Biological Approach to Behaviour

SAQs (9 marks each)

1. Explain the use of one research method in one study using the biological approach to
understanding human behaviour.
2. Explain the use of one research method in one study of the brain and behaviour.
3. Explain the use of one research method in one study of hormones or pheromones and behaviour.
4. Explain the use of one research method in one study of genetics and behaviour.
5. Explain one ethical consideration relevant to one study using a biological approach to
understanding human behaviour.
Ethics in psychology refers to the rules of conduct for carrying out research in order to prevent harm and to
properly inform participants of the nature of the study. One such ethical consideration in psychological
research is informed consent. Informed consent means that participation in a study must be voluntary, and
participants must fully understand the nature of their involvement, including the aims of the study, what
tasks they will be exposed to and how the data will be used. The biological approach has two exclusive
problems with regard to informed consent: (1) many participants may not fully understand what they are
agreeing to, and (2) some research is complex and may not be understood by an average person, making
“informed” consent difficult. This essay includes a discussion on the importance of informed consent,
through the case of HM, investigating the role of the hippocampus in the brain.
HM had an accident at the age of 7, which caused epileptic seizures. These seizures got so severe till the
age of 27 that he could not lead a normal life. A neurosurgeon, William Scoville, wished to perform an
experimental surgery where he wanted to remove tissue from the medial temporal lobe (lobotomy of
temporal lobe) on both sides of HM’s brain. Another researcher, Milner, wanted to carry out a case study on
HM, using several different strategies, an example of triangulation, such as IQ testing, direct observation,
interviews, and cognitive testing. But HM could not remember giving consent for any of these procedures to
happen on him personally. And informed consent is intended as a consideration since it involves complex
procedures like brain surgery.
In this case, if the participant (like HM) is suffering from any disorder that affects their ability to give
informed consent, then legal guardians need to give consent to the research. This consent should only be
given once all of the participants’ rights to withdraw themselves from the study have been made clear.
Originally, consent was given by HM’s mother and later his caretakers. However, there still remains a
concern that HM may not have been able to take advantage of his right to withdraw either because he did
not fully understand what he was getting involved in.
In conclusion, the researchers must always provide as much information as possible and in the clearest
possible way, hence the name “informed” consent. Nevertheless, in cases like HM’s, the responsibility is
given to legal guardians, but this remains unethical because the participant is not directly giving his/her
consent and don’t understand/remember doing so either.
6. Explain one ethical consideration relevant to one study of the brain and behaviour.
Biological research into the relationship between the brain and behaviour is far‐reaching and includes
methods such as imaging techniques, experiments and quasi‐experiments, and case studies. Ethical
guidelines to protect participants in psychological research are laid out by national organizations, such as
the American Psychological Association and the British Psychological Society. These guidelines require
that all psychological research be passed by an ethics committee to ensure that it does no psychological
nor physical harm, so ethical considerations have to start long before the research does. For example,
informed consent is an ethical consideration in which the participation in the study must be voluntary, and
participants must fully understand the nature of their involvement, including the aims of the study, what
tasks they will be exposed to and how the data will be used. This essay includes a discussion on the
importance of informed consent, with special emphasis on brain and behaviour through the case of HM,
investigating the role of the hippocampus in the brain.
HM had an accident at the age of 7, which caused epileptic seizures. These seizures got so severe till the
age of 27 that he could not lead a normal life. A neurosurgeon, William Scoville, wished to perform an
experimental surgery where he wanted to remove tissue from the medial temporal lobe (lobotomy of
temporal lobe) on both sides of HM’s brain. Another researcher, Milner, wanted to carry out a case study on
HM, using several different strategies, an example of triangulation, such as IQ testing, direct observation,
interviews, and cognitive testing. But HM could not remember giving consent for any of these procedures to
happen on him personally. And informed consent is intended as a consideration, especially when it involves
brain damage.
In this case, if the participant (like HM) is suffering from any disorder that affects their ability to give
informed consent, then legal guardians need to give consent to the research. This consent should only be
given once all of the participants’ rights to withdraw themselves from the study have been made clear.
Originally, consent was given by HM’s mother and later his caretakers. However, there still remains a
concern that HM may not have been able to take advantage of his right to withdraw either because he did
not fully understand what he was getting involved in.
In conclusion, the researchers must always provide as much information as possible and in the clearest
possible way, hence the name “informed” consent. Nevertheless, in cases like HM’s, the responsibility is
given to legal guardians, but this remains unethical because the participant is not directly giving his/her
consent and don’t understand/remember doing so either.
7. Explain one ethical consideration relevant to one study of hormones or pheromones and behaviour.
Ethics in psychology refers to the rules of conduct for carrying out research in order to prevent harm and to
properly inform participants of the nature of the study. Perhaps the most important ethical principle is that
participants should be protected from harm, psychological or otherwise. This means that at all times during
the study participants must be protected from physical and mental harm. This includes possible negative
long-term consequences of participating in a research study. This essay includes a discussion on
protection of the subjects of a study from harm through the use of an example of the research conducted by
Kosfeld et al (2005), who investigated the effect of oxytocin on human trust.
The double-blind study involved a trust game with monetary stakes. The trustee and investor both were
given 12 monetary units and the investors can give 0, 4, 8, or 12 monetary units to invest with a trustee
(thereby doubling whatever money that they give); the trustee is given the option to keep all the money,
give back some, or give back all of the money. The game is played 4 times in the same role and in the end,
the total earned monetary units that were exchanged for real money. Results of the experiment showed
that the level of trust in participants who had received a dose of oxytocin was higher than that of the control
group.
It was concluded that oxytocin specifically affects trust in interpersonal interactions while keeping one's
general attitude towards risk intact. Though the conclusions may be accurate and contribute to further
research, this study could have caused psychological harm to the subjects. If the trust given is not returned
to them, it could cause potential emotional harm (if they give their trustee more units than they receive
back), and this could lead to hurt feelings. Therefore, emotional harm occurs.
In conclusion, psychological harm can be difficult to operationalise because it can depend upon the person
and it can be difficult to detect, both the participants and the researchers may not know that participants
have been harmed psychologically. However, that being said, it is the responsibility of the researcher so
they must their upmost to prevent any undue stress and ensure that there is no long-term damage caused
to their participants.
8. Explain one ethical consideration relevant to one study of genetics and behaviour.
Ethics in psychology refers to the rules of conduct for carrying out research in order to prevent harm and to
properly inform participants of the nature of the study. One such ethical consideration is confidentiality.
Participation in a research study is confidential if there is someone (for example, the researcher) who can
