Refrigeration Technology 1

Refrigeration Technology
Siegfried Haaf, Linde AG, Köln, Federal Republic of Germany
Helmut Henrici, Linde AG, Köln, Federal Republic of Germany

1. Refrigeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.3. Steam-Jet Systems . . . . . . . . . . 27

1.1. Compressor Refrigerating Sys- 1.4. Thermoelectric Refrigeration . . . 28
tems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2. Industrial Applications of Refrig-
1.1.1. Refrigerants for Compressor Refrig- eration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
erating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2.1. Chilling of Liquids . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.1.2. Compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2.2. Separation of Liquids by Crystal-
1.1.2.1. Displacement Compressors . . . . . 10 lization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.1.2.2. Dynamic Compressors . . . . . . . . 15 2.3. Cooling and Liquefaction of Gases 31
1.1.3. Condensers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2.4. Remote Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.1.4. Evaporators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.5. Air Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.1.5. Other Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.6. Refrigeration Plants for
1.2. Absorption Refrigerating Systems 23
Cold Rooms and Freezers . . . . . 34
1.2.1. Ammonia – Water Absorption Re-
frigerating Systems . . . . . . . . . . 23 2.7. Use of Cold in Construction . . . . 39
1.2.2. Equipment for Ammonia – Water 2.8. Air Refrigeration in Mining . . . . 39
Refrigerating Systems . . . . . . . . 25 2.9. Artificially Cooled Skating Rinks 39
1.2.3. Water – Lithium Bromide Absorp- 3. Heat Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
tion Refrigerating Systems . . . . . . 26 4. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Symbols W fuel energy consumed, kJ

A heat-transfer area, m2 z figure of merit (Peltier effect), K−1
b channel width of impeller, m β average coefficient of performance (elec-
c correction factor tric heat pump)
D outside diameter of impeller, m γ average performance ratio
e thermoelectric force, V/K ∆h discharge head (centrifugal compressor),
g acceleration due to gravity, m/s2 kJ/kg
h specific enthalpy, kJ/kg ζ performance ratio; heat ratio
ṁ mass flow rate, kg/s ε coefficient of performance
n rotational speed, s−1 ε0 clearance volume (reciprocating com-
p pressure, Pa pressor)
P power consumption, kW κ isentropic exponent
q capacity per unit mass of refrigerant, η efficiency
kJ/kg λ thermal conductivity, W m−1 K−1 ; total
Q useful heat generated, kJ volumetric efficiency
Q̇ capacity, kW ξ concentration of refrigerant in solution,
R fouling resistance, m2 K/W kg/kg
s specific entropy, kJ kg−1 K−1 σ electrical conductivity, Ω−1 m−1
u tip speed (centrifugal compressor), m/s ψ pressure coefficient
U overall heat-transfer coefficient,
W m−2 K−1 Subscripts
v specific volume, m3 /kg
V̇ volume flow rate, m3 /s A absorber
w specific work, kJ/kg; velocity of cooling c condenser; condensing
water, m/s C Carnot

c 2005 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim

10.1002/14356007.b03 19
2 Refrigeration Technology
e effective; external heat-transfer area
el electrical
g geometric
H generator
HP high-pressure; high-stage
i indicated; internal heat-transfer area; in-
tercooler
I intermediate
IP intermediate-pressure
LP low-pressure; low-stage
p pump
r rich
R reflux condenser; refrigerant
t ideal (theoretical)
v volumetric
w wall; weak
0 evaporator; evaporating
1. Refrigeration [1–3], [28], [32], [34]
The technology of generating and using subam-
bient temperatures is divided into three fields:
refrigeration, low-temperature technology, and
cryogenics. The boundaries between these fields
are not clear cut. Refrigeration is generally un-
derstood to mean from ambient temperature
down to the standard boiling point of ethyl-
ene (ca. 170 K); low-temperature technology is
from 170 K down to the melting point of nitro-
gen (63 K); and cryogenics is below 120 K, as
suggested by the Ausschuss für Tieftemperatur-
Terminologie (Committee for Low-Temperature
Terminology). This article deals with refrigera-
tion; cryogenics is the subject of a separate arti-
cle (→ Cryogenic Technology).
The purpose of refrigeration technology is
to cool materials to subambient temperatures or
hold them at such temperatures. The substance
to be refrigerated is cooled by a working fluid,
which moves in a closed cycle. Most of the cycli-
cal processes employed for refrigeration are re-
versals of processes used in heat engines.
In cold-gas processes, the working fluid is
always in the gaseous state; in cold-vapor pro-
cesses, the working fluid changes state from liq-
uid to gas and back to liquid. Cold-gas processes
are energetically less favorable than cold-vapor
processes at all temperatures of interest for re-
frigeration, i.e., down to ca. − 100 ◦ C. In prac-
tice, cold-gas machines are important at lower
temperatures, and these systems are therefore
discussed under → Cryogenic Technology.
Cold-vapor systems use the latent heat of
evaporation of a liquefied working fluid in a
closed cycle to generate cold. The fluid (refriger-
ant) moves continuously through the cycle. The
evaporating refrigerant remains at either con-
stant pressure or constant temperature as heat
is absorbed from the medium being cooled; it is
then condensed at a higher pressure. The con-
densing pressure is dictated by the conditions
of heat rejection to the surroundings and by the
vapor pressure of the refrigerant. To keep the re-
frigerant circulating between the two pressures,
energy must be supplied to the system in the
form of mechanical work or heat.
Cold-vapor machines include the following
types:
1) compressor refrigerating systems,
2) absorption refrigerating systems, and
3) steam-jet refrigerating systems.
Mechanical or electrical energy must be used
to drive compressor refrigerating machines; ab-
sorption and steam-jet refrigerating systems are
powered by thermal energy.
1.1. Compressor Refrigerating Systems
[2], [3], [14], [17], [19], [20], [28], [35–43]
The most frequently used class of cold-vapor
refrigeration machines is the compressor type.
Figure 1 is a schematic diagram of a single-stage
refrigeration system.
Figure 1. Single-stage compressor refrigerating system
a) Compressor; b) Condenser; c) Expansion valve; d) Evap-
orator; e) Compressor drive motor
A refrigerant enters the suction of a compres-
sor (a) at a low pressure p0 , it is compressed to

a higher pressure pc , and is then condensed in
a condenser (b) by rejection of heat to the sur-
roundings. The liquefied refrigerant is expanded
to pressure p0 in an expansion valve (c). The
amount of refrigerant vapor (flash gas) produced
depends on operating conditions; this part of the
refrigerant cannot be used to generate cold. As it
absorbs heat, the liquid refrigerant evaporates in
the evaporator (d); it then returns to the suction
of the compressor.
Figure 2. Diagram of the single-stage process in a
compressor refrigerating system (temperature vs. specific
entropy)
1 – 2 = Isentropic compression; 2 – 3 = Cooling and
condensing at constant pressure; 3 – 4 = Expansion
(isenthalpic); 4 – 1 = Evaporation at constant pres-
sure; 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 1 = Specific work of compression;
1 – 4 – 5 – 6 – 1 = Specific refrigerating effect
Figure 3. Diagram of the single-stage compressor refriger-
ating process (log pressure vs. specific enthalpy)
1 – 2 = Isentropic compression; 2 – 3 = Cooling and con-
densing at constant pressure; 3 – 4 = Expansion (isen-
thalpic); 4 – 1 = Evaporation at constant pressure
Refrigeration Technology 3
The thermal balance of the process is then
Q̇0 + P =Q̇c
where Q̇0 is the rate of cold production (refrig-
erating effect) in the evaporator, P is the com-
pressor drive power, and Q̇c is the rate of energy
rejection in the condenser. When referred to the
mass flow rate, this relation is
q0 +w =qc
where w is the specific work of compression.
For energetic assessment of compressor refrig-
erating systems, the coefficient of performance
(ε) is generally used; this is the ratio of refrig-
erating effect Q̇0 to the electrical or mechanical
power supplied P:
Q̇0 q0
ε= =
P w
The coefficient of performance can be deter-
mined both for the real refrigeration process and
for a suitable ideal (theoretical) reference pro-
cess. The ratio of the coefficients of performance
of these processes is called the efficiency factor
(η):
ε
η=
εt
For the fundamental ideal reference process in
refrigeration, the Carnot process running bet-
ween the absolute condensing temperature T c
and the absolute evaporating temperature T 0 , the
coefficient of performance is
T0
εc =
Tc −T0
The smaller the temperature difference (T c –
T 0 ), the higher is the coefficient of performance.
The ideal process for a compressor refrig-
erating system is described by the tempera-
ture – entropy (T – s) diagram (Fig. 2), which
shows the specific refrigerating effect q0 and the
specific compressor work w as separate areas. A
log pressure vs. enthalpy diagram (p – h or Mol-
lier diagram, Fig. 3) is more useful because (1)
both specific quantities are defined as enthalpy
differences, (2) the process runs between two
fixed pressures, and (3) expansion is a constan-
tenthalpy process. The quantities, now referred
to 1 kg of circulating refrigerant, can be plotted
as lengths. The specific compression work (w),
4 Refrigeration Technology

the specific refrigerating effect (q0 ), and the spe- When frictional losses in the compressor are
cific thermal power (qc ) are defined as follows: taken into account, the effective power con-
sumption Pe is
w = h2 − h1
Pt Q̇0
Pe = =
q 0 = h1 − h4 ηe εt ηe

q c = h2 − h3

where the numerical subscripts refer to the

points shown in Figure 3.

Performance Figures. The mass flow rate of

refrigerant for a given refrigerating effect Q̇0 is
Q̇0 Q̇0
ṁR = =
q0 h1 −h4

The specific refrigerating effect per unit specific

volume q0v is given by
h1 −h4
q0v =
v1

where v1 is the specific volume of refrigerant

vapor at the suction. The volume flow rate at the
suction of the compressor is thus
Q̇0 Q̇0
V̇1 = = v1 =ṁR v1
q0v h1 −h4

The coefficient of performance εt of the ideal Figure 4. Single-stage compressor refrigerating system
with internal heat exchange
process is a) Compressor; b) Condenser; c) Evaporator; d) Expansion
valve; e) Heat exchanger; f) Compressor drive motor
q0 h1 −h4
εt = =
w h2 −h1

The power consumption of the ideal process for Subcooling. The liquefied refrigerant can be
a given refrigerating effect can be determined: subcooled by heat exchange with the cold vapor
from the evaporator. A system with a heat ex-
Q̇0 h2 −h1 changer provided for this purpose is depicted in
Pt = =Q̇0
εt h1 −h4 Figure 4.
Subcooling the refrigerant results in a gain
The necessary rate of heat rejection needed in
in specific refrigerating effect. The increase for
the condenser for the ideal process is
some halocarbon refrigerants is greater than the
Q̇ct =ṁR qct =ṁR (h2 −h3 )
increase in specific compressor work because
compression is started in the superheating re-
In practice, compression is not an isentropic pro- gion instead of at saturation. The process is de-
cess, but a polytropic one in which the entropy scribed by the p – h diagram in Figure 5. This
increases. This nonideal behavior is described heat-exchange step can also be used to prevent
by the indicated efficiency η i of the compressor liquid droplets from being entrained from the
used. The indicated power consumption Pi for a evaporator into the compressor. Valve damage in
refrigerating effect Q̇0 is thus reciprocating compressors can thus be avoided.
Pt Q̇0
Pi = =
ηi εt ηi

Figure 5. Diagram of the compressor refrigerating process
with internal heat exchange (log pressure vs. specific en-
thalpy)
h1
− h1 = h3 − h3

Figure 6. Two-stage compound compressor refrigerating
process with two-stage expansion
a) High-stage compressor; b) Condenser; c) Intermediate-
pressure vessel; d) Evaporator; e) Low-stage compressor;
f) Expansion valve; g) Compressor drive motor
Compound Compression. In positive-
displacement compressors, the volumetric and
the indicated efficiencies of the compressor fall
off sharply at higher compression ratios. In ad-
dition, compression temperatures may reach ex-
cessive values if the ratio is high. This happens
Refrigeration Technology 5
at evaporating temperatures between ca. − 20
and − 45 ◦ C, depending on the condensing tem-
perature, the refrigerant, and the compressor
design. In order to avoid these problems, com-
pound (two-stage and multistage) compression
systems are used. The optimum intermediate
pressure for two-stage compression is
pI = (pc ·p0 )1/2
Two-Stage Expansion. The refrigerating ef-
fect declines as the compression ratio increases,
because of the high vapor content in single-
stage expansion. Performance can be greatly
improved by expansion in two stages. Figure 6
shows a process with two-stage compression and
two-stage expansion; this arrangement is com-
mon in larger refrigerating systems that use am-
monia as the refrigerant. Figure 7 is the corre-
sponding p – h diagram for this process.
Figure 7. Diagram of compressor refrigerating process with
two-stage compression and two-stage expansion (log pres-
sure vs. specific enthalpy)
The low-stage compressor (Fig. 6, e) takes
vapor from the evaporator (d) and compresses
it to the intermediate pressure. This vapor goes
to the intermediate-pressure tank (c), where it
is cooled to saturation by refrigerant that has
been expanded to the intermediate pressure. All
the vapor passes to the suction of the high-stage
compressor (a), where it is compressed and then
condensed in the condenser (b). An expansion
valve (f1 ) allows the condensate to expand to
the pressure prevailing in the intermediate-pres-
sure tank; further expansion to the evaporating
pressure takes place in a second expansion valve
(f2 ). The vapor produced by heat exchange in
6 Refrigeration Technology
the intermediate-pressure tank, along with the
vapor from expansion, results in the mass flow
rate of refrigerant being greater in the high-pres-
sure part of the system than in the low-pressure
part.
Two-Stage Compression with Two Evapora-
tors. If additional refrigeration is necessary at
the temperature corresponding to the intermedi-
ate pressure, another evaporator can be placed
in parallel with the intermediate-pressure tank.
Figure 8 shows such a system with one evapo-
rator for low pressure (e) and one for interme-
diate pressure (d). The additional cooling of the
vapor compressed by the low-stage compressor
reduces energy consumption. The power balance
for this two-stage process is as follows:
Q̇c =Q̇0LP +Q̇0IP +PLP +PHP + Q̇i
where Q̇c is the rate of heat rejection in the con-
denser, Q̇0LP is the refrigerating effect in the
evaporator at p0 , Q̇0IP is the refrigerating effect
in the evaporator at pI , PLP is the drive power
of the low-stage compressor, PHP is the drive
power of the high-stage compressor, and Q̇i is
the rate of heat rejection in the intercooler.
Figure 8. Two-stage compound compressor refrigerating
system with two evaporators at different temperatures and
with interstage cooling by cooling water and refrigerant
a) High-stage compressor; b) Condenser; c) Intermediate-
pressure vessel; d) High-stage evaporator; e) Low-stage
evaporator; f) Low-stage compressor; g) Interstage cooler;
h) Expansion valves; i) Compressor drive motor
The refrigerant mass flow rates, the suction
volume flow rates, and the effective power con-
sumptions for the compressors can be deter-
mined from information provided on the single-
stage process.
Two-Stage Compression with Single-Stage
Expansion. On grounds of design simplicity,
two-stage expansion is often not used in small
systems with two-stage compression. This pro-
cess is depicted in Figures 9 (schematic dia-
gram) and 10 ( p – h diagram). In the low-pres-
sure stage, the vapor is compressed from pres-
sure p0 to the intermediate pressure pI . The vapor
is then cooled by refrigerant from the condenser,
which is injected through an expansion valve.
Figure 9. Two-stage compound compressor refrigerating
system with vapor cooling by intermediate injection and
single-stage expansion
a) High-stage compressor; b) Condenser; c) Evaporator;
d) Low-stage compressor; e) Expansion valves; f) Com-
pressor drive motor
Figure 10. Diagram of the process illustrated in Figure 9
(log pressure vs. specific enthalpy.

