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Sustainable Development: An Overview

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 1

Sustainable Development: An Overview

OLUSOLA O. OLOLADE1*

ABSTRACT
Globally, various sectors are incorporating sustainable development into their
activities to show that they are concerned about the environment, which is just
one pillar of the concept. It involves a balance between the environmental, social
and economic aspects of our society with different interpretations by diverse
sectors. An unsustainable development that does not consider future implications
could have severe consequences. In this chapter the growth and implementation
of the concept, especially in developing countries, are examined, the challenges
faced along the way are highlighted, and possible interventions for future success
are proposed. There is progress in the advancement of sustainable development,
but not at the desired level, however it is achievable with increased awareness
and realistic policy.
Key words: Sustainable development; Economic sustainability, Social
sustainability, Environmental sustainability, Concept,
Implementation, Challenges, Growth, Interventions,
Achieving, Awareness developing countries policies

INTRODUCTION

There is much debate about the concept of sustainable development with

diverse sectors of the economy ascribing different meanings to it. This
concept has been shaped through a series of multilateral conferences that
were initiated in 1972, with the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment in Stockholm (Kirsch, 2010). The term sustainable development
is usually used to refer to practices that are reputed to be more environmen-
tally sound than others (Heinberg, 2007). The definition proposed by the
1
Centre for Environmental Management, University of the Free State, P.O. Box 339,
Bloemfontein 9300, South Africa
* Corresponding author: E-mail: shola.ololade@gmail.com
2 Environ. Sci. & Engg. Vol. 1: Sustainable Development

Brundtland Commission which was instituted in 1987 by the World

Commission on Environment and Development, is the most widely accepted
(WCED, 1987). The Brundtland Commission did acknowledge limitations
associated with the current process used to assess the success of sustainable
development, and therefore warned that various measures of sustainability
must be consider within the context in which it is being applied and account
for the social challenges that come with it (WCED, 1987, cited in Cooper
and Vargas, 2004).

Agenda 21 raised expectations about achieving sustainable development.

The environmental side of the sustainability concept was the focus of the
1992 Earth Summit in Rio. Unfortunately, since 1992 not much progress
has been made in achieving the principles set out in the Agenda. The World
Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), which took place in
Johannesburg (in 2002), set out to reaffirm and strengthen the concept of
sustainability as laid out in Agenda 21. The main aim of the WSSD was to
highlight the link between poverty, the environment and the use of natural
resources (Asafu-Adjaye, 2005). Hirji et al. (2002) argue that setting protection
of resources as a long term goal is a good way of ensuring sustainable
development. If a resource base is used wisely it can continue to provide
benefits for improving people’s livelihoods and quality of life, reduce poverty
and promote economic growth. According to Dunphy et al. (2000: 22)
sustainable development recognises that both the economy and society
depend on the biosphere and the environmental processes taking place within
it. Hence the main goal of a sustainable development process is sustainability,
which ultimately leads to improved quality of life (Schaltegger et al., 2003).
Heintz (2004) states that sustainability is a product of the biophysical
environment that occur due to the interactions between the ecosystem and
society. Ecosystems include all living things and the non-living things they
interact with and depend on while society includes all the human elements
of the biosphere and the economic systems they operate in (Flint, 2013).

Globally, various sectors are incorporating sustainable development

principles into their activities to show that they are concerned about the
environment which is just one pillar of the concept (Azapagic, 2004).
However, the concept involves a balance between the environmental, social
and economic aspects of our society (Gibson, 2006). The goal of sustainable
development cannot be achieved without a good understanding of the three
aspects of the concept based on the definition adapted from Flint (2004):

• Economic sustainability involves development that protects and/or

improves natural resource capacities through better management
practices and policies, improved technology with enhanced efficiency,
and reforms in lifestyle;
• Social sustainability includes equal access to jobs, education, natural
resources, good health facilities and services for everyone and
improved societal well-being; and
Sustainable Development: An Overview 3

• Environmental sustainability that is centred around ecologic integrity

which involves understanding the natural system processes of the
three media of the environment (air, water, land) and how they are
interlinked in order to guide the planning of good economic
development policies that consider the preservation of the natural
environment.