connect the results of the study to the identity of a particular participant, but terms of the agreement prevent
this person from sharing the data with anyone. So, the participant provides personal data, but the data
stays confidential under the research agreement. This essay includes a discussion on the importance of
maintaining confidentiality in psychological research through the example of a study by Kendler et al
(2015), who conducted a rigorously designed adoption study of a sample of sibling pairs in which one of the
siblings was home-reared and the other one was adopted away.
For their study, the complete national Swedish register of male-male siblings was searched, initially
identifying 436 male sibling sets where one of the members was reared by adoptive parents. IQ scores
were taken from the Military Conscription Register (which includes cognitive assessment data for all 18-
year-old men in Sweden). Available data also included the educational attainment of both biological and
adoptive parents. Findings showed that the mean educational level was significantly higher in the group of
adoptive parents as compared to biological parents. There was a modest correlation (r = 0.18) between the
educational levels of biological and adoptive parents, which may suggest some effects of selective
placement, the process of matching adoptive parents to adopted children with respect to particular
characteristics.
Participation in a study is confidential/anonymous if no one can trace the results back to a participant’s
identity because no personal details have been provided. This study conspicuously has an ethical problem
with that; if it is known that this study occurred in Sweden, it may be easier for others to figure out who
exactly is being researched in the experiment. If a person who lives in Sweden knows a couple who is
trying to adopt a child, it could be easy to connect the dots and assume that this couple was used in the
study.
In conclusion, it is extremely crucial for the participant's identity to be protected from public exposure. This
helps to protect participants from potential harms including psychological harm such as embarrassment or
distress; social harms such as loss of employment or damage to one's financial standing; and criminal or
civil liability.
9. Explain one technique used to study the brain in relation to behaviour.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a brain imaging technique that can give detailed pictures of the
internal structure in the body and is based on the principle that some atomic nuclei—in particular, those of
hydrogen atoms—can emit energy when placed in an external magnetic field. When these pulses of energy
are detected by the scanner, the relative distribution of hydrogen atoms in the brain can be mapped.
Hydrogen atoms exist naturally in the body, but their concentration in different types of tissue is different.
Analysing the pattern of emission of energy in response to magnetic fields, we can see inside the brain.
This essay is going to focus on a study by Ashtari et al (2009) in which MRI was used to investigate certain
variables, proving MRI as a viable and non-invasive method to study the brain.
In 2009, Ashtari et al used MRI to investigate whether substance abuse (Marijuana) can damage the
developing brain in adolescents and young adults. The researchers scanned the brains of 14 young men
with a history of heavy marijuana abuse over a long period with the control group consisting of 14 young
men who had not used marijuana.
The results of the scan indicated that there were brain abnormalities in the frontal, parietal and temporal
regions of the brains of marijuana users. The development of white matter (myelin) was affected and this
could explain the slow processing of information in the brain. Thus, the researchers concluded that early
marijuana use can affect brain development negatively, thus contributing to a correlational nature of data,
rather than the cause and effect nature.
Since the study only had sample as men, thus confounding variables, like sex and age can impact the
study. The study has low ecological validity as this cannot be replicated easily, one of the disadvantages of
the brain imaging techniques. These techniques are also very expensive. On the other hand, despite its
limitations, MRI has been an extremely helpful brain imaging technique in the field of psychology and
biology due to its excellent resolution and safety (it allows non-exposure to radiation). In conclusion, the
research done by Ashtari et al, along with a number of more studies, proves that this technique can be
used to study the brain in a non-invasive manner and draw inferences and patterns between 2 variables.
10. Explain one study of localization of function.
Study 1:
Localisation is the idea that our behaviours and emotions originate from specific locations in the brain. This
idea has been supported by recent neuroimaging studies, but was also examined much earlier, typically
using case studies. One such example of localization is the study of HM that investigates the role of the
hippocampus in the brain. This essay is going to focus on how the theory of localisation was used to
determine the role of hippocampus in the brain through the use of the HM case study. This study is relevant
under the idea of localisation as it is believed that memory has localisation of function to a certain extent,
focusing on the hippocampus.
HM had an accident at the age of 7, which caused epileptic seizures. These seizures got so severe till the
age of 27 that he could not lead a normal life. The neurosurgeon, William Scoville, with consent from the
patient and his family, performed an experimental surgery where he removed tissue from the medial
temporal lobe (lobotomy of temporal lobe) on both sides of HM’s brain. After the surgery, HM remembered
his childhood very well, however, he suffered from anterograde amnesia, which means he was no longer
able to transfer information from short-term memory to long-term memory.
In order to investigate this further, Milner carried out a case study on HM. Milner used several different
strategies, an example of triangulation, such as IQ testing, direct observation, interviews, and cognitive
testing. Her findings showed that HM could not acquire new episodic knowledge (memory for events) or
new semantic knowledge (general knowledge about the world), suggesting that the brain structures that
were removed from his brain are important for long-term explicit memory. Later, in 1997, Corkin perform an
MRI in order to examine the extent of the damage done to HM’s brain, which showed parts of HM’s
temporal lobe including the hippocampus had the most damage.
This study is strongly linked to the topic of localization of function as it demonstrates that a certain part of
the brain controls a certain behaviour – localization of some memory functions (spatial, episodic, semantic)
in the hippocampus. MRI scans showed that the function of a hippocampus, which is a part of a human’s
limbic system, is to transfer short-term memory to long-term memory. Since HM was able to retain some
memories for events that happened long before his surgery it indicates that the hippocampus is not the site
of permanent storage but rather plays a role in the organization and permanent storage of memories
elsewhere in the brain. However, since this is such an extreme case, the results cannot be generalized.  
Therefore, we cannot say that this is the role of the hippocampus in other populations.
Study 2:
Split-brain is when a patient’s hemispheres have been surgically separated as a treatment of epilepsy. This
is done by cutting the link between the two hemispheres: the corpus callosum. The right and left
hemispheres, as a result, act independently. It has to be noted that split-brain studies represent research
into lateralization—the division of functions between the two hemispheres of the cortex. Lateralization is a
special case of localization. A study that explores split brains is how Sperry and Gazzaniga investigated
human split-brain patients to test the theory of lateralization, which is what this essay is going to focus on.
Sperry and Gazzaniga used four patients for their study who underwent novel treatment for epilepsy that
involved surgically cutting the corpus callosum. Initial observations showed that patients seemed to be
remarkably unaffected by the surgery. Hence, the authors devised a technique where the participant had to
sit in front of a board and look at the dot in the middle of it. Visual stimuli would then be presented for one
tenth of a second either to the left or the right visual field. Optic nerves from the left eye are connected in
our brain to the right hemisphere, and vice versa. So, by presenting the stimulus to the left visual field the
