were more likely to help when placed in a situation where help is needed
○ → Prosocial behaviour can be developed through education
■ This is known as empathy training
Bystander intervention programs: reduce threat of sexual violence
BANYARD ET AL. (2005)

● AIM: evaluate effectiveness of a sexual violence prevention program
● PROCEDURE:
○ 389 undergraduates randomly allocated 1 of 2 treatment groups/control
○ 1st treatment group: 3 sessions on how to help individuals in danger/who needed help
after falling victim to sexual assault
○ 2nd treatment group: 1 session
○ Control: no training
○ After 4 months survey given to determine likelihood of intervening & their understanding
of myths & realities
● FINDINGS:
○ Both treatment groups had significant improvement → more informed & likely to help
● EVALUATION:
○ Diff. to measure success
good luck!
○ Surveys: don’t measure actual beh. (hypothetical situation)

○ Self-reported real data
■ Unethical to stage such a sit. As it would cause unnecessary harm/stress on P.
○ Even if program raises temporary awareness too many factors influence beh. → even if
indiv. does help in authentic sit. no cause-and-effect relationship can be established btwn
program and prosocial beh.
Can digital media promote prosocial behavior?
→ social cognitive learning theory
- A lot of research investigating promotion of prosocial beh. w/ digital media
GREITEMEYER & OSSWALD (2010)

● AIM: to test the relationship btwn video games (prosocial games) and helping beh.
● PROCEDURE:
○ 3rd experiment in a series of 4
○ P. played ‘city crisis’ (prosocial) or ‘tetris’ neutral
○ At end of experiments male confederate entered room & proceeded to be R.’s ex-bf
■ Harasses R. by kicking a trash can, shouting & attempting to pull her out on her
own
○ IV: game played
○ DV: intervention (if P. said smth to ex w/ goal of stopping harassment or asking R. if she
needed help)
■ If P. did not intervene after 2 minutes other R. ordered ex to leave
○ P. asked to play for 1 more minute & completed questionnaire of prosocial content of
game
○ P. debriefed to ensure they experienced no harm
● FINDINGS:
○ ⅕ P. w/ tetris intervened, ⅗ w/ prosocial game intervened
○ → playing prosocial game could prime P. for prosocial beh.
■ Even if faring negative consequences
● EVALUATION:
○ No cause-and-effect relationship can be established
○ Not sure if there is a long-term effect
■ Priming rather than learning
Methodology of helping research

LEVINE ET AL. (2001)
● AIM: see if ppl would help in one of three non-emergency situations
● PROCEDURE:
○ 23 large cities, observed ppl
○ 3 situations:
■ Letting pedestrian know he dropped a pen
■ Offering to help a man on crutches pick up magazines
■ Assisting a blind person to cross the street
good luck!
● FINDINGS:
○ Helping rate relatively stable across situations
○ Helping inversely proportional to country’s economic productivity
■ Brazil: 93% helping rate, Malaysia 40% - economically developed
○ Simpatico hypothesis: ppl in community where social obligations outweigh indiv.
achievements tend to be less economically productive but show more willingness to help
others
■ Trend did not hold for all cities
● Copenhagen & vienna (fast-paced) very helpful
● Kuala Lumpur (slow-paced) not v. helpful
○ → helping less dependant on nature of local ppl but the local env. Instead
● EVALUATION:
○ Operationalise variables: how was prosocial beh. considered/measured?
■ Do tasks set up reflect prosocial beh.?
○ Etic approach assumed that tasks would be valid in all cultures
■ Pen: pickpockets
■ & raising of child influences prosocial behaviour
○ Field study: ecologically valid, but can’t control confounding variables
■ Difficult to replicate sample
EVALUATION
● Lab studies: highly controlled & may not predict what would happen IRL
○ Artificial: LATANE - intercom
■ Argued that P. still perceived as real emergency sit.
● Field studies: not possible to control confounding variables
○ Difficult to replicate sample
○ Increased ecological validity
● Researchers reliant on self-reported info on why they helped/didn’t help
○ Assumes they know why they helped
● Prosocial beh. Result of complex interaction of individual environmental & social factors
○ Can’t isolate specific variables to determine why people do/don’t help
○ Cross cultural research: difficult because of biases in debriefing & interpreting prosocial
behaviour.
ETHICS IN STUDYING PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR

● Field studies (harmless: LEVINE ET AL.)
○ Deception - PILIAVIN: Q. of consent & debriefing more complicated
○ Deception could cause undue stress & P. wouldn’t know situation is staged
○ P. not able to withdraw ‘at any time’ from experiment
● Deception in lab studies: to avoid demand characteristics true aim wasn’t shared (DARLEY &
LATANE)
○ Deceived by confederates
good luck!
○ Important te debrief P. & give them the chance to withdraw from the experiment
■ Informed P. about the deception & why it was necessary
good luck!
Research Methodology
Lab Experiments
A good experiment should be:
1. G - Able to generalize
2. R - Should be able to replicate it
3. R- Reliable
● STRENGTHS
○ Easy to replicate - standardized procedure used
○ Allow for precise control of extraneous & independent variables
■ Cause & effect relationship can be established
● LIMITATIONS
○ Artificial setting
■ Unnatural behaviour (low ecological validity)
■ Can’t generalize findings to IRL settings
○ Bias
■ Demand characteristics/experimenter effects may bias results
● Become confounding variables
Field Experiments
Done in the P.’s natural environment
● STRENGTHS
○ Greater ecological validity
○ No/less demand characteristics
● LIMITATIONS
○ Less control of extraneous variables
○ Time consuming & expensive to design
Questionnaires
A lost of pre-written questions
● STRENGTHS
○ Can be cheap & efficient way to collect data
○ Large no. of questionnaires w/ lots of questions can be distributed
○ P. can remain anonymous
● LIMITATIONS
○ Survey data is highly descriptive, difficult to establish causal relationships
○ Difficult to obtain a representative sample
○ No guarantee for truthful responses
Interviews
Face-to-face questions
good luck!
Structured Interviews
● Resembles questionnaire approach
○ Described as a ‘verbal questionnaire’
● P. respond verbally to Q. from R.
● Same Q. for each P.
● Easy to analyse & compare results
● Highly standardized: large sample size
● Somewhat artificial
Semi-Structured Interviews
● No fixed Q.s but is guided
○ Predetermined topics to be covered
● Order in which they are addressed can vary
Unstructured Interview
● P. free to talk about whatever they like
● R. may set topic, but P. can dictate topic & steer the conversation
● Small sample size
● Can be difficult to analyse data
● Can reveal interests
● STRENGTHS
○ Data is often rich and varied
○ Relatively simple to administer
■ A lot of data can be collected quickly and effectively
■ Can often be generalized due to large samples
○ Can provide a great deal of info into individual & complicated cases
● WEAKNESSES
○ Difficult to find right sample
■ Some P. begin interviews but do not complete it
○ When given same interview but very different data is obtained, generalisability is very
low
○ If interviewer is not sufficiently skilled, P. responses may not be relaxed & data may be
false/of little use
Focus Groups
● Group interview (help explore & clarify people’s views)
● 6-10 people
● P. respond & add comments to each other’s contributions
● STRENGTHS
good luck!
○ Fast & convenient

○ Natural setting → high ecological validity
○ Can reveal cultural values & group norms
● LIMITATIONS
○ Not applicable for sensitive issues
○ Fear of embarrassment/judgement may mean P. don’t share everything
○ Conformity can confound results
○ Ethical issues when conducted in non-free environments (s.a. prisons)
Observations
Participant observations
● When R. becomes directly involved in P.’s lives to observe them (covert or overt)
● R. directly involved
● STRENGTHS
○ In-depth and detailed data
○ Avoids R. bias
○ Holistic approach
○ Flexible
○ Establishes trust & strong relationship
○ High ecological validity if naturalistic
● LIMITATIONS
○ R. becomes too involved → lose objectivity
○ Difficult to record observations accurately & directly
○ Time-consuming & demanding
○ Demand characteristics
Non-participant observations
● R. observes P. w/o P.’s knowledge
● R. indirectly involved
●STRENGTHS
○ High ecological validity (if naturalistic)
○ More ethical (?) useful (?) for studying particular groups of people
○ In-depth & detailed data
○ Reduced risk of injury to R.
● LIMITATIONS
○ Lack of credibility (only one R)
○ Researcher bias
○ Time-consuming & demanding method
ETHICS
● Informed consent & debriefing → P. might not realise/be aware that they are being watched
good luck!
Naturalistic Observations
● R. records spontaneously occurring beh. in the subject’s own environment
○ R. observes from a distance
●STRENGTHS
○ Allows R. to study scenarios that are normally unethical/hard to manipulate (Prisoners)
○ High external validity
○ Generalizable
○ Reflects everyday behaviour
● LIMITATIONS
○ Less detailed data
○ Time consuming
○ Beh. observed might not be apparent
○ Low internal validity
○ Researcher bias
ETHICS
● Informed consent & debriefing → P. might not realise/be aware that they are being watched
Case Studies !
● In-depth examination of an individual/social unit/event
● STRENGTHS
○ Often the only way of studying a particular phenomenon
○ Gather data which can’t be collected otherwise
○ Details valid because data comes fairly directly from the individual(s) concerned
○ Usually gathered in natural setting
○ Freud’s case studies: can also help P. as well at get data
■ Use special means to uncover thoughts that cannot be assessed otherwise
● Developed special ways to gather data
○ Therapeutic & have practical application
● LIMITATIONS
○ Not replicable bc. situation is unique
○ Data collected may be influenced by researcher collecting the data
○ Cannot be tested for reliability (if not replicable)
○ Lacks generalisability → too specific
○ Freud’s case studies: need of interpretation analysis → subjectivity → requires
objectivity
■ Concepts used such as unconscious are not measurable & hard to test in scientific
way
good luck!
● Hard to compare & for conclusions to be drawn