A better understanding of these three aspects and their interdepen-

dencies on one another would help to advance the goal of sustainable
development because, by maintaining one of the aspects at the expense of
the others will distort the balance (Dzwairo et al., 2010). This approach is
illustrated by Munasinghe (1996) in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1: Illustration of sustainable development (Source: Munasinghe, 1996)

The illustration in Fig. 1 is supported by a UNEP (2010) report, which

states that, “a green economy will result in a sustainable society by
substantially increasing investments in economic sectors that build on and
enhance the earth’s natural capital or reduce ecological scarcities and
environmental risks”. This chapter examines the growth and imple-
mentation of the sustainable development concept, especially in developing
countries, the challenges faced along the way and possible interventions
for future success. Extensive review of literature related to the focus of this
paper was conducted to shed light on the viability of this concept.

GLOBAL ACCEPTANCE OF THE CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT

There is a widely accepted belief now that one of the possible solutions to
global socioeconomic and environmental decline can be found in the practical
4 Environ. Sci. & Engg. Vol. 1: Sustainable Development

application of sustainable development strategies (Flint, 2013). The

overexploitation of natural resources, associated with economic and
population growth, brought people from the public and private sectors
together to consider the problems that face all societies, whether
industrialised or developing (Ahenkan and Osei-Kojo, 2014; Gumbo, 2005;
Mensah and Castro, 2004). The dialogue about the concept of sustainable
development started at the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment in Stockholm in 1972, where the integration of social equity,
and ecological caution were merged into economic development models.
This conference resulted in the conception of the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) and the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) (UN, 1972). Over the years the general public became
aware of the consequences of human activities on the environment, such
as climate change. The media brought even more attention to the urgent
need to protect the environment from any possible negative consequences.

The term sustainable development only came to the fore in the

Brundtland Report published in 1987. One of the driving forces of this concept
in developed economies is the growing importance of environmentalism,
which has led to the development of environmental regulations and
agreements to aid self-regulatory measures and increase environmental
performance (Ulhøi and Madsen, 1999). Environmental activists have
contributed to the acceptance of this concept by exerting pressure on
companies to make their operations sustainable. Hence, companies are
being evaluated on the basis of their social and environmental performance.
Higher ratings mean better business and attracting the notice of socially
responsible investors. The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) a non-profit
organisation also promotes sustainability reporting among organisations
in the public and private sectors to enhance awareness of the concept
(Blackburn, 2007). Researchers are attempting to find ways of achieving
sustainability in various categories of the industrial sector. However, there
is no criterion or method that has been devised for any particular industry
to follow in order for its conduct to be considered “sustainable” (NRC, 1995,
cited in Hilson and Murck, 2000).

African countries have incorporated sustainable projects in their

commitments. The New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD),
approved by the African Summit in 2001 and buttressed by the WSSD, offers
a framework for sustainable development in Africa. The vision, mission
and initiatives of NEPAD guide current development efforts by participating
countries and the international community (NEPAD, 2003). According to
the study carried out in 2011 by the United Nations Economic Commission
for Africa (UNECA) on National Councils for Sustainable Development
(NCSDs) in Africa, “most of the 16 countries that took part in it had adopted
various policies, strategies and plans addressing sustainable development
issues which included long-term national visions, national and regional
Sustainable Development: An Overview 5

development plans, Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) and sectorial

strategies in the agriculture, environment and natural resources sectors”.
However the study does not provide a comprehensive analysis of each
country’s progress, particularly in terms of their development and
implementation.

The awareness and global acceptance of sustainable development

principles, and the way these principles are being interpreted in developed
countries differ from most developing countries. The case of countries in
southern Africa is a good example. Given the level of human development
in this region, the goal of sustainable development is focused mainly on
equity issues (Weaver, 2003). The vision of the Southern African
Development Community (SADC) in relation to sustainable development
(SADC 1996) aims to
• Accelerate economic growth, with greater equity and self-reliance;
• Improve the health, income and living conditions of the poor majority;
and
• Ensure equitable and sustainable use of the environment and natural
resources for the benefit of present and future generations.
Several research studies (CSIR, 2010; Dwaziro et al., 2010; McCarthy,
2011; Meadows and Hoffman, 2002) have found that South Africa’s natural
resource base is under severe pressure, with many ecosystems already
seriously degraded. Considering South Africa’s highly energy-intensive
nature, it can be concluded that the country is on a development path that
is unsustainable. This stimulated the development of strategies to move
the country towards a sustainable path. This scenario is evident in most
southern African countries.