researcher “sends it” to the right hemisphere, and stimuli from the right visual field goes to the left
hemisphere. Also, a variety of objects were placed behind the screen so that participants could feel them
with their hands.
The participants were given a variety of tests to do in order to make a clear distinction between the
functions of the two hemispheres, if they were different. For example, when shown the picture of a spoon to
the left visual field (connected to the right hemisphere), the patients said they saw nothing. However, when
asked to pick a corresponding object from a group of objects behind the screen, they felt around and picked
a spoon (with their left hand, because it is controlled by the right hemisphere). Patients could not explain
why they picked the spoon. This supports lateralization of language in the left hemisphere. However, when
a simple word, such as “pencil”, was flashed to the right hemisphere, the patients were able to pick a pencil
from a group of objects behind the screen with their left hand. This shows that the right hemisphere does
have some amount of language comprehension and language is not exclusive to the left hemisphere.
Language production, however, is confined to the left hemisphere.
In conclusion, the findings above demonstrate the dominance of the left hemisphere for language. The left
hemisphere produces speech and makes a person consciously aware of something. However, this
lateralization is not strict: some forms of language production and comprehension can be performed by the
right hemisphere also. This study also shows that each hemisphere is still able to learn after the split brain
operation, but one hemisphere has no idea about what the other hemisphere has experienced or learned.
Today, technology in split brain operation make it possible to cut off only a tiny portion and not the whole of
the corpus callosum of patients.
11. Explain one study of neuroplasticity / Explain neuroplasticity, making use of one study.
Neuroplasticity is the ability of the brain to change through the making and breaking of synaptic
connections between neurons. In this process neural networks in the brain literally change their shape.
The reasons for such changes are both genetic (normal pre-programmed development of the brain) and
environmental (for example, injury, brain damage or simply learning new skills). This essay is going to
focus on how Maguire et al (2000) investigated the brains of London taxi drivers, exploring how their
extensive navigation experience has changed certain parts of their brain, especially the hippocampus as it
is shown to be involved in spatial abilities.
The aim of the study was to see whether the brains of London taxi drivers would be somehow different as
a result of the exceptional training that they have to undergo to be certified – all potential taxi drivers must
form a mental map of the city of London. For their experiment, they took 16 right-handed male taxi
drivers with an average experience of 14.3 years as a taxi driver along with a control group consisting of
50 healthy right-handed male subjects who did not drive a taxi. MRI brain scans of control subjects
were taken from the database of MRI brain scans at the same unit where brain scans were performed with
taxi drivers. It was important to make the comparison groups as equivalent as possible in terms of
potential confounding variables, so some exclusion criteria were applied to the control subjects.
{*Subjects below 32 and above 62 years old were excluded, as well as subjects who were female, left-
handed or had any health issues. This resulted in the selection of (brain scans of) 50 healthy right-handed
male subjects who did not drive a taxi.}
Results indicated an increased brain matter volume in the brains of taxi drivers as compared to control
subjects in the posterior hippocampus. At the same time, control subjects had greater volumes of grey
matter in the anterior hippocampus. This showed a significant redistribution of grey matter from the
anterior to posterior hippocampus in the brains of taxi drivers. Brain matter “shifted” from the front to the
back. However, this study is a quasi-experiment; the researchers did not randomly assign people to be
either taxi drivers or controls. The results obtained are therefore essentially correlational and cause-and-
effect inferences cannot be made. One of the possible alternative explanations for this finding serves to
the nature vs. nurture debate – that people with larger grey matter volumes in the posterior hippocampus
(and lesser volumes in the anterior) are naturally predisposed to choose professions that depend on
navigational skills. In other words, people become taxi drivers because they have a special brain, not the
other way around.
To test this alternative explanation, Maguire et al examined the correlation between hippocampal volume
and amount of time spent as a taxi driver. Grey matter volume in the posterior hippocampus correlated
positively and significantly with experience as a taxi driver, and there was a reverse relationship with grey
matter volume in the anterior hippocampus. This led researchers to conclude that, since grey matter
volumes change as taxi drivers’ experience increases, these differences are indeed the result of
neuroplasticity.
In conclusion, redistribution of grey matter in the hippocampus itself can be explained by attributing
different functions to the two regions: it is now accepted that the posterior hippocampus is involved when
previously learnt spatial information is used, whereas the anterior hippocampus is responsible for learning
new spatial information. This study shows how neuroplasticity works through the evident change of location
in the amount of grey matter found in taxi drivers vs. the control group. It proves the idea of neuroplasticity
as it shows that grey matter “shifted” over time, indicating that our brain is plastic and has the ability to
undergo change.
12. Explain the role of one neurotransmitter in human behaviour, making use of one study.
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit a message from one axon to another via the
synapse. Neurotransmitters either allow the impulse to cross the synapse having a stimulating impact
(excitatory) or they can stop the impulse from crossing the synapse having a low impact (inhibitory). This is
how neurotransmission effects human behaviour. In 2010, Crockett et al proved this idea by investigating
the effect of serotonin on prosocial behaviour.
They took a sample of 30 healthy subjects with the mean age of 26 years. There were 2 conditions that the
participants were put in. In the first one, they were given a dose of citalopram, which is an SSRI (serotonin
reuptake inhibitor). This means that it blocks the reuptake of serotonin and increases its
amount/concentration. Participants put in the second condition were given a placebo, a harmless
substance that has no effect.
Then, the participants were given moral dilemmas where they had to choose between difficult options like
saving 5 lives and killing an innocent person. The options were either personal, like pushing someone off a
bridge so that the train stops, saving the 5 people, or impersonal, like choosing a different train track to
save 5 and kill one. The results showed that for the impersonal options, the answers didn’t change – the
citalopram did not affect it. On the other hand, in the personal scenario, the participants who had citalopram
were less likely to throw a man off the bridge compared to the participants in the placebo group.
In conclusion, the researchers concluded that serotonin is responsible for decreasing tolerance for personal
harm, hence, promoting prosocial behaviour. This study clearly represents how neurotransmitters affect
human behaviour as seen through the example of serotonin and how it causes reactions in the brain which
make people think that harming others is less acceptable (promoting prosocial behaviour).
13. Explain the formation of neural networks using one study. (as of 2020)
The process by which neural networks are formed is called neuroplasticity.  When a neuron is stimulated,
an action potential (an electrical charge) travels down the axon. Neural networks are created when a
neuron or set of neurons are repeatedly stimulated.  This repeated firing of the neurons, called long term
potentiation, results in gene expression which causes the neurons to sprout new dendrites – known as
dendritic branching.  This increases the number of synapses available for the behavior. The branching of
neurons in the brain is called grey matter. Dendritic branching as a result of stimulation in the environment
is seen in a study by Maguire. (write about Maguire’s study written under neuroplasticity)