Figure 11. Two-stage compound compressor refrigerating
system with single-stage expansion and refrigerant subcool-
ing
a) High-stage compressor; b) Condenser; c) Evaporator;
d) Low-stage compressor; e) Expansion valves; f) Sub-
cooler; g) Compressor drive motor
Figure 12. Diagram of the process illustrated in Figure 11
(log pressure vs. specific enthalpy)
When halocarbon refrigerants are employed,
the system shown in Figures 11 (schematic) and
12 (p – h diagram) is often used. Before expan-
sion at low pressure, the refrigerant is subcooled
almost to the saturation temperature correspond-
ing to the intermediate pressure. Subcooling is
accomplished by part of the refrigerant flow
evaporating at the intermediate pressure. Ener-
getically, the process is almost equivalent to two-
Refrigeration Technology 7
stage expansion; it offers some advantages with
regard to control of the refrigerant mass flow rate
in the low-pressure section.
Cascade Compressor Refrigerating Sys-
tems. At evaporating temperatures between
−70 and −110 ◦ C, the large difference between
the evaporating and compressing pressures has
unfavorable effects. Depending on the refriger-
ant, the pressure on the condenser side may be
excessively high or may exceed the critical pres-
sure. On the low-pressure side, the pressure can
be so low that entry of air into the system be-
comes a danger. The use of a given refrigerant
may by ruled out by its freezing point and by the
high specific volume of the suction vapor at low
temperatures. The process is, therefore, divided
into two separate loops and a suitable refrigerant
is chosen in each loop for the pressures occurring
there. Figure 13 shows a simple cascade system
with two loops.
Figure 13. Cascade compressor refrigerating system
a) Compressor; b) Cascade cooler; c) Evaporator; d) Expan-
sion valves; e) Condenser; f) Compressor drive motor
The refrigerant in the low-temperature circuit
is condensed by evaporating high-temperature
circuit refrigerant in the cascade cooler; i.e., the
refrigerating effect of the high-temperature cir-
cuit is used to remove heat of condensation from
the low-temperature circuit. In this way, only the
evaporator with the lowest evaporating temper-
ature generates the useful refrigerating effect.
Depending on the compression ratios in the cir-
cuits of the cascade system, the refrigerant can
be compressed in several stages.
8 Refrigeration Technology
1.1.1. Refrigerants for Compressor
Refrigerating Systems [4], [14], [22], [28],
[44–47]
The working fluids moving in a closed cycle in
compressor refrigerating systems must satisfy
many requirements. These requirements are pri-
marily concerned with thermodynamic proper-
ties, heat-transfer characteristics, chemical and
physiological behavior, and usability with vari-
ous compressor designs.
A refrigerant must have good chemical sta-
bility under working conditions and in the pres-
ence of construction materials and lubricants.
Its pressure must not be too high, but it should
not be lower than atmospheric pressure at stan-
dard temperature and, if possible, in the evap-
orator. Other characteristics of a good refriger-
ant are low compression ratio (the ratio of the
condenser pressure pc to the evaporator pres-
sure p0 , corresponding to the condensing tem-
perature t c and the evaporating temperature t 0 ),
high specific enthalpy of evaporation, and small
isentropic exponent (see Table 1). Furthermore,
the volumetric refrigerating effect (the refriger-
ating effect per unit refrigerant volume flow rate
at the suction) is a crucial factor; it depends on
both the specific volume of the vapor and the
specific enthalpy of evaporation.
The two main types of refrigerants are ammo-
nia and chlorofluoro derivatives of methane and
ethane (halocarbon refrigerants). Pure hydrocar-
bons are also used in petrochemical plants.
Ammonia has very good thermodynamic
properties, but is toxic and flammable
(→ Ammonia, Chap. 8.). Because it also at-
tacks materials containing copper, it is unsuit-
able for sealed refrigeration compressors, where
the winding of the drive motor comes in con-
tact with the refrigerant. The use of ammonia is
virtually restricted to large-capacity industrial
refrigeration systems.
In contrast, halocarbon refrigerants are nei-
ther toxic nor flammable (→ Chlorinated Hy-
drocarbons, → Fluorine Compounds, Organic,
Chap. 3.; → Bromine Compounds). They are
employed in nearly all types of compressor re-
frigerating systems, from home refrigerators to
large air-conditioning plants. However, some
halocarbon refrigerants have harmful environ-
mental effects, especially on the ozone layer.
Refrigerant nomenclature is standardized.
Each name consists of the letter R (for refrig-
erant) and a multidigit number from which
the chemical composition can be determined
(→ Fluorine Compounds, Organic, Chap. 3.).
Table 1 gives some characteristic thermody-
namic data for the most important refrigerants.
For chlorotrifluoromethane, ethane, and ethyl-
ene, the last column gives the volumetric re-
frigerating effect at a condensing temperature
of −30 ◦ C and an evaporating temperature of
−80 ◦ C, because these substances are primar-
ily low-temperature refrigerants for cascade sys-
tems. Table 2 gives the temperature ranges and
applications for the refrigerants listed in Table 1.
Detailed vapor tables, p – h diagrams, and
equations of state for use on computers are avail-
able for designing refrigeration processes. Ta-
ble 3 gives a selection of data from the vapor ta-
bles for the two most important refrigerants, am-
monia and chlorodifluoromethane. Along with
temperature and pressure, the table includes the
specific volume (v) and specific enthalpy (h) of
the liquids and saturated vapors.
Special requirements (purity, water content,
and contents of gaseous impurities, acids, or
residues after evaporation) for several halocar-
bon refrigerants are specified in DIN standards.
With regard to the pressures occurring in the re-
frigerant loop, the operating and test pressures
for system components are dictated by the refrig-
erant used. To ensure that no refrigerant escapes
to the environment, leak tests are performed be-
fore a refrigeration system is placed in service.
The most important safety principles for refrig-
erating systems are given in ISO 1662.
1.1.2. Compressors [5], [17], [30], [48–65]
Two kinds of machines are used to compress the
refrigerant vapor:
1) Displacement machines (reciprocating,
screw, multi-vane-rotary compressors)
2) Dynamic machines (centrifugal or turbine
compressors)
The crucial difference in the operating prop-
erties of these two types is that the volume flow
rate (gas flow) is highly dependent on the com-
pression ratio in dynamic machines, whereas it
Table 1. Thermodynamic properties of refrigerants

Refrigerant CAS registry Formula Symbol Mr mp, ◦ C Standard Specific enthalpy of Isentropic Volumetric
number bp, ◦ C evaporation at exponent at p = 0 refrigerating
◦
standard bp, kJ/kg and t = 0 C effect at −15 to
+30 ◦ C, kJ/m3 ∗

Ammonia [7664-41-7] NH3 R 717 17.03 − 78 − 33.4 1368 1.31 2175

Trichlorofluoromethane [75-69-4] CFCl3 R 11 137.38 −111 23.8 182 1.12 204
Dichlorodifluoromethane [75-71-8] CF2 Cl2 R 12 120.92 −158 − 29.8 166 1.14 1281
Chlorotrifluoromethane [75-72-9] CF3 Cl R 13 104.47 −181 − 81.4 150 1.14 745 ∗∗
Bromotrifluoromethane [75-63-8] CF3 Br R 13 B1 148.92 −168 − 57.8 118 1.12 2786
Chlorodifluoromethane [75-45-6] CHF2 Cl R 22 86.48 −160 − 40.8 235 1.20 2091
Dichlorotetrafluoroethane [76-14-2] C2 F4 Cl2 R 114 170.93 − 94 + 3.6 137 1.09 369
Azeotrope of R 12 and R 152 a R 500 99.31 −159 − 33.5 201 1507
Azeotrope of R 22 and R 115 R 502 111.60 ca. −160 − 45.6 170 2091
Ethane [74-84-0] C2 H 6 R 170 30.07 −183 − 88.6 491 1.20 1062 ∗∗
Ethylene [74-85-1] C 2 H4 R 1150 28.05 −170 −103.5 481 1.25 1995 ∗∗
Propane [74-98-6] C 3 H8 R 290 44.09 −188 − 41.6 433 1.15 1811
Propene [115-07-1] C 3 H6 R 1270 42.08 −185 − 47.7 439 1.16 2238

∗ Without superheating and subcooling.

∗∗ Volumetric refrigerating effect for t 0 = − 80 ◦ C and t c = − 30 ◦ C.
Refrigeration Technology
9
10 Refrigeration Technology
Table 2. Application of refrigerants listed in Table (with temperature ranges)

Refrigerant Temperature range, ◦ C Application

Ammonia − 60 to +10 medium- and large-capacity systems with reciprocating,

screw, and turbine compressors
Trichlorofluoromethane − 10 to +20 water chillers with turbine compressors
Dichlorodifluoromethane − 40 to +20 refrigeration systems and heat pumps with reciprocating,
screw, and turbine compressors
Chlorotrifluoromethane −100 to −60 low-temperature cascade systems, usually with
reciprocating compressors
Bromotrifluoromethane − 90 to −30 low-temperature systems with reciprocating compressors
Chlorodifluoromethane − 70 to +20 all types of systems with reciprocating, screw, and turbine
compressors
Dichlorotetrafluoroethane − 20 to +20 heat pumps with reciprocating, screw, and turbine
compressors
Azeotropic mixture R 500 − 40 to +20 refrigeration systems and heat pumps with reciprocating
and screw compressors
Azeotropic mixture R 502 − 60 to 0 refrigeration systems with reciprocating compressors
Ethane −110 to −70 low-temperature cascade systems, usually
Ethylene −110 to −80 with turbine compressors
Propane − 60 to −20 large-capacity refrigeration systems,
Propylene − 60 to −20 usually with turbine compressors

Table 3. Vapor table values for ammonia and chlorodifluoromethane ∗

Temperature, ◦ C Ammonia Chlorodifluoromethane

p, v , v  , h , h , p, v , v  , h , h ,
MPa dm3 /kg dm3 /kg kJ/kg kJ/kg MPa dm3 /kg dm3 /kg kJ/kg kJ/kg

−70 0.0109 1.378 9006 −110.7 1356.2 0.0206 0.6706 940.1 123.02 372.97
−65 0.0156 1.389 6449 − 89.1 1365.2 0.0281 0.6765 705.3 127.87 375.52
−60 0.0219 1.401 4702 − 67.4 1374.0 0.0376 0.6825 537.2 132.84 378.07
−55 0.0302 1.412 3486 − 45.7 1382.6 0.0497 0.6888 415.0 137.92 380.59
−50 0.0409 1.424 2625 − 23.8 1391.1 0.0646 0.6954 324.8 143.11 383.09
−45 0.0545 1.436 2004 − 1.9 1399.3 0.0830 0.7021 257.2 148.40 385.55
−40 0.0717 1.449 1551 20.2 1407.3 0.1053 0.7092 205.9 153.81 387.97
−35 0.0931 1.462 1215 42.3 1415.1 0.1321 0.7165 166.5 159.31 390.34
−30 0.1195 1.475 962.6 64.6 1422.5 0.1640 0.7241 135.9 164.90 392.65
−25 0.1515 1.489 770.5 86.9 1429.7 0.2016 0.7320 112.0 170.57 394.89
−20 0.1901 1.504 622.8 109.3 1436.6 0.2455 0.7403 92.93 176.34 397.07
−15 0.2362 1.518 507.9 131.9 1443.2 0.2964 0.7490 77.69 182.16 399.16
−10 0.2908 1.534 417.7 154.5 1449.4 0.3550 0.7581 65.40 188.06 401.18
− 5 0.3548 1.549 346.2 177.2 1455.2 0.4219 0.7676 55.39 194.00 403.10
0 0.4294 1.566 289.0 200.0 1460.7 0.4980 0.7776 47.18 200.00 404.93
+ 5 0.5158 1.583 242.8 222.0 1465.9 0.5839 0.7882 40.40 206.03 406.65
+10 0.6150 1.601 205.3 245.9 1470.6 0.6803 0.7994 34.75 212.11 408.27
+15 0.7284 1.619 174.6 269.0 1474.9 0.7881 0.8112 30.03 218.21 409.77
+20 0.8573 1.639 149.4 291.4 1479.0 0.9081 0.8238 26.04 224.34 411.14
+25 1.003 1.659 128.4 314.9 1482.4 1.041 0.8373 22.66 230.50 412.38
+30 1.167 1.680 110.8 338.5 1485.3 1.188 0.8517 19.78 236.69 413.48
+35 1.350 1.702 95.96 362.3 1487.8 1.350 0.8673 17.31 242.93 414.42
+40 1.555 1.726 83.47 386.3 1489.7 1.527 0.8841 15.17 249.22 415.19
+45 1.782 1.750 72.85 410.5 1491.1 1.721 0.9024 13.32 255.57 415.76
+50 2.033 1.777 63.78 434.9 1491.9 1.933 0.9226 11.70 262.03 416.11
+55 2.310 1.805 56.07 458.6 1492.4 2.164 0.9449 10.29 268.62 416.20
+60 2.614 1.834 49.33 483.9 1491.8 2.415 0.9700 9.033 275.41 415.99