Bauer and Thant (2010) argue that there is a need for the Asian region
to rethink the model of their development so that growth can be more
inclusive and sustainable. The region has experienced rapid population and
economic growth, accompanied by diverse environmental challenges (Mori,
2013; APFED, 2005). Various actions have been taken from the local to the
regional level to promote sustainable development. Many regional and
international organisations, including the United Nations, promote
sustainable development principles in the region by getting involved in
projects relating to poverty alleviation, natural resources conservation and
pollution control, developing environmental legislation, and environmental
education for better information and awareness. Despite the substantial
progress made in some areas, institutional and policy failures are still a
major cause of unsustainable development and environmental degradation
(APFED, 2005). According to Al- Amin et al. (2015) sustainable development
is still a major challenge in many developing Asian countries and the gap in
equity and good governance is increasing in the absence of a “good policy
instrument” in terms of suitable framework.
6 Environ. Sci. & Engg. Vol. 1: Sustainable Development

IMPLEMENTATION AND INTEGRATION OF SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT INTO NATIONAL PROGRAMMES

Most policy makers consider sustainable development to be an objective

that specialists from different disciplines, such as scientists and social
scientists, should help them achieve through the integration of environmental
issues into everyday thinking, decision making and accountability processes
(Schaltegger et al., 2003). According to Mutangadura (2005), almost all
southern African countries have established sustainable development bodies
responsible for coordinating sustainable development activities and
promoting sound environmental management. However, because the legal
frameworks of most of these bodies are located in environment acts, their
work tends to be inclined towards the environmental domain.

The South African government has incorporated the concept of

sustainable development into its policies by establishing laws and
regulations. The constitution of South Africa is based on this concept. Section
24 (a) and (b) state that, “Everyone has the right to an environment that is
not harmful to their health or well-being; and to have the environment
protected, for the benefit of present and future generations, through
reasonable legislative and other measures that:

• Prevent pollution and ecological degradation;

• Promote conservation; and
• Secure ecological sustainable development and use of “natural
resources.”
A variety of laws and legislation have been enacted on the basis of this
section of the South African constitution, which helps to guide both the
public and private sectors in their daily operations towards improved
environmental governance. For example, South Africa’s National Water
Act, which transfers water rights from private to state ownership, is expected
to promote sustainable development as far as environmental resources are
concerned (Republic of South Africa, 1998). Despite the promulgation of
these laws and policies, the overall quality of South Africa’s environment is
still declining.

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which were constituted

during the September 2000 Millennium Summit, is one of the means the
international community devised to achieve sustainable development
principles, especially in developing countries, including those on the African
continent (DESA, 2013). The 2014 UN report on the status of MDGs indicates
that there has been significant progress in the achievement of all goals,
with some targets already having been met before the 2015 deadline. Some
countries recorded significant achievements on some of the MDG goals,
while sub-Saharan Africa is lagging far behind. This situation is aggravated
by the depletion of sub-Saharan African countries’ natural resource base
Sustainable Development: An Overview 7

(forests, fisheries, soil and water), which is being degraded and polluted
gradually. The number of people living in extreme poverty in developing
countries has fallen by 700 million people since 2000. The MDG of halving
poverty globally was achieved in 2010, although progress has been uneven
and inadequate; in actual fact, the proportion of people living on less than
$1.25 a day reduced from 47 per cent in 1990 to 22 per cent in 2010, with the
majority of the extremely poor living in southern Asia and sub-Saharan
Africa (UN, 2014). However, there has been some progress, as the number
of extremely poor people in sub-Saharan Africa has reduced and the poverty
gap ratio has declined– this is significant because the prevalence of poverty
in Africa is associated with high-income inequality (UNECA, 2008b). One of
the MDGs that South Africa paid particular attention to was halving poverty
and unemployment rates by the year 2014 (Burns and Weaver, 2008); this
goal is far from being realised (Rennkamp, 2012). Achieving MDG 7, which
is focused on environmental sustainability, will help in reaching MDGs
relating to poverty, health and gender equality, which falls in the social and
economic domain.