14. Explain the role of one agonist, making use of one study. (as of 2020)
An agonist is any chemical that binds to a receptor site on a post-synaptic neuron, causing the neuron to
fire. Neurotransmitters are endogenous agonists - the brain's natural chemicals that bind to receptor sites,
leading to an action potential. Drugs can play the same role and are called exogenous agonists.  One
example of an exogenous agonist is alcohol.  Alcohol binds with dopamine receptor sites, causing
dopamine neurons to fire. The firing of these neurons results in the activation of the brains reward system -
the nucleus accumbent. 
The study of the role of alcohol on the brain's reward system has led to theories about the origins of
alcoholism. Leyton (2014) carried out a study with 26 healthy social drinkers. The researcher then
categorized the drinkers based on their risk for alcoholism based on personality traits and having a lower
intoxication response to alcohol - that is, they did not feel as drunk despite having drunk the same amount
as other drinkers. Each participant underwent a PET scan after drinking juice then later, alcohol. In each
condition they were asked to drink three drinks in 15 minutes.
It was found that when drinking alcohol, those who were considered "high risk" for alcoholism showed
significantly greater activity in the nucleus accumbens.  The researchers argued that alcohol is an agonist
for dopamine, connecting to dopamine receptor sites and causing the neurons to fire. It is hypothesized
that people with a potential for alcoholism have a greater response to the agonist than those at low-risk. 
Research shows that those with a low level of dopamine neuron activity as a result of alcohol consumption
often get tired after drinking a small amount of alcohol.  This is because the higher level of dopamine
activity counteracts the sedative effects of alcohol.  By studying the way in which alcohol acts as an agonist
on dopamine neurons, it is also possible that researchers could find ways to treat the disorder.
15. Explain the role of one antagonist, making use of one study. (as of 2020)
An antagonist is any substance that fits into a receptor site on the post-synaptic neuron, inhibiting the
neuron.  This means that the neuron will not fire and therefore a behavior will not happen.  Acetylcholine is
a neurotransmitter that plays a role in the formation of memories. It is not possible for researchers
to directly observe the role of neurotransmitters, so one of the ways that they attempt to understand the role
of different neurotransmitters is by giving animals or human participants an antagonist.  They want to see
what happens when acetylcholine receptors are blocked, and the neurons are "not allowed" to fire.
An example of an antagonist commonly used in memory research is scopolamine. Rasmusson and Dadar
(1979) gave participants a scopolamine tablet and asked them to either learn a series of numbers or to
solve a maze task. In a second condition, participants were given a placebo as a control.  In the number
series condition, verbal declarative memory was being tested.  In the maze task, spatial memory was being
tested. The researchers found that there was no significant difference between the placebo group and
the AcH antagonist group in the number series condition.  It appears that AcH may not play a key role in
the encoding of declarative memories. However, participants in the scopolamine group made more errors
and took longer to solve the maze.  This study is supported also by animal research - such as the study by
Rogers and Kesner - that found that scopolamine inhibits a rat's ability to remember a maze. It also
makes sense as Maguire found that taxi drivers had more grey matter in their posterior hippocampus - an
area of the brain high in AcH receptor sites.
By using an antagonist, blocking AcH receptor sites, researchers are better able to understand the role of
the neurotransmitter in the formation of memory.
16. Explain neural pruning, making use of one study. (as of 2020)
Neuroplasticity is the process by which our brains adapt to changes in the environment.  One of the ways
that our brains change is through the creation of neural networks. This happens because of long-term
potentiation - that is, the repeated firing of neurons.  This leads to an increase in dendritic branching which
leads to an increase in the number of synapses.  Another way that our brain can change is through
synaptic pruning - which is a decrease in the number of synapses as a result of the removal of
dendritic branches. Pruning can be the result of neuron cell death, hormones such as cortisol or the lack of
use of a neural pathway. The exact mechanism of synaptic pruning is not yet fully understood.