∗ p = pressure; v  = specific volume of the liquid; v  = specific volume of the saturated vapor; h = specific enthalpy of the
liquid; h = specific enthalpy of the saturated vapor.

is virtually constant in positive-displacement de-
vices. Figure 14 shows the characteristics of both
types of machine.
Figure 14. Operating curves for dynamic and positive-
displacement compressors
a) Operating point; b) Dynamic compressor; c) Positive-
displacement compressor
The gas flow and thus the refrigerating capac-
ity are crucial in the selection of compression
equipment. In Figure 15 the ranges of applica-
tion of the most important compressor types are
plotted as a function of the refrigerating capac-
ity and evaporating temperature for a condensing
temperature of 35 ◦ C.
Figure 15. Range of application for refrigerant compressors
a) Centrifugal compressors; b) Screw compressors; c) Re-
ciprocating compressors
1.1.2.1. Displacement Compressors
Reciprocating Compressors. Piston-type
reciprocating compressors are used almost with-
out exception for low and moderate capacities,
conventional refrigerants, and evaporating tem-
peratures of ca. − 60 ◦ C.
These compressors are multicylinder ma-
chines (2 to 16 cylinders) with an inline-, V-,
Refrigeration Technology 11
or W-configuration. The flow of refrigerant va-
por alternates in direction, i.e., the cylinder head
contains suction and discharge valves in an ar-
rangement that causes the flow direction to re-
verse. These working valves are usually ring-
plate or lamellar valves. Piston compressors
operate at speeds between 700 and 1500 rpm,
depending on size. The mean piston speed is
ca. 4.0 m/s. In order to prevent wear of the
cylinder contact surfaces and undue loading
of the working valves, this figure should not
be greatly exceeded. For compressors with gas
flows < 20 m3 /h, rotation speeds up to 3000 rpm
are common. Piston compressors are usually
driven by electric motors with either direct cou-
pling or belt drives. For halocarbon refriger-
ants and capacities up to ca. 300 kW, the direct-
coupled drive motor is often mounted in a hous-
ing with the compressor (hermetic refrigeration
compressor) and cooled by the refrigerant vapor
on the suction side. Advantages of this design
include diminished leakage, space and weight
savings, reduced noise, and lower maintenance
costs.
For low evaporating temperatures (t 0 bet-
ween − 20 and −45 ◦ C), multistage compres-
sors are employed. The stage compression ratios
are dictated by the number of cylinders in the
individual stages. Multistage compression can
also be achieved by connecting two different-
sized compressors in series.
Approaches used to match compressor output
to varying cold requirements include not only
speed control (change-pole motors) and throt-
tling of the refrigerant vapor on the suction side,
but also inclusion and exclusion (bypassing) of
individual cylinders or groups of cylinders. In
this type of control, compressed refrigerant va-
por from the affected cylinders is returned to the
suction side through pressure-reducing valves,
or the suction-valve plates of individual cylin-
ders are held open, usually by oil pressure. For
simpler control, the capacity can also be divided
among several smaller compressors, which are
put on-line according to demand (interconnected
refrigerating system).
The volumetric losses of a piston-type com-
pressor are expressed in terms of the total volu-
metric efficiency λ, which is the ratio of the ef-
fective volumetric flow V̇ v1 under suction condi-
tions to the theoretical volumetric flow V̇ g calcu-
lated from the motor speed and the cylinder dis-
12 Refrigeration Technology

placement. The total volumetric efficiency de-

clines as the compression ratio increases. It also
depends on the refrigerant, the suction tempera-
ture, and the clearance volume:

V̇v1 ṁR vv1

λ= =
V̇g V̇g

where ṁR is the mass flow rate of refrigerant and

vv1 is the specific volume under suction condi-
tions.
The nomograph of Figure 16 gives the total
volumetric efficiency λ and the indicated effi-
ciency η i for compressors operating with ammo-
nia as functions of the compression ratio pc /p0 ,
evaporating temperature t 0 , geometric stroke
displacement per hour V̇ g , and clearance vol-
ume ε0 . The nomograph is based on the relation

λ =ηv − (1 −ηw )

where η v is the volumetric efficiency (i.e., the

fraction of the reduction in delivery that is due
to reexpansion of gas in the clearance volume
and to valve resistance) and η w is the wall effi-
ciency. The wall efficiency allows for losses due
to valve and piston leakage, as well as the de-
crease in suction-side gas density due to heating
at the valves and the cylinder walls. The total vol-
umetric efficiency found should be multiplied
by a correction factor c for low suction temper-
atures when t 0 < − 25 ◦ C. The correction factor
is given by the following:
t0 , ◦ C −25 −30 −40 −50 −60
c 1.0 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80
The use of the nomograph is illustrated by a
sample calculation (dashed lines in Figure 16):
Evaporating temperature t 0 = − 20 ◦ C
Condensing temperature t c = + 25 ◦ C
Clearance volume ε0 = 0.04; geometric dis-
placement per hour V̇ g = 50 m3 /h
Compression ratio pc /p0 = 5.3
Volumetric efficiency η v = 0.82
Wall losses (1 − η w ) = 0.16
Correction factor for all t 0 over − 25 ◦ C,
c=1
Total volumetric efficiency λ = [η v − (1 − η w )]
c = 0.66; η i /λ = 1.18
Indicated efficiency η i = 1.18×0.66 = 0.78
Figure 16. Total volumetric efficiency λ and indicated effi-
ciency η i of ammonia compressors (from DKV Specifica-
tion 3-01)
The indicated power in terms of the indicated
efficiency is given by
Pi =Pt /ηi
where Pt is the theoretical power consumption
(see Section 1.1). The mechanical efficiency η m
must be included in the effective power con-
sumption; this value is between 0.85 and 0.93
−70 and depends on the displacement volume. For
0.75 compressors operating on other refrigerants, this
graphical representation gives usable values if
the pressure drop in the working valves does not
differ from that for ammonia.
Oil that enters the refrigerant loop in oil-
lubricated piston compressors must be separated
from the refrigerant stream before the inlet to
the condenser, especially when no oil return
from the evaporator is provided. This is neces-
sary for plants using ammonia as refrigerant and
for those using halocarbon refrigerants at lower
evaporating temperatures. Gravity or inertial oil
separators are installed for this purpose on the
discharge side of the compressor. The separat-
ing efficiency can be enhanced by internal im-
pingement collectors. Such oil separators ensure
that an adequate quantity of oil is returned to the

compressor and that the lubricating oil will not
degrade heat transfer in the heat exchangers.
In special cases, e.g., at very low evaporat-
ing temperatures, oil-less compression may be
required. Nonlubricated compressors are used
widely in process engineering and are suitable
for this purpose. In these crosshead machines,
either the piston does not make contact with
the cylinder (labyrinth compressor) or the pis-
ton rings are made of a self-lubricating mate-
rial, usually polytetrafluoroethylene or sintered
carbon with appropriate additives (plastic-ring
nonlubricated compressor).
Figure 17. Principle of a rotating-screw compressor
A) Cross section: a) Inlet; b) Female rotor; c) Male rotor;
d) Return channel; e) Return channel; f) Movable slidingB)
Top view of the rotors: a) Inlet; b) Discharge
Screw Compressors. Screw compressors
are being used increasingly in industrial refrig-
Refrigeration Technology 13
eration systems, especially those with moderate
and high capacity.
Most of these devices are oil-flooded, two-
shaft machines (Fig. 17). The refrigerant vapor
is compressed by two screw-shaped rotors (b and
c), which engage and make contact with each
other. The rotors turn in opposite directions in-
side a closefitting case. As the rotors turn, the
spaces between teeth continuously increase and
decrease in size because of the screw shape.
Thus, as in a reciprocating compressor, refrig-
erant vapor is pulled in, compressed, and dis-
charged. The position and size of the discharge
port in the housing determine the ratio of dis-
charge to suction volume (installed volume ratio
or, because for a given refrigerant conversion to
pressure is possible, installed pressure ratio).
The screw compressor has neither clearance
volume nor working valves. Precooled oil is usu-
ally injected into the compression space bet-
ween rotors after completion of the suction pro-
cess. This procedure allows direct torque trans-
mission from the driven rotor (usually male)
to the partner rotor, seals the clearances bet-
ween rotors and housing, and removes the en-
thalpy of compression. Oil injection is driven
by a pump or by the pressure of liquefaction.
Independent of the compression ratio, pressure
differences up to 2 MPa can be attained without
the compression temperature exceeding 100 ◦ C.
Injected oil is separated from the refrigerant
stream in one or two oil separators (depending
on the degree of separation required), which are
connected in series. The oil is cooled and re-
turned to the compressor. The principal refrig-
erants used are ammonia (R 717) and chlorodi-
fluoromethane (R 22); in heat-pump service, di-
chlorodifluoromethane (R 12) and dichlorotetra-
fluoroethane (R 114) are also employed.
Capacity is controlled by altering the mass
flow rate with an axially adjustable movable slid-
ing. When the sliding is moved toward the dis-
charge port, usually by oil pressure, it creates an
opening through which the suction-side vapor
flows back into the inlet casing. Efficiency fac-
tors are favorable over a wide range of part-load
conditions.
Small screw compressors, without a mov-
able sliding and offering theoretical flow rates
≤100 m3 /h, are available. As with smaller recip-
rocating compressors, capacity can be divided
14 Refrigeration Technology
among several machines, which are turned on
and off to meet demand.
Besides the tooth shape and number shown
for the male and female rotors in Figure 17,
other rotor profiles with different numbers of
teeth are also available. Energetically optimal
rotor tip speeds are generally 25 – 35 m/s; with
smaller rotors, gearboxes are required between
drive motor and compressor in order to attain
these values. The drive motor speed is usually
3000 min−1 .
Semihermetic screw compressors are used,
especially in air conditioning. In these devices,
the refrigerant vapor on the suction or discharge
side is used to cool the rotor.
The most important qualities of the screw-
type compressor are simple, compact design;
low vibration and noise levels; high reliability;
insensitivity to liquid refrigerant flow rates on
the suction side; efficient, continuous capacity
control; and efficiency factors similar to those
of reciprocating compressors.
To reduce the specific power consumption,
medium- and high-capacity screw compressors
are fitted with an intermediate injection device
(see Section 1.1). To allow further optimization
of the efficiency factor under a variety of service
conditions, the installed volume ratio of some
types can be varied continuously during opera-
tion.
Multivane Rotary Compressors. The
multi-vane rotary compressor (Fig. 18) consists
of a cylindrical housing (a) in which an eccen-
trically mounted rotor (c) with several vanes (b)
rotates.
Figure 18. Principle of a multivane rotary compressor
a) Housing; b) Vane; c) Rotor
The vanes, guided in the rotor, are pressed by
centrifugal force against the housing wall, form-
ing a sequence of continuously varying com-
pression spaces.
Overflow losses at the vanes limit compres-
sion ratios to only 1 : 5 for economic reasons.
Therefore, multivane rotary compressors have
restricted applications in refrigeration. They are
used as boosters in reciprocating compressor
plants with theoretical flow rates up to ca.
1000 m3 /h. Their advantages are low mass and
small volume (due to the high rotation speeds)
as well as vibration-free operation. Drawbacks
include vane wear, especially when lubrication
is inadequate, and the sharp drop in volumetrc
efficiency at higher compression ratios.
1.1.2.2. Dynamic Compressors
Centrifugal Compressors. All turbine
compressors (turbocompressors) for refrigera-
tion service are radial-flow centrifugal designs;
they are used for refrigerating capacities from
ca. 300 to >104 kW. These machines have sig-
nificant advantages over reciprocating compres-
sors: low mass per unit capacity, decreased space
requirement, vibration-free operation, oil-free
compression, and high reliability due to the ab-
sence of reciprocating machine parts and valves.
For a given design, the discharge head ∆h for
one stage is set by the tip speed u of the gas:
u2
∆h = ψ
2g
where the pressure coefficient ψ depends on the
vane shape (ψ = ca. 1.0 for vanes with a back-
ward curve and 1.3 for vanes with radial ends).
If the discharge head is known, then the com-
pression ratio for isentropic compression is