● EVALUATION
○ Sometimes the only way to test certain phenomenon
■ Study unique situation
○ Difficult to replicate, hard to test reliability
■ Lack generalizability due to uniqueness & specific to an individual
Sampling Techniques
● Qualitative research: not intended to be representative
○ Chosen because it represents important characteristics
■ These characteristics main concern in evaluation of research
Purposive Sampling
● Targets particular group of people → criteria used for sampling based on aim of study & existing
knowledge
● P. chosen on a basis of characteristics
○ Diversity w/ relation to age & gender important
Snowball Sampling
● Used to get a hold of P. w/o investing a lot of time & energy
● P. are asked if they know other potential P.
● Locate people with characteristics who are rare/hard to find
● Build trust between R. & P.
● Cost efficient
● Very difficult to avoid bias
● Confidentiality concerns: P. know identity of other P.
Opportunity Sampling
● a.k.a. convenience sampling
● Selects group of people who happen to be available
○ Asked if they want to participate in experiment
● Quick way of choosing P.
● May not be representative
● Bias
Volunteer Sampling
● P. volunteer to help
Stratified Sampling
● Probability sampling technique
○ R. divide population into subgroups/strata & selects P. proportionally from different
strata
■ Simple probability sampling within each strata
good luck!
● ADVANTAGES
○ Highlight specific strata
○ Observe existing relationship between subgroups
○ Representatively sample all subgroups of the population
○ Higher statistical precision
● LIMITATIONS
○ Disadvantageous when R. cannot classify members of population in subgroup
○ Overlapping: P. shouldn’t be in multiple subgroups
○ May take longer & be more expensive because of the extra step
● LIMITATIONS OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

○ Sampling bias: choice of the trait to investigate leaves important P. out of the research
sample
■ If sampling process based on objective criteria & there are clearly documented &
explained, bias is limited
Ethics in Qualitative Research

● Informed consent, protection of P. from psychological/physical harm, respect for P. privacy &
right to withdraw from the experiment
Informed Consent
● Should always be obtained
○ In some cases, where it would not be possible to study a phenomenon otherwise,
exemption of the rule may be granted
● P. should know experiment is voluntary
○ Especially when P. have some relationship w/ other P. or R. → feel obligated
good luck!
● R. must provide sufficient information about study (funding, conducting, use, requirements)
● Made clear that consent can be withdrawn
● P. ages under 16: guardian’s consent must be obtained
Protecting Participants from Harm

● R. should always avoid harming P. / causing undue stress
○ Or apply pressure to make P. answer something they don’t want to answer
● Before interview, P. should have a clear understanding of topics that will be addressed
● Clear & direct Q. so that P. don’t give sensitive/irrelevant details by mistake
○ May reveal v. personal information never shared before as interview may seem like a
friendly encounter & they feel safe
● If P. shows discomfort, R. should consider interview
● If R. deals w/ emotional & sensitive issues, R. should return to less sensitive topics in the end
● Not advised for R. to counsel/provide advice
○ Can provide information about where help can be found
Anonymity and Confidentiality