A study by Dragansky showed that when neural pathways are not used, they may be pruned.  The sample
was made up of 24 non-jugglers.  Each participant had an MRI scan at the beginning of the study in order
to see the structure of the brain prior to the experiment.  The participants were randomly allocated to one of
two conditions.  In one condition, they were asked to learn a juggling routine and to practice it daily until
they had mastered it. When they did, they had a second MRI. Then they were told not to juggle any more. 
Three months later they had a third MRI.  The other group of participants simply served as a control group.

Using voxel-based morphometry the researchers measured the density of the grey matter in the brains of
jugglers vs. non-jugglers. The jugglers showed a significantly larger amount of grey matter in the mid-
temporal area in both hemispheres - an area associated with visual memory. Three months after
the participants stopped juggling, the amount of grey matter in these parts of the brain had decreased.

This shows that when learning a new skill, new neural networks were created.  However, when
the behaviour stopped and those neurons were no longer activated, the neurons were pruned. 
Researchers hypothesize that synaptic pruning is a way to increase the efficiency of the brain.

17. Explain the role of one hormone in human behaviour, making use of one study.
Hormones, like neurotransmitters, are chemical messengers in the body. They are released into the
bloodstream and travel with blood to reach their destination, where they can only influence cells that have
receptors for this particular hormone. Such cells are called target cells. When a hormone binds to a
receptor it launches a sequence of changes, some of which are genomic: gene activation or gene
suppression. An example of a hormone is oxytocin, produced in the hypothalamus and released into the
blood by the pituitary gland. It plays a role in sexual reproduction, childbirth, and social bonding. This essay
includes a discussion of the role of oxytocin in promoting human ethnocentrism, through the use of a study
by De Dreu et al (2011).
De Dreu et al (2011) found that oxytocin promotes human ethnocentrism, a type of inter-group bias where
one’s own ethnic group is perceived as more important than or superior to others. They conducted a series
of experiments all of which used double-blind placebo-control independent measures designs. Participants
in the studies were indigenous Dutch males. They self-administered either oxytocin or a placebo intra-
nasally. Experiments involved exposing subjects to images of people belonging either to their ingroup
(Dutch males) or outgroup (immigrants from the Middle East and German citizens).
Experiments used “moral-choice dilemma” tasks, such as the famous trolley problem. Participants in the
oxytocin and placebo groups were given a series of moral choice dilemmas where decision had to be made
as to whether one person should be killed in order to save five other people (for example, hitting the switch
that will divert the trolley to another track, killing one individual and saving five). In some of these tasks the
target person (the one who had to be killed) was a member of participants’ ingroup, and in other tasks a
member of their outgroup. This was achieved by manipulating the name of the target person: either a
typically Dutch name (Dirk or Peter, for example) or a typically Arab name (such as Ahmed or Youssef) or a
typically German name (such as Markus or Helmut). The other five individuals were unnamed and so their
identity or ethnic background was not indicated.
Results showed that under oxytocin males were more likely to sacrifice an outgroup target than an ingroup
target, while under the placebo there was no significant difference. Further analysis of the data revealed
that, compared with males in the placebo (control) condition, males under oxytocin were less likely to
sacrifice a member of their ingroup, but were not more likely to sacrifice a member of the outgroup. Based
on this, it was concluded that oxytocin promotes ingroup favouritism.
Strengths of this study include that it was double-blind (where neither the participants nor the
experimenters know who is receiving a particular treatment) self-administered, (the drug was taken by the
participants themselves, making the study ethical), and a homogenous group was taken as subjects.
However, the weaknesses include that an assumption was made that specific cultures have certain names
and that the subjects knew those stereotypical name. Lastly, deception was used for the experiment and
the conclusions made were social-sensitive – just because the men sacrificed the outgroup doesn’t prove
ethnocentric beliefs.
All in all, this study does shows how hormones have widespread effects on both physiology and psychology
in humans and thus behaviour. Despite its weaknesses, some correlations can be made; however, the
nature of the conclusions being social-sensitive show that it is NOT appropriate to say that hormones
“cause” behaviour rather that hormones change the probability that a particular behaviour will be displayed.
18. Explain one study of the role of pheromones in human behaviour.
Pheromones are chemicals that are released outside into the environment which further affect the
behaviour of other species. They are secreted through glands in our body containing natural pheromones
and then the VNO senses the pheromones triggering the neurons. The signal is sent to the olfactory
nerves, then to the hypothalamus which stimulates emotions. Even though it isn’t clear that humans have
pheromones that play a significant role in signalling with species, there is little evidence. For example, Zhou
et al carried out an experiment to see if pheromones affected human sexual behaviour.
They took a sample of 96 participants which included 24 heterosexual women, 24 heterosexual men, 24
lesbian women and 24 gay men. The experiment comprised of the participants watching stick figures trying
to determine their gender. During this, the participants were made to smell cloves. There were 3 conditions:
First, the cloves were mixed with androstadienone; second, the cloves were mixed with estratetraenol; and
third was the control group where only cloves were used.
The results showed that the smell of androstadienone made heterosexual women and gay men to identify
the stick figures as more masculine whereas the smell of estratetraenol made heterosexual men and
lesbian women to identify the stick figures as more feminine. This study clearly shows how pheromones
have an impact on how one perceives the others’ gender information as, in a sex-specific manner. Although
this study had some limitations like replicability issues, unnaturalistic setting etc., it conclusively depicts the
role and influence of pheromones in human behaviour.
19. Explain one study of the role of genes in human behaviour.
A gene is a unit of heredity which codes for a specific trait. Genetic heritability is the contribution of genetic
factors into a trait or behaviour. We know that physical traits can be passed down from generation to
generation but what about behaviour? There are many studies that prove that role of genes and genetic
heritability in human behaviour. In this essay, for instance, there is a discussion on Bouchard and McGue,
who carried out a twin study to research on the genetic inheritance of intelligence.
When carrying out twin research, if the concordance rate for MZ twins is significantly higher than for DZ
twins or siblings, it is likely that there is a genetic component to the behaviour. If the concordance rate is
high for both MZ and DZ twins it may be assumed that environmental factors play a large role in the
observed behaviour. In this case, they used a self-selected sample of monozygotic (MZ) twins who had
been reared together (MZT) and MZ twins that had been raised apart (MZA).
They wanted to see the concordance rates for the IQ to test the intelligence. The results showed that for IQ,
the concordance rate was 88% for MZT and 69% for MZA. Because the concordance rate for MZT was not
a perfect 100%, the researchers concluded that environmental factors do play a role in intelligence, but it is
largely inherited.
There are some limitations to this study as well. For example, the calculation of concordance rates is not