 κ
pc x− 1 ∆h Mr κ−1
= · · +1
p0 x T0 R
where M r is the relative molecular mass and R
is the universal gas constant. Substances with
high relative molecular masses thus favor the use
of centrifugal compressors in terms of construc-
tion cost: achieving a given compression ratio
then requires a lower discharge head, and often
fewer stages, than with a low molecular mass
fluid. Typical refrigerants for turbocompressor
refrigeration plants are trichlorofluoromethane
(R 11), dichlorodifluoromethane (R 12), and di-
chlorotetrafluoroethane (R 114); for very high

capacities, chlorodifluoromethane (R 22) and
ammonia (R 717) are also candidates. Petro-
chemical refineries use ethylene (R 1150), pro-
pane (R 290), and propene (R 1270) as refriger-
ants.
Centrifugal compressors always offer lower
compression ratios than positive-displacement
machines. For an evaporating temperature of
− 20 ◦ C and a condensing temperature of
+ 35 ◦ C, the required compression ratio can be
reached in a single stage with a reciprocating
compressor; two stages of centrifugal compres-
sion are needed for R 22 and eight for R 717.
The main dimensions of centrifugal compres-
sors are dictated not only by the refrigerant but
also by the delivery volume and head. The de-
livery volume is proportional to nD3 b, and the
head is proportional to n2 D2 ; these relationships
show how important the impeller outside diame-
ter D is. Low delivery volumes allow small diam-
eters, high rotation speeds n, and small impeller
channel widths b. The minimum delivery vol-
ume is determined by frictional losses, which in-
crease when the impeller channel width is small.
In multistage compressors, often designed with
equal-sized impellers, the suction-side volume
of the last stage governs the minimum delivery
volume.
The characteristic tip speed for the delivery
head is limited by the strength of the impeller.
For a medium with a relatively high molecu-
lar mass (low acoustic velocity), a further limit
is that the mach number (ratio of flow veloc-
ity to acoustic velocity) at the inlet to the im-
peller must not exceed 0.8 – 0.9. Modern ma-
chines, with few exceptions, run at 4000 to
20 000 min−1
Compressors are generally driven by electric
motors provided with gearboxes; gas and steam
turbines are also employed in larger units. For
air conditioning, an enclosed construction is of-
ten used in which the electric motor is mounted
in the housing and cooled by the refrigerant.
The operating characteristics of centrifugal
compressors result from the heavy dependence
of discharge volume on compression ratio and
from the location of the pumping-limit curve.
The pumping limit dictates the minimum quanti-
ties for various rotational speed curves; the speed
must not go below this limit if unstable operation
is to be avoided.
Refrigeration Technology 15
Capacity can be most economically con-
trolled through the rotation speed, which is the
usual arrangement with a turbine drive. If a
constant-speed drive is employed, control by in-
let guide vanes is also energetically favorable. A
set of guide vanes ahead of the impeller imparts
a twist to the inlet flow, thus altering the delivery
head at constant rotation speed. A family of op-
erating characteristics similar to those for speed
control is obtained. This form of control is used
in most motor-driven compressors.
Energetically unfavorable control techniques
used to a limited extent include throttling the
suction and varying the cooling-water rate.
Pumping-limit control ensures that the flow un-
der part-load conditions does not decrease below
a level that makes operation unstable. If the flow
corresponding to the desired refrigeration capac-
ity is below the pumping limit, the difference
flow rate must be additionally compressed. This
quantity is usually returned by throttling (by-
pass control); expansion turbines are also used
in large plants.
1.1.3. Condensers [3], [7], [15–17], [23], [27],
[30], [33], [66–77]
Refrigerant exiting the compressor as a super-
heated vapor goes to the condenser, where it
is cooled to the condensing temperature, lique-
fied, and subcooled to an extent that depends on
equipment design and operating conditions. The
heat rejected is usually absorbed by ambient air
or cooling water. Accordingly, condensers are
classified as air-cooled, water-cooled, or evapo-
rative types.
In refrigeration systems with heat recovery
and in heat pumps, the heat rejected in the con-
denser can also be used to heat water for indus-
trial use or to generate space or process heat.
A special design is the cascade cooler (see Sec-
tion 1.1), in which the refrigerant in the low-tem-
perature loop of a cascade compressor refriger-
ating system is liquefied by evaporating refrig-
erant in the high-temperature loop.
Air-Cooled Condensers. Air-cooled con-
densers (Fig. 19) are used in low- to medium-
capacity refrigeration systems and, rarely, in
large plants. This type of condenser is gaining
16 Refrigeration Technology
steadily in importance as freshwater becomes
more scarce and more costly.
Figure 19. Air-cooled condenser
a) Refrigerant vapor inlet; b) Refrigerant condensate outlet
In very low-capacity equipment, such as
home refrigerators, heat is rejected to the am-
bient air by free convection. In all other cases,
cooling air is conveyed through the condenser,
usually by several fans (forced-circulation con-
denser). Axial-flow fans are used when the con-
denser is installed outdoors; radial-flow fans are
employed when additional resistance in air ducts
must be overcome.
An air-cooled condenser consists of a sys-
tem of tubes or hoses with fins on the air side
to facilitate heat transfer. In this way, the ex-
ternal surface area is increased by a factor of
15 – 30. Steel tubes and fins used with ammonia
as a refrigerant are galvanized to prevent corro-
sion and to provide a good heat-conducting sur-
face. With halocarbon refrigerants, copper tubes
and aluminum fins are generally employed. To
improve heat transfer, the aluminum fins often
have wavy edges and surface corrugation. The
central tubes are commonly staggered in the di-
rection of air flow to enhance turbulence. Fin
spacing is 1.5 – 5 mm but should be at least 3 mm
if dirty air is encountered. Heat-transfer coeffi-
cients referred to the total external surface are
between 30 and 60 W m−2 K−1 for air face ve-
locities of 2 – 4 m/s. The external surface area A
required for heat rejection is determined by the
relation
Q̇c
A=
U ∆tm
where ∆t m is the logarithmic mean temperature
difference between the condensing temperature
t c on the one hand, and the air inlet and outlet
temperature on the other hand.
Air-cooled condensers are usually designed
for a 10 – 15 K difference between the condens-
ing temperature and the inlet air temperature.
For economic reasons, small temperature differ-
ences are chosen for refrigeration systems with
a high annual utilization, and larger differences
are used when utilization is lower (e.g., in air
conditioners).
If the condensing pressure becomes too low
in the cold season, maintaining the needed flow
of refrigerant through the expansion valve may
not be possible. This is especially true of air-
cooled condensers installed outdoors. To pre-
vent this pressure loss, control of the condensing
pressure is usually necessary. Control can be im-
plemented by reducing the volume flow rate of
air (blower speed control or shutoff of individ-
ual fans), altering the effective heat-transfer area
(e.g., by impounding liquid refrigerant), raising
the inlet air temperature by mixing it with recir-
culated hot air, or a combination of these meth-
ods.
A receiver is usually connected downstream
of the air-cooled condenser. It prevents vapor
from entering into the liquid line and, at the same
time, compensates for dislocations of refrigerant
caused by varying conditions in the system.
A venting device in the receiver removes for-
eign gases that have contaminated the refrigerant
loop. (For water-cooled condensers, the vent can
also be placed on the condenser.) The mixture of
gas and refrigerant vapor in the top of the tank
is cooled by evaporating refrigerant in the vent,
so that the refrigerant condenses and flows back
into the receiver. The foreign gases can then be
released through a discharge valve without sig-
nificant loss of refrigerant. A venting system is
needed, in particular, when the evaporating pres-
sure is < 0.1 MPa.
Water-Cooled Condensers. The most com-
monly used design is the horizontal shell-and-
tube condenser (Fig. 20), which is used in sys-
tems with very small to very large capacities.
Cooling water flows through the tubes in several
 Refrigeration Technology 17

passes and the refrigerant condenses on the shell for various types of cooling water are given in
side. The end covers, containing the bends, are Table 4.
removable so that the tubes can be cleaned easily
from the water side.

Figure 20. Water-cooled shell-and-tube condenser

a) Refrigerant vapor inlet; b) Refrigerant condensate outlet;
c) Cooling water inlet; d) Cooling water outlet; e) Vent pipe

Table 4. Typical fouling resistances Ri for various cooling waters

Cooling water Fouling resistance,

×10−4 m2 K/W

≤0.9 m/s ∗ >0.9 m/s ∗

Seawater 1 1
Brackish water 4 2
Figure 21. Heat-transfer coefficients for shell-and-tube am-
Water from cooling tower 2 2
monia condensers
Spring water 2 2
Ri = internal fouling resistance
Stream water 4 2

∗ Water velocity

Sizing of this type of equipment is dictated not

only by capacity, but also by the properties of
the available cooling water.
Typical inlet water temperatures are
Spring water 10 – 15 ◦ C
Stream water 15 – 25 ◦ C
Seawater 20 – 32 ◦ C
Water from cooling tower 25 – 35 ◦ C

The water is commonly warmed 4 – 15 K

(larger temperature differences for lower inlet
water temperatures). The condensing tempera-
ture is generally 3 – 6 K above the outlet water
temperature.
The relationship used to determine the heat-
transfer area is the same as that for air-cooled
condensers, but no allowance is made for super- Figure 22. Vertical condenser
heating or subcooling temperatures. a) Refrigerant vapor inlet; b) Refrigerant condensate outlet;
The overall heat-transfer coefficient U de- c) Cooling-water inlet; d) Cooling-water outlet; e) Spiral
pends on the coolant velocity w, the refrigerant, inserts to guide water to tube wall
and the degree to which the inside walls of the Although bare steel tubes are used for am-
tubes are contaminated. For shell-and-tube con- monia, tubes finned on the refrigerant side
densers in ammonia service, these effects can be (area ratio Aa /Ai = 4 – 6) are usually employed
seen in Figure 21. Typical fouling resistances Ri
18 Refrigeration Technology
with halocarbon refrigerants because of poorer
heat transfer. The tubes are made of cop-
per or brass; with seawater, they are made of
copper – nickel alloys. The heat-transfer coeffi-
cients for halocarbon refrigerants, referred to the
external tube area, are 600 – 1200 W m−2 K−1
at w = 1.5 – 3 m/s when the fouling resistance
Ri = 1 – 2×10−4 m2 K/W.
If the water is very dirty or space is limited,
vertical condensers are used (Fig. 22). These
shell-and-tube devices are open on the water
side and easy to clean; under certain conditions,
cleaning does not require shutdown. Cooling
water enters from a distribution tank at the top
and is led down the inside of the tubes by spi-
ral vanes. Thus, the water falls as a film, while
the refrigerant condenses on the outside of the
tubes.
Figure 23. Cooling tower
a) Cooling-water inlet; b) Cooling-water outlet; c) Freshwa-
ter inlet; d) Spray nozzles; e) Cooling surface (fill); f) Water
separator; g) Fan
For smaller capacities up to ca. 50 kW,
double-pipe (coaxial) condensers are frequently
used. An outer pipe, wound in a spiral encloses
one or more central tubes, which carry water in-
side and are finned on the refrigerant side. This
design is inexpensive, but difficulty in cleaning
makes it unsuitable for use with dirty cooling
water.
Because of the scarcity of spring water, water-
cooled condensers are usually operated in con-
junction with cooling towers; this allows water
savings of ca. 95 % compared to freshwater oper-
ation. In the cooling tower (Fig. 23), warm cool-
ing water is brought in contact with ambient air
countercurrently. Because the partial pressure of
water vapor in the air is lower than that of the
cooling water, a small portion of the water evap-
orates and thus cools itself. The cooled water is
collected in a catch basin and is then available
to absorb heat again in the condenser.
Evaporative Condensers. An evaporative
condenser combines the actions of a cooling
tower and a water-cooled condenser. It is used
for medium to large capacities when a cooling
tower is not available and when cooling water is
in short supply. Freshwater consumption is the
same as that with a tower and water cooling.
The refrigerant condenses in a system of
tubes (Fig. 24), which are sprayed with water
from a tank. Air flows upward through the tube
array either by free convection or, more often,
by forced draft. The air absorbs the heat of con-
densation by evaporating water from the tube
surfaces. The water level in the tank is held con-
stant by freshwater supplied under float control.
The mist collector above the array of pipes pre-
vents water droplets entrained in the airstream
from escaping.
Figure 24. Evaporative condenser
a) Refrigerant vapor inlet; b) Refrigerant condensate out-
let; c) Freshwater inlet; d) Water circulation pump; e) Spray
apparatus; f) Water separator; g) Blower
Figure 25 illustrates the relationships of sur-
face loading, condensing temperature, and inlet-
air enthalpy for an ammonia condenser. To pre-
vent severe scaling on the tubes, inlet water
must have a low hardness. Many designs fea-
ture finned desuperheater tubes, which are not
sprayed with water on the air outlet side, as well
as special tubes for subcooling the refrigerant.