● Confidentiality: research data will not be known to anyone outside of the study
○ R. may have to change minor details in order for P. to not be recognized
● Anonymity: relates to the way data is stored after research
○ If interviews were videotaped & archived it can be difficult to guarantee total anonymity
■ Should be destroyed
■ If necessary, P. should give written consent
● P. should be informed about issues regarding anonymity & confidentiality
○ If sampling involved 3rd party, P. should be informed
● Focus groups: problematic as it’s difficult to guarantee as P. may (un-)intentionally reveal
information shared during the interviews
Credibility in Quantitative Research
Credibility: concept of internal validity used in quantitative research
● Established when findings of research reflect meanings described by R.
○ If P. feels that interpretation of interview reflects what they said, it has high credibility
○ If interpretations of several R. are similar, high credibility / R. bias may not be as
significant
Triangulation: cross-checking information → use of different method, perspectives, researchers, sources
of data; to check if interpretation can be supported
● Method Triangulation: involves comparing data from different methods (qualitative &
quantitative)
● Data Triangulation: using data from a variety of available resources
○ Researcher determines whether the choice of method led to findings or if the same
conclusions can be drawn regardless of the method used
● Researcher Triangulation: use of several observers, interviewers or researcher to compare &
check data collection & interpretation
good luck!
● Theory Triangulation: looking at data w/ different theoretical approaches (eg. biological,

cognitive & sociocultural approaches)
→ important to establish a set of strategies which increase confidence that findings represent P.
(credibility) → triangulation can do this
Effects of Participant expectation & Researcher biases

Participant expectations: P.’s ideas about the research and researcher can affect the credibility of data
● If P. feels they have to behave a certain way to please R., data will be affected
Researcher bias: when R.’s own beliefs influence data collection
● “See what they want to see”: confirmation bias → use teams to carry out research
● Double-blind studies: R. does now know which set of data is being presented for interpretation
○ R. does not know which set from the independent variables the P. is from
○ Avoids confirmation bias
● Reflexivity throughout research process: how may the R.’s background influence the study
Biases and how to overcome them

Participant Bias
Acquiescence bias: tendency to give positive answers whatever the question
● P.’s natural agreeableness or discomfort from disagreeing w/ something in a situation
➢ R. should be careful not to ask leading questions
Questions should be open-ended & neutral (clear that there are no right answers)
Social desirability bias: P.’s tendency to respond in a way that they think will make them more
liked/accepted
● intentional/unintentional
● Especially true for sensitive topics
➢ Questions phrased in a non-judgmental way
Good rapport established
Questions can be asked about a third person
Dominant respondent bias: occurs in a group where one P. influences answers of others
● P. feel intimidated or compared to the dominant respondent ;
➢ R. trained to keep dominant respondent in check
Provide all of the P. an opportunity to speak
Sensitivity bias: tendency of P. to answer regular questions honestly but distort their answers on sensitive
questions
➢ Build a good rapport & create trust
Reinforce ethical considerations (confidentiality)
Increase sensitivity of questions gradually
Researcher Bias
Confirmation bias: when R. has prior belief & uses research to confirm this belief
● Selectivity of attention; tiny differences in nonverbal behaviour may influence R.
● Intentional or unintentional
➢ Technically unavoidable: qualitative research required human observer
good luck!
Can be recognized as an issue and taken into account with reflexivity

Leading questions bias: when questions in interview are worded in a way to encourage a certain answer
➢ Interviewer should be trained to ask open-ended, neutral questions
Question order bias: when response to one question influences P.’s response to subsequent question
➢ Cannot be avoided but can be minimalized → asking general questions before specific questions,
positive questions before negative questions, and behaviour questions before attitude questions
Biased reporting: occurs when some findings of study aren’t equally represented
➢ reflexivity
Researcher triangulation
Generalization
Not usually possible to generalise from quantitative studies, but there’s three types (Firestone 1993):
● Few P.
● Sampling based on selection criteria
● Goal is to understand subjective experiences of the P.
Representational generalisation
● Applied to population from which sample was drawn
○ Population outside of study
● If findings from other studies confirm findings, findings can be corroborated
Inferential Generalization/Transferability
● Findings can be applied to settings outside of study
○ Only to similar settings
● To determine transferability, research need to be done
Theoretical Generalization
● Theoretical concepts developed in study can be used to develop further theory
○ Findings from a study can lead to inferences about behaviour
■ Contribute to a wider social theory
good luck!