very reliable and there was no control over the external environmental factors which questions the accuracy
of the genetic contribution of intelligence. Lastly, twin studies are difficult to generalise because the twins
are not as representative of the general population. Despite these limitations, this study evidently shows
how genetics can play a role in passing behavioural traits in humans.
20. Explain the use of twin studies using one study. (as of 2020)
Twin studies are used in genetic research to study the correlation between genetic inheritance and
behaviour due to the common genetics shared by twins. Genetic heritability is the contribution of genetic
factors into a trait or behaviour. We know that physical traits can be passed down from generation to
generation but what about behaviour? There are many twin studies that prove that role of genes and
genetic heritability in human behaviour. In this essay, for instance, there is a discussion on Bouchard and
McGue, who carried out a twin study to research on the genetic inheritance of intelligence.
[continue with gene and behaviour body paragraphs from previous question]
21. Explain one evolutionary explanation of one behaviour.
Evolution is the process by which organisms change from generation to generation as a result of a change
in heritable characteristics. The theory of evolution explains the variety of species and their modifications
that we observe in the world by placing all these species into a developmental historical perspective. It also
traces back common ancestors for all organisms, including humans. It all occurs due to natural selection.
This essay is going to focus on a study by Curtis, Aunger, and Rabie (2004) who suggested that disgust
has evolved as a protection from risk of disease.
To test their hypotheses, Curtis, Aunger and Rabie (2004) used a survey placed on the BBC Science
website. The survey was advertised in a BBC documentary. It was completed by over 77,000 people from
165 countries. However, after data cleaning, the final sample size was slightly less than 40,000. For
example, all participants who had watched the BBC documentary were excluded because they could have
been exposed to the hypothesis of the study. First, respondents were asked a set of demographic
questions on their age, sex, country, and so on. Then they were asked to rate 20 photographs (appearing
one by one on separate screens) for disgust on a scale from 1 (not disgusting) to 5 (very disgusting). Of
these photographs, 14 comprised 7 pairs of disease-salient versus less salient stimuli.
The results of the survey supported all the hypotheses proposed by the researchers. First, disease-salient
stimuli were rated as more disgusting than less salient ones. Second, the results were consistent across
cultures. Third, females rated the disease-salient pictures as more disgusting than men. Fourth, as
predicted, there was an age-based decline in the sensitivity to disease-salient stimuli. Finally, disgust is felt
more strongly in contact with strangers than with relatives (average responses showed that people were
less likely to share a toothbrush with a postman than their spouse).
As per the evaluation, the method was overall good, with high population validity because the results can
be generalised to large populations and cultures. The questions of the survey were no intrusive, causing no
physical or mental harm to the participants. The true aims of the study were necessarily hidden from the
participants (to avoid demand characteristics), which can be considered as unethical as a form of
deception.
In conclusion, the study clearly shows how people associate disgust as a response that reduces the risk of
diseases. It supports the idea of the evolutionary explanation of the feeling of disgust. Therefore, it is
possible for behaviour to evolve.
22. Explain the use of family studies (kinship studies) using one study. (as of 2020)
Family studies study behaviour between family members who have similar genetics to different degrees.
Genetic heritability is the contribution of genetic factors into a trait or behaviour. We know that physical
traits can be passed down from generation to generation but what about behaviour? There are many family
studies that prove that role of genes and genetic heritability in human behaviour. In this essay, for instance,
there is a discussion on a study by Kendler et al (2015), who conducted a rigorously designed adoption
study of a sample of sibling pairs in which one of the siblings was home-reared and the other one was
adopted away.
For their study, the complete national Swedish register of male-male siblings was searched, initially
identifying 436 male sibling sets where one of the members was reared by adoptive parents. IQ scores
were taken from the Military Conscription Register (which includes cognitive assessment data for all 18-
year-old men in Sweden). Available data also included the educational attainment of both biological and
adoptive parents.
Findings showed that the mean educational level was significantly higher in the group of adoptive parents
as compared to biological parents. There was a modest correlation (r = 0.18) between the educational
levels of biological and adoptive parents, which may suggest some effects of selective placement, the
process of matching adoptive parents to adopted children with respect to particular characteristics.
Their study has high internal reliability because of the large population of people involved and a high
ecological validity as well. However, it has low population validity because only Swedish people were
considered and hence, can’t be generalised to larger populations. Further, the study only proves a
correlation between the variable and does not infer causation because of the less control over the
variables. This also means that the study has bidirectional ambiguity because the direction of the
correlation is unknown.
In conclusion, interpretation of these findings suggests that cognitive ability is environmentally malleable:
there was a 5-point IQ increase on average by age 18. The fact that there is a correlation between
cognitive ability of adopted children and educational levels of adoptive parents supports this conclusion. On
the other hand, results also suggest heritability of intelligence: this is evident from the correlation between
cognitive ability of adopted children and the educational level of biological parents. Results seem to
suggest an additive influence of environment and genetics: the largest IQ scores were observed in adopted
children from well-educated biological families adopted into well-educated families.
 ERQs (22 marks each)
1. Discuss the use of one or more research methods.
2. Evaluate the use of one or more research methods.
3. Discuss ethical considerations.
4. Evaluate at least one technique used to study the brain in relation to behaviour.
5. Evaluate research on localization of function.
6. Evaluate research on neuroplasticity.
7. Evaluate research on the role of neurotransmission on behaviour.
8. Discuss the role of hormones on behaviour, using one or more examples.
9. Discuss the role of pheromones in human behaviour, using one or more examples.
10. To what extent does genetic inheritance play a role in one behaviour?
11. Evaluate research on the role of genes on behaviour.
12. Discuss/Evaluate one evolutionary explanation of behaviour.
HL extension
13. Discuss the value of animal models in psychology research.
14. Discuss the value of animal models in the study of the brain and behaviour.
15. Discuss the value of animal models in the study of hormones and behaviour.
16. Discuss the value of animal models in the study of the role of genes on behaviour.
17. To what extent can animal research provide insight into human behaviour?
18. To what extent can animal research provide insight into the role of the brain in human behaviour?
19. To what extent can animal research provide insight into the role of genes on human behaviour?
20. To what extent can animal research provide insight into the role of hormones on human behaviour?
21. Discuss ethical considerations in animal research.
22. Discuss ethical considerations in animal research on the brain and behaviour.
23. Discuss ethical considerations in animal research on hormones and behaviour.
24. Discuss ethical considerations in animal research on the role of genes on behaviour.