Figure 25. Relationships of density of heat flow rate, con-
densation temperature, and enthalpy of inlet air for an evap-
orative ammonia condenser as shown in Figure 24
∗ Enthalpy of suction air h, kJ/kg
Figure 26. Horizontal shell-and tube evaporator for ammo-
nia
a) Refrigerant inlet; b) Refrigerant vapor outlet; c) Separa-
tor; d) Oil drain; e) Brine inlet; f) Brine outlet
1.1.4. Evaporators [3], [7], [15–17], [23],
[27], [30], [33], [78–90]
Evaporators for Liquid Cooling. For mod-
erate to very high refrigerating capacities,
flooded horizontal shell-and-tube evaporators
are used (Fig. 26). These devices consist of a
cylindrical shell with tube sheets at either end;
the tubes are fastened in the sheets by welding,
soldering, or rolling. Bare or finned tubes, usu-
ally of steel, copper, or brass, are used as appro-
priate for the refrigerant and the surface loading.
The liquid to be cooled is pumped through the
tubes and can be redirected one or more times at
the ends of the evaporator. The refrigerant evap-
orates from the outside of the tubes. Heat-trans-
Refrigeration Technology 19
fer coefficients are 400 – 1200 W m−2 K−1 , de-
pending on the secondary (brine) and primary
refrigerants.
Entrainment of liquid refrigerant from the
evaporator, which can occur especially at higher
surface loading, is prevented by an impinge-
ment separator located in the tube-free part of
the evaporator or by a separator (usually using
the effect of gravity) placed above the evapora-
tor.
Special devices must be provided to recycle
the oil carried into the apparatus with the re-
frigerant. The type of device is dictated by the
refrigerant and the service conditions. Ammo-
nia is insoluble in oil, and by virtue of its higher
relative density, oil collects at the bottom of the
evaporator, where it can be withdrawn. With oil-
soluble halocarbon refrigerants, a side stream
of refrigerant – oil mixture must be withdrawn
from the evaporator. The refrigerant must then be
removed from the side stream by steam or elec-
trical heating, or by heat exchange with warm
refrigerant at the condensing pressure.
Figure 27. Shell-and-tube direct-expansion evaporator
a) Refrigerant inlet; b) Refrigerant vapor outlet; c) Brine
inlet; d) Brine outlet
Because of the significant cost of recycling
the oil, a different shell-and-tube evaporator de-
sign is often used with halocarbon refrigerants.
In the direct-expansion evaporator (Fig. 27), re-
frigerant is completely evaporated in the tubes,
while the liquid to be cooled is circulated around
them by means of baffles. For water chillers es-
pecially, internally finned tubes are used instead
of bare ones to enhance heat transfer on the
evaporating side. If the tubes are connected in
series so as to make several passes, improved
heat transfer results from the increased mass
flow density. However, the simultaneous pres-
sure drop on the refrigerant side must be con-
sidered; this leads to a corresponding decline in
the saturation temperature between the inlet and
the outlet, and thus to a decrease in the mean
temperature difference between the brine and
the refrigerant. The heat-transfer coefficients re-
20 Refrigeration Technology
ferred to the external tube surface area may be
400 – 2000 W m−2 K−1 , depending on the brine
being cooled and the tube design.
A vertical-type evaporator (Fig. 28) consists
of a system of vertical, inclined, or hairpin tubes
connected to one header at the top and another at
the bottom, with a liquid separator in line down-
stream. The refrigerant stays at a constant level
in the tubes as it evaporates, thus cooling the sec-
ondary refrigerant which is circulated around the
tubes by an agitator. This kind of apparatus was
formerly employed to cool brine in open vessels;
today, it is used mainly as an ice-bank evapo-
rator, where the ice frozen around the tubes is
melted off periodically by the circulating water.
Figure 28. Vertical-type evaporator for ammonia
a) Refrigerant inlet; b) Refrigerant vapor outlet; c) Oil drain;
d) Refrigerant separator; e) Agitator
Figure 29. Finned air cooler as direct-expansion evaporator
a) Refrigerant inlet; b) Refrigerant vapor outlet;
c) Thermostat-controlled expansion valve; d) Sensor
A parallel-plate evaporator consists of sev-
eral plates, connected in parallel, in which the
refrigerant evaporates. The corrugated plates are
welded or soldered together to form narrow
channels, which may be horizontal or vertical.
This kind of device can thus be employed in di-
rect expansion or flooded mode. The plates are
made of galvanized or lacquered steel or, in spe-
cial cases, stainless steel. These units are em-
ployed as drinking-water and brine chillers and
for ice storage. The heat-transfer coefficients are
similar to those for vertical-tube evaporators un-
der the same conditions.
Evaporators for Gas Cooling. Gases, espe-
cially air for space cooling, are cooled on the
outer surface of finned evaporators (Fig. 29).
The apparatus consists of a system of tubes
with bonded fins that are connected in series and
parallel on the refrigerant side. The gas is usually
drawn or forced through the system of fins by a
blower connected to the evaporator; natural con-
vection cooling is employed less often. When the
gas is cooled, water or other constituents often
condense or freeze. If a frost coating forms on
the tubes and fins, continuous operation is pos-
sible only if the system includes a second unit.
Defrosting is accomplished from the pressure
side of the compressor with warm compressed
gas, which gives up its heat of condensation to
the cold surfaces of the apparatus; otherwise,
electric heating rods can be built into the evap-
orator system. To eliminate frequent defrosting,
fin spacings of 8 – 20 mm are used in air coolers
with a frost deposit. In air conditioners for oper-
ation above the freezing point of water, compact
systems with close fin spacings (ca. 2 mm) are
used.
System capacities, materials, and tube or
fin sizes vary widely. As with air-cooled con-
densers, galvanized steel is used in ammonia
systems, and copper tubes with aluminum fins
are used for halocarbon refrigerants.
With halocarbon refrigerants, as in the case
of liquid chillers, direct expansion is used. The
refrigerant is expanded into the tubes as a liq-
uid – vapor mixture; it is completely evaporated
and superheated by several degrees. Where a
network of evaporators with finned units exists
(e.g., in ammonia refrigerant plants), expanded
liquid refrigerant is transported through the sys-
tem by pumps. Part of the refrigerant evaporates,
and the resulting vapor – liquid mixture goes to
a collecting tank that also serves as a refrigerant
separator.
Instead of the evaporating refrigerant, a sec-
ondary refrigerant can be pumped through the
chiller. At air temperature <0 ◦ C, heat-transfer
coefficients are relatively low (ca. 7 – 17 W m−2
K−1 ) because of frost formation. At tempera-
tures > 0 ◦ C, values of up to 30 W m−2 K−1 can
be achieved with some designs. At gas pres-
sure significantly greater than 0.1 MPa, shell-

and-tube devices are used; like similar liquid
chillers, these can be designed for flooded or
direct expansion operation.
1.1.5. Other Equipment [6], [15], [18], [23],
[30], [91–96]
Safe and economical operation of vaporcom-
pressor refrigerating systems involves not only
the main components (compressor, condenser,
and evaporator) but also a number of additional
components.
In expansion devices, refrigerant coming
from the condenser is allowed to expand to the
evaporating pressure. These devices must sup-
ply the evaporator with as much refrigerant as
it needs under the prevailing service conditions.
Expansion valve design depends mainly on the
selected evaporator design. The manual control
valves formerly in use have now been replaced
by automatic valves. High-pressure float con-
trollers relieve the pressure on the liquid com-
ing from the condenser. They are used in plants
employing flooded evaporators, as well as in
pumped-circulation systems where the refriger-
ant is expanded in a vessel at the evaporating
pressure and the liquid refrigerant is pumped
to the evaporator. In flooded operation with a
highly variable cooling load, a low-pressure float
controller is preferred to keep the liquid level in
the evaporator constant.
Constant-pressure expansion valves and ther-
mostatic expansion valves are employed with
direct expansion evaporators. Constant-pressure
expansion valves control the liquid flow to the
evaporator in such a way that the evaporating
pressure remains constant. Control is satisfac-
tory only at constant load, and therefore this ap-
proach is now seldom used.
Constant refrigerant level in the evaporator
and thus good heat transfer are achieved with the
thermostatic expansion valve (Fig. 30). A tem-
perature sensor (c) downstream of the evaporator
controls the expansion valve so that the refriger-
ant leaves the evaporator at a temperature a few
degrees higher (usually 5 – 7 K) than the evapo-
rating temperature. In conventional thermostatic
expansion valves, a vapor pressure that is depen-
dent on the sensor temperature acts on the con-
trol diaphragm to alter the opening of the valve.
More recent designs of thermostatic expansion
Refrigeration Technology 21
valves use electronic actuation, which offers bet-
ter dynamic properties; this can be an advantage
especially when the cooling loads vary rapidly.
Figure 30. Thermostatic expansion valve
a) Refrigerant inlet; b) Refrigerant outlet, c) Temperature
sensor; d) Control diaphragm; e) Valve cone; f) Adjusting
spindle
Along with the expansion valves used as pri-
mary controllers in the refrigerant loop, sec-
ondary controllers can also be employed. These
devices include:
1) thermostatic postinjection valves,
2) constant-pressure valves, and
3) capacity controllers.
Thermostatic postinjection valves are used
when highly superheated suction-side refrig-
erants lead to excessive compression temper-
atures. To prevent this, the valves inject liq-
uid refrigerant from the condenser into the suc-
tion line. This process is usually controlled by
a temperature sensor on the compressor dis-
charge side. Constant-pressure valves are em-
ployed when a refrigerant loop contains sev-
eral evaporators at different temperatures and
the evaporating temperature must not go below
a certain limit in one of the units (e.g., to prevent
icing in a water chiller). Capacity controllers
match the compressor capacity to the refriger-
ating effect. If the available compressor controls
are not adequate, the capacity controller can by-
pass part of the compressed refrigerant to the
compressor suction, thus preventing a drop in
suction pressure.
Thermostats are used to maintain constant
temperature in cooled rooms or in the liquid out-
let from evaporators. If the sensor in the con-
22 Refrigeration Technology
trol unit detects a change in temperature, a com-
pressor capacity stage is turned on or off. If the
evaporating pressure is to be held constant, a
low-pressure pressostat is used instead of a ther-
mostat. The high-pressure pressostat carries out
a corresponding function on the condenser side.
Oil-pressure differential cutouts are employed as
oil delivery monitors in compressors with pres-
surized oil lubrication.
For freshwater-cooled refrigerating systems,
automatic water valves reduce water consump-
tion. They control the flow rate of cooling water
so that a constant condensing pressure is main-
tained, independent of the condensing capacity
required.
Automatic shutoff, especially of refrigerant
piping, is accomplished with solenoid valves.
These devices enable, for example, the supply
of refrigerant to an evaporator to be discontin-
ued. If intermediate positions between open and
closed are needed, as is often the case in cooling-
water and brine loops, motor-actuated valves are
used.
Pressure safety relief devices are employed
to prevent excessive pressure in system com-
ponents. These devices include rupture disks,
pressure safety relief valves, and safety pres-
sure cutouts. Their design and use must comply
with applicable national safety provisions and
standards (DIN 8975 in the Federal Republic of
Germany).
Systems using halocarbon refrigerants often
have heat exchangers to subcool the liquid re-
frigerant flowing to the control device and su-
perheat the refrigerant vapor flowing to the com-
pressor. The exchangers improve the coefficient
of performance and volumetric refrigerating ef-
fect with many refrigerants (R 12), (R 502) and
the filling ratio in direct-expansion evaporators;
they also protect the compressor against intake
of liquid refrigerant. As a rule, refrigerant vapor
is led through internally finned tubes, while liq-
uid moves through the baffled shell-side space
of the apparatus in crosscurrent – countercurrent
flow.
Filters in the refrigerant line keep the com-
pressor and control valve free of solid con-
taminants. Halocarbon refrigerant loops include
dryers, which prevent refrigerant degradation
and icing in expansion valves on expansion be-
low 0 ◦ C. Refrigerating units must have pumps
to transport cooling water, brine, or other sec-
ondary refrigerant, as well as primary refriger-
ant. Virtually all the pumps used are centrifu-
gal. Whereas open pumps are commonly em-
ployed for secondary refrigerants, hermetically
sealed (canned-motor) pumps are usually found
in primary-refrigerant service. Because of the
low static pressure differences to be overcome
in finned air chillers or air-cooled and evap-
orative condensers, the fans used with these
units are generally axial-flow types. Some air-
conditioning evaporators and evaporative con-
densers also have radial-flow fans. To avoid cold
losses, all components that operate under evap-
orating pressure and are located in ambient-
temperature areas are provided with insula-
tion. Insulating materials include cork, cellu-
lar glass, foamed polystyrene, and polyurethane.
The most economical insulation thickness de-
pends strongly on refrigerant and ambient tem-
peratures; it should always be sufficient to pre-
vent sweating. Vapor locks must be included to
prevent the diffusion of water vapor.
1.2. Absorption Refrigerating Systems
[3], [8], [14], [27], [30], [97–106]
Absorption refrigeration systems differ from
compressor refrigerating systems in two main
respects: (1) The refrigerant vapor drawn out of
the evaporator is compressed not by a mechan-
ical compressor but by a thermal one, which
consists of an absorber, a solution pump, and
a generator. (2) Operation of the thermal com-
pressor requires a solvent (a second working
fluid) as well as a refrigerant. The most impor-
tant refrigerant – solvent pairs are:
1) ammonia – water, used for evaporating tem-
peratures between +10 and −60 ◦ C, and
2) water – lithium bromide solution, used
for evaporating temperatures >0 ◦ C (air-
conditioning systems).
Although many other pairs have been sug-
gested and studied, none is widely used.
1.2.1. Ammonia – Water Absorption
Refrigerating Systems
Figure 31 is a schematic diagram of a single-
stage ammonia – water absorption refrigerating
system.