Psychology 2019 IB HL Notes

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Psychology 2019 IB HL Notes

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IB 2019 PSYCHOLOGY NOTES​ - by mango#7926

WHAT TO EXPECT FROM THE EXAMS;

PAPER 1 (SL & HL)

PAPER 2 (SL & HL)

PAPER 3 (HL ONLY)

2. Ethics​--1 short-paragraph-length response (6 marks). 1 of these 2 possible questions will appear:

G1/G2... Group 1/Group 2...

The Individual and the group

Social Identity Theory

TAJFEL (1970) ​- Giving points to art groups

ABRAMS ET AL. (1990) ​- ​Asch’s Line Paradigm & SIT

Social Cognitive Theory

BANDURA ET AL. (1961)​ - Bobo doll

CHARLTON ET AL. (2002) (ST. HELENA STUDY)

Considered Judgement of SCT

HAMILTON AND GIFFORD (1976)

STEELE AND ARONSON (1995)

JANE ELLIOT BROWN EYES / BLUE EYES STUDY

Culture, behaviour and cognition

ETIC APPROACH EMIC APPROACH

Tend to study a singular culture in depth w/ goal

Uniqueness is valued Social harmony is valued

Speaking one’s mind is important Modesty is important

Self is defined by ind. achievement Self is defined by group membership

Freedom & autonomy is valued Common fate/history guide one’s decisions

Self-actualization is goal Advancing interests of group is goal

Everyone has a right to privacy Privacy is not expected

Rule-breaking leads to guilt/loss of self-respect Rule-breaking leads to shame/loss of face

Self reliance seen as a virtue Shared responsibility & interdependence is a way

○ P. brought into a room by themselves & given a set of 9 lines

Culture and Cognition

COLE AND SCRIBNER (1974)

Cultural influences on individual attitudes, identity and behaviour

ODDEN & ROCHAT (2004)

DEMOREST ET AL. (2008)

○ → Enculturation influences musical memory on a deep level, cognitive schemas are

Possible positive relation with new culture

Importance of Yes Integration Seperation

MIRANDA AND MATHENY (2000)

LUECK AND WILSON (2010)​ - Everybody stress in america!

Globalization and behaviour

OGIHARA & UCHIDA (2014)

○ Questionnaires related to individualistic & collectivistic orientation, subjective well-being

OGIHARA & UCHIDA (2014) FOLLOW UP

Anthony Giddens (1991):

Globalization & Behaviour

DELAFOSSE ET AL. (1993)

NORASAKKUNKIT & UCHIDA (2014)

BREWER AND TREYENS (1981)

EVALUATION OF SCHEMA THEORY

Multi-store memory model - Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)

Assumptions of the M-SMM

GLANZER AND CUNITZ (1966)

PETERSON AND PETERSON (1959)

○ STM is different from LTM in terms of duration - supports M-SMM

EVALUATION OF MULTI-STORE MEMORY MODEL

Working Memory Model- - Baddeley and Hitch (1974)

Phonological Loop​: (Verbal STM) Auditory component of STM

LANDRY AND BARTLING (2011)

KF - WARRINGTON AND SHALLICE (1970)

Thinking and decision making

DUAL PROCESS MODEL- STANOVICH AND WEST (2000)

Context dependant - focus on existing evidence & Abstract

Concerns everyday decision making Conscious reasoning

IB 2019 PSYCHOLOGY NOTES - by mango#7926

2. Ethics--1 short-paragraph-length response (6 marks). 1 of these 2 possible questions will appear:

TAJFEL (1970) - Giving points to art groups

ABRAMS ET AL. (1990) - Asch’s Line Paradigm & SIT

BANDURA ET AL. (1961) - Bobo doll

LUECK AND WILSON (2010) - Everybody stress in america!

Phonological Loop: (Verbal STM) Auditory component of STM

Study of HM (MILNER (1966))

Adrenaline Secreted by adrenal glands: responsible for arousal/’fight or flight’ response.

Neuropeptide Y Produced by hypothalamus: acts as neurotransmitter in brain. Stimulates: food

Oxytocin Produced by hypothalamus & secreted by pituitary gland: acts as a

○ Cause-and-effect relationship can be established as adrenaline was blocked in the

→ Modern research focuses on genetic mapping

Allele: Variant form of gene