ANIMAL RESEARCH (ERQs – 22 marks)

Q. Discuss the value of animal models in research to provide insight into human behaviour. 
An animal model is a concept that refers to using animal research to test a certain cause–effect hypothesis
about a certain human behaviour. In the biological approach, animals are often used to study human
behaviour. This is because of various reasons supported by the Biological Level of Analysis (BLOA): (1)
Genetic similarities between humans and animals, (2) Ability to study behaviour over the lifespan of the
animal as well as control the environment, and (3) Less ethical concerns compared to studies involving
humans. The real question here is: “Are animals really that valuable to study humans?” This essay will
explore the value of animal models through the use of two studies – Cases et al (1995) and Weaver et al
(2004).
To begin with, in 1995, Cases et al aimed to investigate the role of the MAOA gene in aggressive behaviour
in mice. For their study, they used a transgenic mouse, where the gene that regulates the production of
monoamine oxidase A (MAOA), an enzyme that breaks down serotonin and norepinephrine, was ‘knocked
out” or deleted. The results showed that between days 11 and 16 the mice showed several signs of low
MAOA. The male mice they observed showed signs of offensive aggressive behaviour that included frantic
running, violent shaking while sleeping, and the tendency to bite the experimenter. An autopsy on the
brains showed an increase in serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine – the serotonin levels were 6 to 9
times higher than in the control mice.
One of the strengths of this study was that it has high internal validity because a causal relationship could
be developed between aggressive behaviour and the level of MAOA. On the other hand, it lacked construct
validity because the behaviour that the mice showed was subjectively interpreted and there wasn’t a
defined criterion. This study also links to the study carried out by Caspi et al in 2002, which looked into the
role of the 5HTT gene on depression.
The second study that makes the use of animal models to study human behaviour is the study carried out
by Weaver et al in 2004. They investigated the effect of the type of nurturing rats receive on their response
to stress later in life. The first group was made up of rats that received less attention from the mothers but
were now receiving vigorous licking and grooming from other rats. The second group was made up of rats
who received vigorous licking and grooming from their mothers but were now receiving less attention.
Within 12 hours of being born, researchers switched baby rats born to "high licking" mothers with baby rats
born to "low licking" mothers (licking is a sign that mother rats are caring and loving to their offspring).
The results showed that the rats that were raised by "high licking" mothers grew up to be less stressed, and
eventually became "high licking" mothers when they had children of their own, even if their biological
mother was a "low licker".  Through an examination of genes related to maternal care, researchers found
that rats raised by "high lickers" had lost the methyl groups around these genes, causing those genes to be
"turned on". Strengths of this study include the highly controlled nature of the lab experiment, showing a
clear causal relationship between the independent variable and dependent variables. However, there is an
issue of generalisability to human nurturing behaviour.
In conclusion, animal models are especially significant to carry out experiments that can’t be conducted on
humans. The two studies discussed are relevant to the value of animal models because of the limitations
that they will have if conducted on humans. For example, switching babies with different mothers would be
highly unethical if done to humans. Also, the shorter lifespan of rats made it easier to study behaviour
across generations. Lastly, there have been many links between animal studies and human studies,
leading us to believe that animals can be a good model for the study of human behaviour.

Q. Discuss the value of animal models to provide insight into the role of the brain and behaviour. 
An animal model is a concept that refers to using animal research to test a certain cause–effect hypothesis
about a certain human behaviour. In the biological approach, animals are often used to study human
behaviour. This is because of various reasons supported by the Biological Level of Analysis (BLOA): (1)
Genetic similarities between humans and animals, (2) Ability to study behaviour over the lifespan of the
animal as well as control the environment, and (3) Less ethical concerns compared to studies involving
humans. The real question here is: “Are animals really that valuable to study humans?” This essay will
explore this through the use of two studies: LeDoux (1994) and Rosenzweig, Bennet & Diamond (1972).
 