Figure 31. Single-stage absorption refrigerating system
a) Generator with distillation section and reflux condenser;
b) Condenser; c) Heat exchanger; d) Evaporator; e) Ab-
sorber; f) Solution pump; g) Solution heat exchanger; h) Ex-
pansion valve for weak solution; i) Expansion valve for am-
monia; j) Solution pump drive motor
In the generator (a), ammonia is driven out
of an ammonia-water solution by heating un-
der high pressure. The refrigerant is distilled in
a column, usually located inside the generator,
and condensed (b). The condensate is subcooled
(c) by cold vapor from the evaporator, then ex-
panded to the evaporating pressure and fed to the
evaporator (d), where it absorbs heat and evap-
orates. From there, the refrigerant vapor passes
through the heat exchanger (c) to the absorber
(e). The weak (ammonia-poor) solution in (e)
absorbs the refrigerant vapor, and the resulting
heat is rejected to cooling water. The solution,
now more concentrated, is pumped through the
solution heat exchanger (g) to the generator. In
the solution heat exchanger, the enriched cold
solution from the absorber is brought into ther-
mal contact with the warm weak solution, which
flows from the generator to the absorber through
an expansion valve.
A thermodynamic description of the process
in an absorption system involves the relation-
ship of pressure p, temperature T , and concen-
tration ξ. Figure 32 shows curves of vapor pres-
Refrigeration Technology 23
sure vs. temperature at varying concentrations
ξ. The curves are straight lines in the coordi-
nates chosen. The operating points of the most
important devices can be plotted on such a di-
agram. Condensation and evaporation are each
represented by a single point, because they pro-
ceed at a constant concentration ξ ≈ 1, whereas
generation and absorption take place in the con-
centration range bounded by the rich and weak
solutions (ξ r and ξ w ).
Figure 32. Diagram of absorption refrigerating process ∗
(log p vs. 1/T )
t 0 = Evaporating temperature; t c = Condensing temperature;
t H = Generator final temperature
∗ See the text for definitions of ξ r , ξ w , Q̇0 , Q̇c , Q̇H , Q̇A ,
and Q̇R .
The h–ξ diagram devised for
ammonia – water by Merkel and Bošnjaković
is useful for thermotechnical determinations,
because in this plot quantities of heat appear as
lengths.
The process is specified in terms of three tem-
peratures:
1) the generator final temperature t H , which is
determined by the heating medium;
2) the condensing temperature t c , which is de-
termined by the cooling water; and
3) the evaporating temperature t 0 , which is dic-
tated by the application.
The remaining quantities pc , p0 , ξ r , and ξ w are
thus defined.
The heat balance of the absorption refrigera-
tion process is as follows:
Q̇H +Q̇0 +PP =Q̇c +Q̇A +Q̇R
where Q̇H is the rate of heat supply to the gen-
erator; Q̇0 is the refrigerating effect supplied to
24 Refrigeration Technology

the evaporator; PP is the drive power of the solu- portional decrease of the consumption rates of
tion pump; and Q̇A , Q̇c , and Q̇R are the rates of heating agent and cooling water can be expected.
heat removal in the absorber, condenser, and re- The most important advantage of absorp-
flux condenser, respectively. In many cases, PP tion refrigerating systems is that they can uti-
can be neglected in comparison with the other lize waste heat. However, the following points
quantities. are also important for the use of these systems:
Instead of the coefficient of performance for safety in operation, good part-load performance,
the compression system, the heat ratio (Q̇0 /Q̇H ) adaptability to changing service conditions, and
is used here for thermodynamic assessment: low noise emission. Investment costs and en-
ergy consumption are higher than for compa-
Q̇0 Q̇0 rable compressor refrigerating systems, but the
ζ= ≈
Q̇H +PP Q̇H low price of waste heat can often be crucial in
the decision to use an absorption system.
This ratio indicates how much refrigerating ef-
fect can be accomplished by a given thermal
power supplied to the generator at the evapo-
rating temperature t 0 . The heat ratio for today’s
large-capacity ammonia – water absorption sys-
tems is ca. 0.7 when t 0 ≈ 0 ◦ C; between 0.47 and
0.40 for t 0 from −20 to −30 ◦ C; and between
0.34 and 0.25 for t 0 from −40 to −50 ◦ C.
In the case of compressor refrigerating sys-
tems, economic considerations dictate a shift to
two-stage or multistage operation above a cer-
tain compression ratio that depends on the com-
pressor design. By contrast, two-stage absorp-
tion systems are employed when the tempera-
tures of the heating medium, the cooling water,
and the evaporating temperature (which deter-
mine the concentration difference between the
weak and rich solutions) take on values so un-
favorable that this concentration difference be-
comes <5 %. In two-stage absorption systems,
the two solvent loops are connected in series;
the pressure difference between generator and
evaporator is divided into two steps. Figure 33. Steam-heated vertical sprayed generator
Changes in the process (e.g., the use of mul- a) Reflux condenser; b) Distillation section; c) Heating sys-
tistage absorption, the injection of cold rich so- tem; d) Solution vessel; e) Rich solution inlet; f) Coolant
lution into the distillation column, or multistage inlet; g) Coolant outlet, h) Ammonia vapor outlet; i) Weak
solution outlet; j) Inlet for heating steam; k) Condensate
desorption) lead to further improvement in the outlet; l) Guide inserts; m) Packed bed; n) Trays; o) Sepa-
heat ratio and to a reduction in the necessary rator
temperature of the heating agent.
Absorption refrigeration systems can be
driven by relatively low-grade heat, which is
1.2.2. Equipment for Ammonia – Water
often available from industrial processes. The
Refrigerating Systems
process can then be economically optimized for
given heating media and cooling-water temper- Absorption refrigerating systems employing
atures. water – lithium bromide solution are used pri-
Alteration of the solution flow rate and the marily in air-conditioning systems, because this
heating capacity allows infinitely variable con- combination of substances is nontoxic. These
trol down to the lowest heat-removal rate. Up systems, usually factory-assembled, with ca-
to ca. 10 % of the refrigerating capacity, a pro- pacities of 200 – 6000 kW, are distinguished by
 Refrigeration Technology 25

compact design, noise- and vibration-free oper-

ation, and simple, continuous capacity control.
Their drawbacks are relatively high energy con-
sumption, heavy demand for cooling water, and
cost of anticorrosion measures in various parts
of the system.

Generator. The generator is most commonly

heated by steam, off-gas, or liquids. Either hor-
izontal or vertical flooded or sprayed tube sys-
tems (usually in a shell) are used. The gener-
ator is ordinarily combined into a unit with a
distillation column and a reflux condenser (de-
phlegmator). In rare cases, the generator is fired Figure 34. Cross section of a shell-and-tube absorber em-
directly with natural gas, oil, or kerosene (mul- ploying the spray principle
tipass combined flue and smoke-tube principle). a) Ammonia vapor inlet; b) Weak solution inlet ; c) Rich so-
Figure 33 shows a schematic diagram of a lution outlet; d) Vent connection; e) Spray device; f) Tube
bundle
vertical sprayed generator. The device consists
of a solution vessel (d), a heating system (c), a Another shell-and-tube design, which has the
distillation section (b), and a reflux condenser advantage of requiring little floor space, is the
(a). The countercurrent motion of steam and vertical sprayed absorber (tower absorber). The
solution creates good conditions for heat and weak solution is supplied through a distributing
mass transfer, and heat-transfer coefficients of system to the vertical tubes, while cooling water
ca. 2800 W m−2 K−1 are achieved. flows through the tubes. The refrigerant vapor
Rich solution coming from the solution heat flows upward countercurrently to the solution.
exchanger enters the packed bed (m), where it Heat-transfer coefficients for these absorber
absorbs part of the water from the ascending designs are between 400 and 800 W m−2 K−1 ,
steam. The descending solution then encounters depending on the operating conditions.
the upper tube sheet of the heating system (c);
it passes through guide inserts to the inside of
the tubes, where it is degassed. The weak so-
lution is caught in a collector and fed back to
the absorber. The expelled steam is rectified by
rich warm solution in a packed bed, then by re-
flux from the condenser in the distillation section
(b). Heat removal in the reflux condenser can be
accomplished with cooling water or with cold
rich solution.
Figure 35. Solution heat exchanger
Absorber. The absorber is usually a horizon- a) Rich solution inlet; b) Rich solution outlet; c) Weak so-
tal shell-and-tube device (see Fig. 34). Several lution outlet; d) Weak solution inlet
such units can be placed one above another de-
pending on the capacity requirement. A spray
Solution Heat Exchanger. Weak solution is
device (e) over the tube bundle (f) supplies weak
brought into thermal contact with rich solution
solution to the outside of the tubes while cooling
in the countercurrent solution heat exchanger.
water flows through them. The refrigerant vapor
Double-pipe heat exchangers are used for low
to be absorbed enters the shell-side space from
transfer rates, and shell-and-tube devices for
several points over the length of the apparatus.
higher rates. The weak solution is usually in-
side the tubes, whereas the rich solution is trans-
ported through the shell-side space by a pump.
26 Refrigeration Technology
Figure 35 shows a high-capacity solution heat
exchanger, consisting of several shell-and-tube
units mounted one above another.
1.2.3. Water – Lithium Bromide Absorption
Refrigerating Systems
The condenser and evaporator designs used in
absorption refrigeration systems are largely the
same as those employed in compression systems
(Sections 1.1.3 and 1.1.4). Therefore, only the
generator, absorber, and solution heat exchanger
are discussed in this section. Other equipment
worth mentioning includes extra heat exchang-
ers, refrigerant and solution receivers, capac-
ity controls, ventilation devices, and expansion
valves.
Figure 36 is a schematic diagram of a lithium
bromide absorption refrigerating system. The
principal components are two vessels mounted
one above the other. The lower vessel (a) con-
tains the evaporator (c) and the absorber (d). The
generator (e) and the condenser (f) are located
inside the upper vessel (b). Because the system
operates under a high vacuum, virtually no heat-
transfer losses occur between the components in
each vessel, despite the large temperature differ-
ences. A pump (g) delivers rich solution through
the heat exchanger (h) to the generator, where
part of the water is driven out of it.
Figure 36. Water – lithium bromide absorption system
a) Lower vessel; b) Upper vessel; c) Evaporator; d) Ab-
sorber; e) Generator; f) Condenser; g) Pump; h) Heat ex-
changer; i) Pump
The weak, high-temperature solution is recy-
cled through the solution heat exchanger to the
absorber, where the vapor from the evaporator
is absorbed by cooling water. Steam produced
in the generator is condensed in the condenser;
the condensate flows to the evaporator, where it
absorbs heat from the secondary refrigerant. An-
other pump (i) circulates refrigerant to spray the
evaporator tubes; the refrigerant vapor produced
is absorbed by the weak solution in the bottom
part of the vessel. An inhibitor (usually lithium
nitrate or lithium chromate) is added to the loop
to combat corrosion.
Lower capacity water – lithium bromide ab-
sorption systems have attracted interest in con-
nection with solar energy utilization.
1.3. Steam-Jet Systems [3], [5], [30], [107],
[108]
The steam-jet refrigeration system can be re-
garded as a thermally driven compression sys-
tem in which vapor is compressed in a jet ap-
paratus. Its operation is illustrated in Figure 37.
Figure 37. Steam-jet refrigeration system
a) Nozzle; b) Diffuser; c) Mixing chamber; d) Condenser;
e) Evaporator; f) Pump; g) Steam boiler; h) Expansion valve;
i) Pump drive motor
Steam is generated at pressure p1 in boiler
(g); the mass flow rate of steam is ṁ1 . In the
nozzle (a), the steam is expanded to the pressure
p0 prevailing in the evaporator (e); then, in the

mixing chamber (c), it is mixed with steam (rate
ṁ0 , pressure p0 ) from the evaporator. Next, the
pressure of the two streams ṁ1 and ṁ0 is raised
to the condensation pressure in the diffuser (b).
Virtually all the kinetic energy is transformed
to pressure. When heat is withdrawn in the con-
denser (d), the steam condenses. The condensate
is divided into two substreams ṁ1 and ṁ0 ; ṁ1
is delivered to the steam boiler (g) by a pump
(f), and ṁ0 is led to the evaporator through an
expansion valve (h). Here, substream ṁ0 evapo-
rates at pressure p0 , absorbing heat; the exiting
expanded steam, moving at a higher velocity,
sucks this stream into the mixing chamber.
Water, employed mainly as working steam
and as refrigerant in the steam-jet system, is a
low-cost, hazard-free working fluid with a high
specific enthalpy of evaporation. The pressure
p0 is usually between 0.6 and 1.2 kPa; pc de-
pends on the cooling-water temperature and lies
between 3 and 8 kPa.
This system’s drawbacks are the large spe-
cific volume in the region of the evaporating
temperatures, the high vacuum, and the limita-
tion placed on the evaporating temperature by
the freezing point. Lower temperatures can be
reached if hydrocarbons and halocarbon refrig-
erants are used as working fluids.
As in absorption systems, the decisive quan-
tity for assessing this process in energy terms
is the heat ratio ζ, which indicates how much
refrigerating effect Q̇0 is gained from the heat-
ing power Q̇H and the pump power Pp supplied
(see Section 1.2.1). The heat ratios attained in
practice are much lower than those for an ab-
sorption system. With multistage jet units and
multistage evaporation, the energy performance
can be improved.
The advantages of the steam-jet system are
low plant costs due to the simple design, utiliza-
tion of waste heat, small space requirement, and
low maintenance costs. These are partly offset by
the drawback of high operating costs, especially
because of the large consumption of cooling wa-
ter. These features make the steam-jet process
suitable for short-term refrigeration using cheap
waste heat.
Refrigeration Technology 27
1.4. Thermoelectric Refrigeration [3],
[28], [109–112]
Thermoelectric refrigeration is based on the
Peltier effect, which is the reversal of the See-
beck principle. In an electrical circuit consisting
of two different conductors and a d.c. voltage
source, one of the junctions between the two
conductors is heated while the other is cooled.
If the direction of the current is changed, the
warm and cold junctions change places. Energy
is lost by Joule heating in the conductors, be-
cause of their resistance, and by conduction from
the warm junction to the cold one; these losses
greatly reduce the coefficient of performance.
The maximum temperature difference that can
be produced between the junctions and the coef-
ficient of performance are primarily determined
by the properties of the two conducting mate-
rials: thermoelectric force e, electrical conduc-
tivity σ, and thermal conductivity λ. These are
grouped into a parameter called the figure of
merit z:
e2 ·σ
z=
λ
The thermoelectric force and the electrical
conductivity should be as high as possible,
while the thermal conductivity should be as
small as possible. This requirement is best
met by alloys of semiconducting materials,
such as lead – tellurium, antimony – bismuth,
and germanium – silicon (→ Semiconductors).
Because the capacity of a single Peltier el-
ement is very low, a number of elements must
be connected in a thermally parallel manner so
that their refrigerating effects are additive. Fig-
ures of merit z of (3.0 – 3.5)×10−3 K−1 can be
attained with current semiconductor technology,
so the available coefficients of performance are
comparable with those of other processes only
at very small refrigerating capacities.
Thermoelectric refrigeration is used in spe-
cial cooling devices for laboratory purposes and
in low-capacity air-conditioning units.
2. Industrial Applications of
Refrigeration [10–13], [21], [31]
Many industrial chemical processes require low
temperature, often in conjunction with large re-
28 Refrigeration Technology