One of the key tools that is used to promote sustainable development

principles globally is environmental assessment, with a focus on the
environment as an integral link to human well-being (Sadler, 1996).
Although the main focus of this tool initially was to ensure that the
biophysical impacts of any developments are considered in decision-making
instead of placing emphasis on sustainable development. The first country
to enforce environmental assessment through legislation in the form of
environmental impact assessment (EIA) is the United States of America,
through the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969. Thereafter
many other countries developed similar legislation (Gilpin, 1995; Glasson
et al., 2005). Furthermore, strategic environmental assessment (SEA) was
initiated as an extension of EIA in order to implement sustainability
principles through the development of sustainability goals, indicators and
targets to guide human activities (Therivel et al., 1992).

A UNEP report (2010) states that some developing countries have

recorded successes concerning their sustainable development initiatives.
For example, China, Kenya and Tunisia are placing more emphasis on
renewable energy and energy efficiency, Uganda has made considerable
progress from convectional agricultural production to an organic farming
system using the least amount of artificial fertilizer in the world, Brazil is
investing in sustainable urban planning through a combination of land-use
zoning and provision of public transport infrastructure, which has reduced
traffic congestion and pollution and lead to the establishment of more green
public spaces; India is investing in rural ecological infrastructure by “financing
rural works that address causes of drought, deforestation and soil erosion,
thus restoring the natural capital base on which rural livelihoods depend”,
Nepal is focusing more on forest management, which has lead to the
8 Environ. Sci. & Engg. Vol. 1: Sustainable Development

conservation of forests, and has enhanced soil and water management, and
Ecuador is protecting ecosystem services through watershed protection
programmes. Not only do the sustainability initiatives in these countries
have a positive impact on the environment but also on the socio-economic
aspect, through increasing employment and alleviating poverty.

CHALLENGES FACING THE ADVANCEMENT OF SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES

Governments of most countries that are actively in pursuit of sustainable

development are faced with the task of determining the best ways to balance
the challenges and opportunities associated with growth, and ways of
supporting economic growth that does not have negative impacts on the
environment.

Policies in force in most countries address the three pillars of sustainable

development separately and in isolation, which can lead to undesirable
results – an integrated approach would yield better results (Ahenkan and
Osei-Kojo, 2014; Al- Amin et al., 2015; Gibson, 2006). The approaches adopted
and entrenched in policies and legislation of some countries depend on quick
fixes, and do not lead to sustainable solutions. An example is carbon trading,
where one industry is allowed to produce more pollutants if it pays another
industry to produce less of the same pollutant. This practice merely leads
to displacement of the impact from one place to another; sometimes the
impact is transferred from one environmental medium (air, water or land)
to another, which could even exacerbate the impact (Munasinghe, 2000;
Reddy, 2011; Sathaye et al., 2007).

Many developing countries face poverty, political instability, conflict

issues, unemployment and inadequate infrastructure, which are major
impediments to the goals of sustainable development (Al- Amin et al., 2015;
Kumar, 2014; DESA, 2013; UNECA, 2008b; UNECA, 2011). Instead of
treating the root cause of these problems, only the symptoms are being
addressed, which leads to a cycle of repetitive events (UNECA, 2008a).
Societal expectations in these countries aggravates the situation, putting
pressure on people and encourages excessive consumption of resources,
wealth accumulation and a strong desire to obtain power at any cost.
Research has found a link between poverty and environmental degradation;
poverty is both a cause and an effect of environmental degradation. This is
because poor people are the most severely affected by environmental
degradation due to the fact that they are mostly dependent on the
environment through the direct use of natural resources. People lacking
access to these resources have limited means of coping (Awasthi, 2011). It
has also been proven that countries subject to internal or cross-border conflict
do not consider the environment a priority, due to lack of economic resources
or political will (Bamidele, 2013; Heintz, 2004; UNEP, 2004).
Sustainable Development: An Overview 9