 LeDoux to understand what happens in the brain during the fear response. By using lesioning in
rats, LeDoux (1994) determined that the amygdala played a key role in the fear response.  He
proposed a model based on his research with rats that argues that there are two paths in a fear
response.  When we see something fearful, the visual thalamus sends a message to the amygdala. 
This results in a fear response and blood pressure rises.  This is a quick response that is important
for our survival.  He called this the low path. In the second path – the high path - the message from
the thalamus passes through the visual cortex and the hippocampus and its meaning is interpreted.
If the stimulus is perceived to not be a threat, the amygdala lowers blood pressure and ceases the
fear reaction.
o Current techniques for examining the human brain are still not able to study the neural
systems in the way that animal models allow. Although researchers can study patients with
brain lesions, these lesions often include damage to other structures and are not as precise
as the animal models. In addition, because of the plastic nature of the brain, if the lesions
occurred a long time again, the brain has changed in structure to compensate for the
damage and so it is difficult to determine the exact effect of the lesion.
 Rosenzweig, Bennet & Diamond's (1972) study on the role of environmental stimuli on brain
plasticity. As the study was highly controlled, the researchers argued that there was a cause and
effect relationship between stimuli and brain development. However, in order to actually measure
the effect, the researchers had to kill the animals and then measure the density of the brains.
o Not all experiments in psychology use mice.  Even closer to us genetically than mice,
primates have been used in several studies. The following study is one of the classic studies
in the psychology of stress.
Discuss the value of animal models to provide insight into the role of hormones and/or pheromones
and behaviour.
Discuss the value of animal models to provide insight into the role of genes on behaviour. 
Discuss ethical considerations in animal research. 
Discuss ethical considerations in animal research on the brain and behaviour. 
Discuss ethical considerations in animal research on hormones and/or pheromones and behaviour. 
Discuss ethical considerations in animal research on the role of genes on behaviour.
Although animal research is often conducted because it would be too unethical to be conducted on
humans, it is still necessary to ensure that ethics are not breached while involving animals in studies. One
ethical consideration in the biological approach is informed consent. Informed consent is the process in
which the participants of a certain study are informed about the risks, benefits, and procedure of the study.
The participant must agree to participate in the study, with the knowledge of the option of withdrawal,
anonymity, and other rights, which is when it will be ethical.
However, in the biological approach where animal models are used, there are some issues regarding
informed consent. The first is that animals can’t give actual consent to be subjects of a study, which brings
into question a lot of things and makes the study unethical. Additionally, studies that involve damage to the
brain or long term psychological impact on mental health are the ones that are usually done on animals
(because they can’t be done using humans). For this, it can be argued that the participants (animals) do not
understand the risks and procedure of the study and hence, they don’t know what they are agreeing to do
(they’re not exactly agreeing anyways).

 Harry Harlow drew condemnation for his "pit of despair" experiments on rhesus macaque monkeys
in the 1970s. The aim of the research was to produce an animal model of clinical depression. In
1974, American literary critic Wayne C. Booth wrote that, "Harry Harlow and his colleagues go on
torturing their nonhuman primates decade after decade, invariably proving what we all knew in
advance—that social creatures can be destroyed by destroying their social ties."
 Seligman (1965) conducted an experiment in which dogs were shocked. Some dogs were able to
end the shocks, but those that had no control developed a sense of learned helplessness. The
dogs in this group displayed clinical depression.
 Studies on the role of acetylcholine on memory (Martinez & Kesner, n.d.)
 Research on the role of stress on health (Shively & Day, 2015)
 Research on the role of hormones on mating behaviour in prairie voles (Winslow et al, 1993).

1. The introductory paragraph 

2. It appears that many teachers give students a framework for writing the introductory
paragraph.  Often, these frameworks create an unfocused introduction that leads to lower
marks. 
3. Strategies to avoid for the introduction 
4. Don’t list all you know. For example, don’t say that there are several examples of how
biological factors influence behaviour and then outline three or four only to say: But for this
essay, I will be discussing something else. Listing unnecessary information lowers marks both in
the SAQs and the ERQs. 
5. Do not explain the command term. Do not write Discuss means that I will have to …. 
6. Do not outline the principles of the approach. This is often totally irrelevant to the question. 
7. What should students do?  The introduction should accomplish three things: 
8. State the position with regards to the question. 
9. Outline how the question will be answered. 
10. Define any important terms. 
11. I admit, SOD is not the best of acronyms, but it will work.  So, let’s look at the
question:  Discuss the role of genetics in explaining one behaviour. 
Role of parts of brain:
1. Cortex: The cerebral cortex, made up of billions of neurons and glial cells, is divided into the right
and left hemispheres and into four lobes – cognitive functioning (decision making)
a. The frontal lobe is primarily responsible for thinking, planning, memory, and judgment.
b. The parietal lobe is primarily responsible for bodily sensations and touch.
c. The temporal lobe is primarily responsible for hearing and language.
d. The occipital lobe is primarily responsible for vision.
e. Other areas of the cortex act as association areas, responsible for integrating information.
2. Cerebellum – recognition and memory
a. The cerebellum has traditionally been seen primarily to coordinate voluntary movement, but
evidence is accumulating that it may play a role in cognition and behaviour as well.
b. Schmahman and Sherman,15 using bedside cognitive testing as well as neuropsychological
testing in a group of 20 patients with isolated cerebellar disease, described a syndrome that
included impaired spatial cognition, dysprosody, and anomia, as well as executive
dysfunction with difficulties in planning, set-shifting, abstraction, working memory, and verbal
fluency.
3. Limbic system – emotional behaviour (amygdala)
a. The limbic system is the part of the brain involved in our behavioural and emotional
responses, especially when it comes to behaviours we need for survival: feeding,
reproduction and caring for our young, and fight or flight responses.
4. Brain stem – physiology
a. Immediate, almost reflexive responses humans make that seem irrational are often
representative of brain stem influenced behaviour.

Broca area – responsible for movement of lips and speech production

Wernicke’s area – comprehension