frigerating capacity. Examples of design of re- ants is suitable when cold is to be distributed to
frigerating plants for these applications are de- several consumer locations or when contact bet-
scribed in this chapter. Machines and equipment ween primary refrigerant and product resulting
for ice making, food technology, climate control, from leaks must be avoided. The selection of a
and construction are also discussed. secondary refrigerant depends on temperature,
Table 5. Important data for calcium chloride brines
heat-transfer properties, material compatibility,
toxicity, and price. Figure 38 shows the tempera-
Density Salt content, Start of Specific ture ranges for the most important secondary re-
at 15 ◦ C, kg CaCl2 / freezing, heat at 0 ◦ C, frigerants; the shaded part of each range should
kg/m3 100 kg ◦
C kJ kg−1 K−1
solution
be avoided whenever possible, because of poor
heat-transfer properties. The favorable qualities
1000 0.1 0.0 4.20
1010 1.3 − 0.6 4.13
of water mean that it is almost always preferred
1020 2.5 − 1.2 4.05 when the evaporating temperature of the refrig-
1030 3.6 − 1.8 3.98 erant is > 0 ◦ C. Down to − 40 ◦ C, calcium chlo-
1040 4.8 − 2.4 3.90 ride brines are commonly used with steel; eth-
1050 5.9 − 3.0 3.83
1060 7.1 − 3.7 3.76
ylene glycol – water mixtures are used more and
1070 8.3 − 4.4 3.69 more because of their good behavior with respect
1080 9.4 − 5.2 3.62 to ferrous and nonferrous metals.
1090 10.5 − 6.1 3.56 The concentrations of aqueous mixtures are
1100 11.5 − 7.1 3.50
1110 12.6 − 8.1 3.44 chosen so that the freezing point lies several de-
1120 13.7 − 9.1 3.38 grees below the evaporating temperature. Tables
1130 14.7 −10.2 3.33 5 and 6 list important data for calcium chloride
1140 15.8 −11.4 3.27
1150 16.8 −12.7 3.22
brines and ethylene glycol – water mixtures.
1160 17.8 −14.2 3.17
Table 6. Important data for ethylene glycol – water mixtures
1170 18.9 −15.7 3.13
1180 19.9 −17.4 3.08
Density Glycol con- Start of Specific
1190 20.9 −19.2 3.04
at 15 ◦ C, tent, kg freezing, heat at 0 ◦ C,
1200 21.9 −21.2 3.00
kg/m3 glycol/100 kg ◦
C kJ kg−1 K−1
1210 22.8 −23.3 2.96
solution
1220 23.8 −25.7 2.93
1230 24.7 −28.3 2.90 1005 4.6 − 2 4.10
1240 25.7 −31.2 2.87 1010 8.4 − 4 4.06
1250 26.6 −34.6 2.84 1015 12.2 − 5 3.98
1260 27.5 −38.6 2.81 1020 16.0 − 7 3.89
1270 28.4 −43.6 2.78 1025 19.8 −10 3.85
1280 29.4 −50.1 2.75 1030 23.6 −13 3.77
1286 ∗ 29.9 −55.0 2.74 1035 27.4 −15 3.73
1290 30.3 −50.6 2.72 1040 31.2 −17 3.64
1300 31.2 −41.6 2.70 1045 35.0 −21 3.56
1310 32.1 −33.9 2.67 1050 38.8 −26 3.52
1320 33.0 −27.1 2.65 1055 42.6 −29 3.43
1330 33.9 −21.2 2.62 1060 46.4 −33 3.35
1340 34.7 −15.6 2.60
1350 35.6 −10.2 2.58
1360 36.4 − 5.1 2.55
1370 37.3 0.0 2.53
Equipment. With few exceptions, chilling of
∗ Eutectic the secondary refrigerant or other liquid takes
place in shell-and-tube heat exchangers. Direct-
expansion-type evaporators are employed with
halocarbon refrigerants at capacities of up to ca.
2.1. Chilling of Liquids [18], [24], [26], 1000 kW. At higher capacities and with ammo-
[28], [30], [33], [113–117] nia as refrigerant, flooded shell-and-tube evap-
orators are used.
Liquid chilling usually refers to the cooling of Liquid-chilling machines for temperatures
secondary refrigerants in order to transfer cold > 0 ◦ C, with treated water as secondary refrig-
to other products. The use of secondary refriger- erant, are widely used, especially for air condi-

Figure 38. Application ranges of secondary refrigerants
Hatching indicates region of high viscosity
tioning, but also for manufacturing processes,
food technology, cooling plastics machinery,
etc. Nearly all of these units operate with halo-
carbon refrigerants.
Plants with reciprocating compressors are
in service at refrigerating capacities up to ca.
1000 kW; above this range, centrifugal compres-
sors are used most widely. Compact systems
of this type are made for capacities up to ca.
5000 kW. These water chillers have compres-
sor, evaporator, condenser, control, safety de-
vices, and electrical switching; they are factory-
assembled on a single frame, so that setup and
commissioning are simple. Water- or air-cooled
condensers are employed; in large air-cooled
plants, the air-cooled condensers may be very
large and, so separate placement of the water-
chilling unit and the condenser (erected out-
doors) is common. Virtually all water chillers
with reciprocating compressors use R 22 as re-
frigerant.
Hermetic compressors are mainly employed
at low refrigerating capacities up to ca. 50 kW,
whereas semihermetic motor-driven compres-
sors are used at higher capacities. Because air-
conditioning service means frequent part-load
operation, the refrigerating capacity is usually
distributed between several smaller compres-
sors, which can be turned on or off as needed.
Larger units are also made with two separate re-
frigerant loops to enhance reliability.
Water chillers with screw compressors also
use R 22 as their principal refrigerant. These
units are distinguished by quiet operation and
Refrigeration Technology 29
high reliability. Like reciprocating plants, they
can be adapted to varying discharge pres-
sures; this is important for air-cooled chillers.
The compressors are driven by bipolar three-
phase motors. In hermetic or semihermetic
motor – compressors, the oil stream separation
required on the discharge side of screw com-
pressors can take place inside the motor space,
so that compact construction is possible. In sys-
tems with a single compressor, capacity control
is exerted with a slide valve; with several com-
pressors, individual machines are turned on and
off as in the case of reciprocating compressors.
Most centrifugal units use R 11 or R 12. The
rotational speeds required are greater than bipo-
lar three-phase motors can supply, so builtin
gearing or frequency converters are employed.
Even in large-capacity systems, semihermetic
mounting of the drive motor and compressor is
common. Both single-stage and two-stage units
are built; the two-stage design with intermediate
expansion offers somewhat better energy econ-
omy. Water chillers with centrifugal compres-
sors usually feature water cooling, because of
their high capacity and the inflexibility of cen-
trifugal compressors with respect to varying dis-
charge pressures. Whereas evaporators in sys-
tems with reciprocating and screw compressors
operate in direct-expansion mode, centrifugal
systems employ flooded evaporators. Usually a
unit has just one compressor; part-load control is
exerted by inlet guide vanes, the less economical
bypass control being used only at cooling loads
much lower than half the maximum capacity.
30 Refrigeration Technology
Units for chilling brine and other secondary
refrigerant liquids are essentially similar in de-
sign to water chillers.
Very viscous or pasty liquids are chilled in
screw or scraped-pipe coolers, whose walls are
held at the required low temperature by evap-
orating primary refrigerant or by a secondary
refrigerant. Such devices are frequently used in
the food and chemical industries.
2.2. Separation of Liquids by
Crystallization [13], [21], [118–123]
Recovering some products and separating ma-
terials from mixtures may require low process
temperature, because of either the position of the
thermodynamic equilibrium (solubility curves)
or the temperature sensitivity of some sub-
stances.
For example, p-xylene is recovered from
the mixture of ortho, meta, and para isomers
by crystallization in a scraped-pipe heat ex-
changer (→ Xylenes); the process temperature
is ca. − 70 ◦ C. The xylene mixture flows inside
a cylinder, while a stream of secondary refriger-
ant flows through the jacket. Scraper blades ro-
tating inside the cylinder continuously remove
the crystals precipitated on the wall and thus en-
sure constant heat-transfer conditions. Cold is
produced in cascade-type refrigerating systems.
Figure 39 is a flow sheet of a cascade unit
for chilling methane (secondary refrigerant) to
− 77 ◦ C. Both loops use three-stage centrifugal
compressors; the high-temperature loop oper-
ates with R 12 and the low-temperature loop with
R 13.
Another example is the dewaxing of crude
oils. Alkanes left in the crude oil after distilla-
tion are crystallized by cooling to ca. −30 ◦ C.
The crystallizers, operating in several tempera-
ture stages, are similar in design to those used
for xylene separation. The refrigerating sys-
tems are usually multistage ammonia compres-
sor refrigerating systems or ammonia – water
absorption refrigerating systems. Low-tempera-
ture fractional crystallization is also used to sep-
arate undesirable byproducts, especially when
an impurity has a boiling point close to that of
the desired product.
2.3. Cooling and Liquefaction of Gases
[13], [21], [124–130]
Except in room air-conditioning systems (see
Section 2.5), where air is used as secondary re-
frigerant, the purpose of cooling gases and gas
mixtures is nearly always to bring about total
or fractional condensation. The fractional con-
densation of gas mixtures effects separation; the
desired product may be either the residual gas
or the condensate.
A number of industrially important gases are
produced by condensation from crude gases.
The condensation temperature depends on the
concentration of the gas in the mixture or on
its partial pressure. The partial pressure can be
raised by compressing the crude gas. The recov-
ery (the ratio of gas condensed to gas in the feed
stream) and the concentration of the gas in the
feed are the chief factors dictating the tempera-
ture to which the crude gas must be cooled. Sub-
sequent storage or transport of the condensed
gas also determines the condensation temper-
ature. Chlorine, ammonia, sulfur dioxide, and
carbon dioxide are examples of important prod-
ucts recovered by condensation at subambient
temperatures.
Chlorine is recovered between + 20 and
− 50 ◦ C, depending on the production pro-
cess. Chlorine gas from electrolysis of sodium
or potassium chloride contains, after prelimi-
nary treatment, 2 – 8 vol % air, hydrogen, car-
bon dioxide, and carbon monoxide (→ Chlorine,
Chap. 11.). The choice for chlorine separation
among the following three candidate processes
depends on the chlorine content in the feed
stream and the desired recovery:
1) The crude gas inlet at 0.1 MPa is condensed
at this pressure. Multistage refrigerating sys-
tems may be needed (depending on the re-
covery) for evaporating temperatures at or
below −45 ◦ C.
2) The crude gas is compressed to ca. 0.3 MPa
in nonlubricated reciprocating compressors
(or centrifugal compressors when the quan-
tity of gas is large). The increased partial
pressure enables condensation to be carried
out at evaporating temperatures of ca. − 15
to − 20 ◦ C in the refrigerant loop.