Issues such as rapid population growth, food security, desertification,

and disturbing health trends like the spread of HIV/AIDS hinders the
achievement of sustainable development goals in developing countries.
For example, increasing populations put pressure on the agricultural
sector to increase food production which, even though it is being done
with fewer workers and less land, still has to compete with other sectors
for resources and eventually end up using more water, chemicals and
machinery. This actions contributes to an increasing levels of pollution
of the environment, homogenisation of landscapes and destruction of
wildlife habitats. There is therefore a need for policies and proper
management initiatives that can boost the agricultural sector’s
contributions to society, while decreasing its negative impact (Boon, 2012;
Sachs, 2008; Zuberi and Thomas, 2012).

In developing countries changes in land-use patterns have led to decreased

water access, erosion, land degradation, overgrazed and deteriorating
rangelands, deforestation and loss of biodiversity (Lambin and Meyfroidt,
2011; Madeira, 2008). Land-use changes have also resulted in changes in
land tenure and land ownership patterns, from communal and open-access
ownership to private ownership, with an increasing inclination towards land
sales; especially in African countries. These practices often result in conflicts
and sub-optimal use of land (UNECA, 2008a; Wehrmann, 2008). In addition
to the aforementioned consequences is the problem of urban sprawl and
the development of informal settlements, which arise without proper land-
use plans, leading to loss of forest cover and significant environmental
degradation (Bahadure and Bahadure, 2012; Department of Environmental
Affairs, 2011).

Rapid urbanisation without proper policy frameworks for the sustainable

development of expanding urban centres could have a negative effect on
the environment and human well-being (APFED, 2005; Kumar, 2014). The
global movement of people from rural to urban areas because of new and
better job opportunities in cities has contributed to poverty alleviation, but
it has also added to pressure on resource bases through an increase in
demand for energy, water, sanitation, and public services, such as education
and health care. Many migrants end up living in urban slums and informal
settlements (DESA, 2013; Satterthwaite, 2009; Tisdell, 1997). A UN report
(2013) states that, since 2007, more than half of the world’s population has
been living in urban centres. The report projects that the proportion will
increased by more than 70 per cent in 2050. About 80 per cent of this
population will reside in cities in developing regions, especially in Africa
and Asia, where countries are likely to lack capacity and financial resources
to balance development with sustainable use of resources. Cities in
developed economies also need to invest in infrastructure that uses natural
resources more efficiently than at present in order to reduce their ecological
footprints (Bahadure and Bahadure, 2012; Rees and Wackernagel, 1996).
10 Environ. Sci. & Engg. Vol. 1: Sustainable Development

Some countries’ economies are energy intensive and becoming more so,
especially those in developed countries, which depend mostly on fossil fuel
(Hughes et al., 2002; WRI, 2005). This trend has led to an increasing demand
for reliable and affordable energy supplies globally. Africa is endowed with
abundant energy resources in the form of fossil fuels (oil, gas, and coal),
hydropower, uranium, biomass, as well as renewable energy resources such
as solar, wind, geothermal power. However, a heavy reliance on fossil fuels
causes pollution of the environment, and these fuels are highly inefficient
(Department of Environmental Affairs, 2011). According to Winkler (2006),
“South Africa is one of the highest emitters of greenhouse gases when compared
to other developing countries because of its coal-based energy economy”. The
renewable energy resources of the African continent remain largely untapped,
with only about 7% of the hydropower potential of the continent currently
being used (UNECA, 2008a). Kumar (2014) states that south Asia, one of the
most densely populated regions in the world, is facing a serious human security
problem due to climate change. The main factor causing climate change is an
increase in the concentration of carbon in the atmosphere over time, which
results from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases emitted by a variety
of economic activities that depend on fossil fuels, such as energy generation,
industry and transport. Changes in climate have made some of the countries
in this region prone to natural disasters, including heavy rainfall causing “severe
floods, landslides and debris flow”, thereby endangering the lives and livelihoods
of members of the south Asian population, who depend mostly on agriculture
(Kumar, 2014).

African countries and developing countries in some other parts of the

world that are well-endowed with significant amount of natural resources
have become important suppliers globally. The extractive industry (oil, gas,
minerals) contributes significantly to African economies. Research has shown
that the main challenge facing these countries is how to plough back the
wealth created from non-renewable resources into the surrounding
communities to achieve economic growth and social development without
any negative impact on the environment. Using these finite resources
sustainably ensures that, when the resources run out, the region will still
be able to attain a sustainable level of development (Botta et al., 2014;
Ololade and Annegarn, 2013; SDSN, 2013; MMSD, 2002).

Lack of adequate funding for implementing sustainable development

projects is a challenge in most developing countries. Most of the available
funding is used for policy or strategic planning, legislation review,
information and educational activities and a few sustainable development
projects (Mutangadura, 2005). The lack of interest in and ignorance about
implementing sustainable development projects could be due to minimal
communication and propagation of sustainable development issues among
key role players. Some of the tools for implementing sustainable develo-
pment principles are not fully established in some developing economies.
For example, the research conducted by Kumar (2014) showed that environ-
Sustainable Development: An Overview 11

mental impact assessment (EIA) is still not fully recognised as a require-

ment for the establishment and operation of industries in south Asia.

The variability in the indicators used for measuring sustainability is a

big challenge due to the wide scope of the sustainability agenda (Munasinghe
and Shearer, 1995). The United Nations developed 58 indicators that can
be used by countries to monitor and assess advancement in sustainable
development, but most institutions in developing countries have not yet
adopted any of these indicators for monitoring the progress towards meeting
their sustainable development objectives (Mutangadura, 2005). This is a
major limitation in most African countries, where suitable quantitative
and qualitative indicators for measuring the progress of countries and the
entire region towards attaining the goals, objectives and principles of
sustainable development are not available (UNECA, 2008a). Irregular
monitoring, misplaced data and inadequate indicators make it very difficult
to evaluate the effects of policies and programmes framed to facilitate
sustainable development (SDSN, 2015; Mutangadura, 2005).

The moderate capabilities of academic research centres and consultants

working to advance sustainability is a major limiting factor in developing
countries. Although most environmental practitioners understand the three
main aspects of sustainable development, it is often a challenge for them to
integrate the three pillars of sustainability as one, because few have sufficient
skills to do it (Shandler et al., 1999; UNECA, 2008). The focus is mostly
narrowed down on biophysical aspects, due to the fact that most of the
environmental practitioners only received training in the natural sciences.
Intensive skills training and capacity building in various aspects of national
and regional sustainable development institutions is vital to the success of
sustainable development programmes in most developing economies –
currently these countries rely heavily on expatriate personnel. Some of
these institutions have overlapping responsibilities and the main challenge
is to clarify these responsibilities to avoid duplication (Department of
Environmental Affairs, 2011; Mutangadura, 2005; SDSN, 2013).

POSSIBLE INTERVENTIONS TO ACTUALISE THE CONCEPT OF

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Based on the interdependencies of the social, economic and environmental

factors associated with sustainable development, a new way of thinking,
whereby integrated solutions are used to solve underlying problems through
a bridge between disciplines, is needed (Hodge, 2004, Redman, 1999). There
is also a need for integrated information set on long-term sustainability
issues relating to the design and monitoring of policy across economic,
social, and environmental domains through the establishment of applicable
framework conditions and implementation tools (Robinson, 2004; DESA,
2013). A move from the traditional approach involving a trade-off between
12 Environ. Sci. & Engg. Vol. 1: Sustainable Development

the environment and the economy and social exclusion, to an integrated,

sustainable approach will yield better results.

A radical shift in people’s way of thinking towards a societal culture that

values human welfare and responsible consumption of resources is needed
to achieve sustainability. In terms of individual attitude change, incentives
can be used to modify behaviour in line with sustainable development goals
(Flint, 2013; Kibert et al., 2011). A combined use of regulatory and economic
instruments, with coordination between government agencies, NGOs and
the public, will help to improve environmental quality and achieve
sustainability in developing countries (Ramakrishna and Jayasheela, 2010).
Governments of developing economies also need to sensitise people and
conduct education campaigns to make the general public more
knowledgeable about sustainable-development issues (Murga-Menoyo, 2009;
Sola, 2014).

Many of the issues related to sustainable development should be identified

and considered at local to regional level, because it would be easier to set
priorities and design effective public-supported solutions. Research has shown
that successful Sustainable development programmes are those that delegate
power to local levels and give local communities control to manage and use
their resources through community-based natural resource management
(Leach et al., 1997; Grimble, 1997). This could be done through better natural
resources management, which includes being energy efficient, using
alternative environment-friendly energy options, and implementing good
land-use patterns (Winkler, 2006).

Sustainable development goals can only be achieved in a society if there

is political stability, social coherence and opportunities for economic
development, which are still lacking in most developing countries. The
concept will thrive in a society where human rights and good governance
are evident, and inequality has been decreased (Huber, 2013). This requires
a joint effort between international communities and developed economies,
which advances the principle of sustainable development and aids developing
countries to implement these initiatives as they grow economically. If
stakeholders in the public sector, private sector and civil society also work
together, they would greatly increase the possibility of formulating policies
that would improve the sustainable use of natural resources (Department
of Environmental Affairs, 2011; SDSN, 2013).

According to a UN (2013) report, “poverty eradication, changing

unsustainable and promoting sustainable patterns of consumption and
production, protecting and managing the natural resource base of economic
and social development” are the primary objectives and vital requirements
for sustainable development, which eventually leads to the protection of
the environment. The UN Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) report,
Living beyond our Means, states that “development policies aimed at reducing
Sustainable Development: An Overview 13

poverty that ignore the impact of our current behaviour on the natural
environment may well be doomed to failure.”
There is also a need to institute and build the capacity of national and
regional institutions in most developing countries, so that they are capable
of implementing, monitoring and evaluating sustainable development goals.
Financial support and technical adaptation and transfer from developed
countries would also strengthen institutional capacities in developing
countries (DESA, 2013).
The diversification of developing economies to include small and medium-
size enterprises and development of infrastructure in rural areas,
enhancement of human-resource skills and technological innovation will
help to avoid the overreliance of the economy on non-renewable resource
and its associated industries, and reduce pressure on people to migrate to
urban areas (SDSN, 2013).

CONCLUSIONS

The consequence of human activities can be severe for ecosystem services

and human well-being; however studies have shown that by pursuing
sustainable development goals, the negative effects of past unsustainable
consumption can be rectified and natural resources can be used sustainably,
so that future generations can also benefit from it. Awareness of the need
to incorporate sustainability principles into every development plan has
increased globally. Various initiatives have been used in different regions
and countries to implement these principles.
MDGs constituted in the year 2000 was one of the initiatives agreed on
globally to promote the concept of sustainable development. The deadline
for achieving the targets set for these goals is the year 2015. An analysis of
the success of this initiative 15 years later indicates that, on a global scale,
most of the goals were achieved before the target date , but most developing
countries are still far behind in achieving these goals. Based on the progress
made on MDGs, which guided global development efforts in the years 2000-
2015, world leaders are negotiating the development of a set of Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) for the period 2016-2030. The SDGs are expected
to continue the fight against extreme poverty, in addition to working towards
more equitable development and environmental sustainability, and, in
particular, reducing the risks of human-induced climate change (SDSN,
2015).
Sustainable development can only be achieved through a paradigm shift,
from reactive policies towards more preventive policies that integrate the
three domains of the concept. There is a need to establish institutions and
develop policies and strategies that support holistic and integrated
approaches. According to Al- Amin et al. (2015), a “business-as-usual typical
14 Environ. Sci. & Engg. Vol. 1: Sustainable Development

policy and effort” will not be able to overcome the challenges facing
sustainable development in developing countries.

There is a need for a community-based approach to sustainability

education and research in higher education institutions. Fostering
interdisciplinary research will advance the goal of sustainable development.
Is the concept achievable? Yes it is, but only if measures are put in place to
overcome all challenges that hinder progress, especially in developing
countries.

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