Figure 39. Flow sheet of cascade centrifugal refrigerating system for xylene separation
a) Centrifugal compressor; b) Drive motor; c) Water – cooled condenser; d) Receiving vessel; e) Expansion vessel; f) R 12
evaporator – R 13 condenser; g) Methanol cooler; h) Vessel for thermal expansion of R 13; i) Expansion valve
– – – R 12 Loop; −→ R 13 loop
3) The crude gas is compressed to 1.0 – 1.5 MPa
in several stages and can then be con-
densed with water; no refrigerating machine
is needed.
Figure 40. Flow sheet of a chlorine liquefaction system
a) Crude gas inlet; b) Precooler; c) Chlorine gas compressor;
d) Water-cooled chlorine gas cooler; e) First-stage chlorine
condenser; f) Second-stage chlorine condenser; g) Vessel for
liquid chlorine; h) Expansion valve; i) Residual gas outlet;
j) Liquid chlorine outlet; k) High-stage compressor; l) Con-
denser; m) Medium-pressure vessel; n) Low-stage compres-
sor; o) Expansion valve; p) Drive motor
−→ Chlorine loop; - - - - Refrigerant loop
Refrigeration Technology 31
These processes are often linked. For example,
part of the chlorine gas from the compressed
crude gas can be condensed with water; the re-
maining gas is then cooled to ca. −40 ◦ C and
another fraction condenses. The recovery, de-
pending on feed-gas composition, is >99 vol %.
Figure 40 is a flow sheet of a chlorine liq-
uefaction system. The crude gas is first treated
to remove water vapor and other gases, then led
through a precooler (b). Here, evaporating chlo-
rine cools the gas to ca. − 30 ◦ C so that, on sub-
sequent compression to ca. 0.4 MPa (c), the final
temperature does not exceed 80 ◦ C, the allowed
maximum on safety grounds. The compressed
gas is first cooled against water in a heat ex-
changer (d). It then goes to the first chlorine con-
denser (e), which is cooled by evaporating pri-
mary refrigerant. The condensed fraction flows
to a receiving vessel (g). The uncondensed frac-
tion continues to a second chlorine condenser
(f), where it is collected at a lower temperature
and led to the vessel.
Ammonia can be condensed from converter
gas in low-temperature refrigerating systems
(→ Ammonia). Evaporating temperatures of the
two-stage refrigeration process are between −50
and − 60 ◦ C.
In the separation of sulfur dioxide, the feed
gas is first compressed to ca. 0.5 MPa; up to
one half of the initial sulfur dioxide content is
recovered by condensation at − 40 ◦ C (→ Sulfur
Dioxide). The gas is then expanded to ca.
0.1 MPa, the gas temperature drops to − 50 ◦ C,
and the remaining sulfur dioxide condenses.
32 Refrigeration Technology
Carbon dioxide for the beverage industry
and for dry-ice production is purified by scrub-
bing and adsorption, then condensed at low tem-
peratures and stored (→ Carbon Dioxide). Evap-
orating temperatures are ca. − 30 to − 35 ◦ C.
For tank storage and transport, gases are liq-
uefied and recondensed with cold-vapor refrig-
eration processes, provided their standard boil-
ing points are not much lower than − 100 ◦ C.
This group includes ethane, ethylene, propane,
propene, butane, butadiene, ammonia, and oth-
ers. Gases such as ethane and ethylene, which
have critical pressures near or below ambient
temperature, are liquefied in the evaporator of
a closed refrigerating system resembling a cas-
cade system. The process takes place at elevated
pressure between − 50 and − 30 ◦ C. Figure 41
is a flow sheet of a plant that recondenses ethyl-
ene for storage at atmospheric pressure. Higher
boiling substances are condensed either by com-
pression and cooling against water or air, or in a
closed refrigerating system at storage pressure.
Recondensing units with gas compression re-
present a possible application for nonlubricated
reciprocating compressors, because the product
must not be contaminated with lubricating oil.
Figure 41. Flow sheet of an ethylene recondensing system
a) Ethylene tank; b) Heat exchanger; c) Compressor; d) Ex-
pansion vessel; e) Ethylene condenser – R 22 evaporator;
f) Medium-pressure vessel; g) Water-cooled condenser;
h) Expansion valve
– – – R 22 loop; −→ Ethylene loop
In the drying of gases, particularly of com-
pressed air, the dew point must be lowered to
such an extent that no water vapor condenses
during later use of the gas. Refrigerating sys-
tem are often employed from 25 to 5 ◦ C when
water cooling is inadequate and adsorptive dry-
ing is ruled out for economic reasons. To min-
imize energy consumption, the dry cold gas
can be used to precool the moist gas stream.
Smaller units generally employ R 12 and R 22
and thermostatically controlled expansion; for
high capacities, ammonia and flooded operation
are preferred. Finned cooling systems are used
at standard pressure, whereas shell-and-tube ex-
changers with smooth or shallow finned tubes
come into play at higher pressures. If dew points
< + 5 ◦ C are required, the water vapor collects
as frost on the heat-exchange surfaces. It must be
melted periodically by using electrical heating or
pressurized refrigerant vapor. This arrangement
calls for two evaporators connected in parallel
and operated alternately. To avoid short cycle
times, the greatest possible areas are provided
on the gas side, so that the frost layer grows
slowly. Finned coolers best meet this require-
ment; in shell-and-tube devices, the air is on the
shell side to prevent the tubes from becoming
plugged with ice.
In refrigeration systems, the use of conden-
sation to recover valuable feedstock and solvent
and to return them to the production process
contributes to saving raw materials. To reduce
water and air pollution, increasingly lower tem-
peratures (down to − 70 ◦ C) are employed for
off-gas treatment and other purposes, in order
to remove even slight traces of foreign and haz-
ardous substances by recondensation.
2.4. Remote Cooling [61], [131], [132]
Like steam power plants, central cooling sys-
tems in large chemical plants generate needed
energy and distribute it through a network of
pipes that is often highly branched. Such in-
stallations are a special application of centrifu-
gal compressor ammonia refrigerating systems.
Even though the properties of ammonia are not
favorable for centrifugal compressors (low mo-
lecular mass requiring many stages), the low
price of ammonia and the small pipe cross
sections and heat exchangers make ammonia
the most economical refrigerant. The cold con-
sumers, often several hundred meters away, are
supplied directly with liquid primary refrigerant;
no intermediate secondary refrigerant system is
necessary.

Figure 42 is a flow sheet of a remote cool-
ing system with two stages. Before expanding
in evaporator (g), the warm liquid refrigerant
is subcooled (e), by the vapor coming from the
evaporator, and in this way the vapor is heated
close to ambient temperature. Consequently, the
vapor piping can be left uninsulated with no sig-
nificant energy loss. Before the refrigerant va-
por enters compressor (i), it is saturated with ex-
panded liquid in order to minimize superheating
on compression. Vapor coming from the low-
stage compressor is intercooled against water in
the surface cooler (j), and expansion takes place
in several stages. In this way, such installations
can be operated economically.
Figure 42. Flow sheet of an ammonia refrigerating system
with centrifugal compression and two evaporation stages
a) High-stage compressors; b) Condenser; c) Receiver;
d) Medium-pressure vessel; e) Medium-pressure vessel with
subcooling coil; f) Heat exchanger; g) Evaporator; h) Sat-
urating vessel; i) Low-stage compressor; j) Surface cooler;
k) Expansion valve
2.5. Air Conditioning [13], [21], [24], [25],
[29], [31], [133–137]
In many industrial plants, air must be held in
some definite state for the manufacture, process-
ing, and storage of products. The necessary con-
ditions are dictated by the need to keep the tem-
perature, humidity, air velocity, and air purity
within narrow ranges. Such requirements apply,
for example, in the manufacture of textiles, to-
bacco products, and photographic or electronic
Refrigeration Technology 33
equipment; in printing, food, or pharmaceutical
plants; in special fabrication processes in the ma-
chinery industry; at data-processing facilities;
and elsewhere.
Conditioned air consists of fresh and recycled
air in some proportion; the cooling surfaces are
always > 0 ◦ C. Two main processes are used to
cool air in an air-contitioning plant:
1) Cooling and simultaneous humidification or
dehumidification in a wet air cooler (air
washer)
2) Cooling and simultaneous dehumidification
in a surface cooler
When the outside air is polluted, it is purified
by filtering, scrubbing, or adsorption before be-
ing mixed with recycled air. Water, cooled in the
evaporator of a water chiller, is usually employed
as secondary refrigerant (see Section 2.1). Many
air-conditioning systems incorporate heat recov-
ery to warm the air after dehumidification.
2.6. Refrigeration Plants for Cold
Rooms and Freezers [10–12], [15–18],
[21], [31], [138–158]
Refrigeration plants for cold rooms are used
mainly for the preservation of foodstuffs of plant
or animal origin → Foods, 2. Food Technology,
Chap. 3.; they can, however, be used to extend
the shelf lives of other products, such as chemi-
cals, pharmaceuticals, or flowers. The principal
users are cold-storage plants, slaughterhouses,
breweries and dairies, refrigerator trucks and
railroad cars, and stockrooms in food stores.
Aside from a few special cases, such as the
humid air cooling of vegetables or flowers, re-
frigeration plants for cold rooms use direct cool-
ing by evaporating refrigerant, with no interme-
diate circulation of a secondary refrigerant.
Storage requirements vary, from 10 to 0 ◦ C
for coolers and from − 20 to − 30 ◦ C for freez-
ers; accordingly, refrigerating equipment op-
erates at evaporating temperatures from 0 to
− 10 ◦ C (single-stage compression) or from
− 30 to − 40 ◦ C (two-stage compression). Two
basic types of systems exist:
1) A centralized unit, consisting of a large re-
frigerating system from which the condensed
primary refrigerant is distributed to evapora-
tors in the individual chambers
34 Refrigeration Technology
2) A decentralized system, in which each cham-
ber has its own refrigerating unit that may
have one or several compressors
In large cold-storage plants, slaughterhouses,
and breweries, the usual refrigerant is ammo-
nia. In mobile refrigerating systems and in food
stores, R 22 or R 502 is preferred. Plants using
ammonia are centralized; the liquid refrigerant
flows by gravity or is pumped from a receiv-
ing and separating tank on the low-pressure side
to the individual chamber coolers. The air cool-
ers must be defrosted from time to time; this is
usually done by passing hot gas through the re-
frigerant piping (Fig. 43).
Refrigeration plants for cold rooms operating
on R 22 or R 502 can be centralized or decentral-
ized. The air cooler in such a unit is generally
a thermostatically controlled direct-expansion
evaporator. Decentralized machines are simpler
in design, but require a much greater number
of refrigerant compressors than centralized sys-
tems and also consume more energy in most
cases. Whereas hot-gas defrosting is common
in centralized plants, electrical defrosting is of-
ten used in decentralized systems with direct-
expansion evaporators.
The products to be stored may be cooled or
frozen in the chambers themselves, but special
equipment is usually employed for this purpose.
Such equipment lowers the product temperature
much more rapidly (see following discussion of
“ Freezing Processes”).
The coolers in a chamber are mounted either
along the walls or below the ceiling. Air is of-
ten distributed by a system of ducts below the
ceiling, whereas it is commonly exhausted from
the chamber without any special ductwork. The
rate of air circulation depends on the size of the
room and the products stored there; an air speed
in the chamber of ca. of 0.5 m/s is often selected.
Maintenance of a given humidity level in the air,
usually between 85 and 95 % R.H., is very im-
portant. If the humidity is too high, product shelf
life is shortened; if it is too low, the product will
dry out. Adequate sizing of the air-cooler sur-
faces keeps the humidity from dropping too low.
The accuracy of temperature and humidity con-
trol can be improved by using additional heating
and humidifying equipment. Other measures can
extend the shelf life of foodstuffs. In fruit stor-
age, for example, the oxygen content of the air
is generally lowered (storage under controlled
atmosphere).
In cold-storage plants, flat construction is
favored because of better transport conditions,
even though it involves greater cold consump-
tion and higher land costs. Cold room chamber
loading, depending on product and room height,
is between 2 and 4 t/m2 of floor area. Proper in-
sulation of cold-storage rooms is important; the
thickness of insulation is matched to the cham-
ber temperature. The insulation must also incor-
porate a vapor barrier. The costs of insulating a
cold-storage plant are often of the same order as
those for the entire refrigerating system.
Freezing Processes. Freezing in liquid
brine (immersion freezing) is appropriate only
for foods in liquid-tight packages, such as
canned frozen juices and shrink-wrapped poul-
try. Heat transfer is equally good everywhere on
the surface, especially for products with uneven
surfaces, so that freezing times are short. The
product, such as packaged poultry, is moved by
conveyors through a tank containing the brine,
a mixture of propylene glycol and water. After
leaving the tank, the product must be rinsed with
water to remove residual brine.
In contact freezing, small unit packages of
uniform thickness are frozen in plate-type equip-
ment. The plates are sometimes vertical but most
often horizontal. A unit has up to 20 aluminum
plates with integrally cast channels for refrig-
erant or brine. The packages are laid on sheets
between the plates, and the plates are pressed
against the fixed lowermost plate to produce
good contact between the cooled plates and the
product. After freezing is completed, the plates
must be warmed briefly with a defrosting circuit
so that they can be separated.
Liquid, pulpy, or pasty material can be frozen
at high rates in a scraped-surface freezer. The
product is fed onto a slowly rotating horizon-
tal cylindrical surface cooled by primary refrig-
erant. The devices used for application and re-
moval depend on the product. The form of the
frozen product (powdered or flaked) depends on
the scraping apparatus and the starting material.
The process is continuous and can be adapted
to prevailing requirements by varying the roller
speed, the evaporating temperature, and the coat-
ing thickness.

Figure 43. Flow sheet of a refrigerating plant for cold rooms with pumped circulation of refrigerant and hot-gas defrosting ∗
a) Compressor; b) Condenser; c) Receiver; d) Separator; e) Refrigerant circulation pump; f) Air coolers; g) Expansion valve;
h) Switchover valve; i) Nonreturn valve
∗ The upper switchover valves are closed and the lower ones opened for cooling; the opposite is true for defrosting.
Cold-Blast Freezing. Freezing in air is suit-
able for products of any type, size, or form,
whether in the loose or packaged state; all frozen
products are processed in this way. Many unit de-
signs and ratings are available. Achieving eco-
nomical freezing rates with air requires greater
temperature differences than with contact or im-
mersion freezing. Air temperatures of −30 to
− 50 ◦ C are used.
The product is conveyed through the freez-
ing tunnel on wheeled racks, belts, carousels,
or slide ways. In this continuous process, the
material enters the freezing unit through locks.
Multiple fans blow cold air countercurrently or
crosscurrently over the product at up to 7 m/s.
The air is cooled against refrigerant evaporating
at roughly −40 to − 55 ◦ C in finned-pipe heat
exchangers. Freezing rates of ca. 1 – 3 cm/h can
be attained. The residence or freezing time can
be controlled continuously by varying the belt
or chain speed or the feed rate.
The refrigerating equipment, usually two-
stage, employs ammonia or R 22 as refrigerant.
Reciprocating and screw compressors are used.
A special form of cold-blast freezing is the
fluidized-bed process; this is particularly suit-
able for free-flowing materials in the form of
small lumps or fine grains, which are often en-
countered in food technology and the chemical
industry.
Cold air, blown upward through a metal pan
with a perforated bottom, suspends the product
and flows around it. The good heat transfer (coef-
ficients of 90 – 300 W m−2 K−1 for specific sur-
faces of 0.25 – 1 m2 /kg) results in short freez-
Refrigeration Technology 35
ing times, so that equipment can be made com-
pact and space requirements minimized. The air,
which must be cooled to ca. −30 ◦ C usually is
generally blown by fans through several finned-
tube evaporators. Pressure drops in the evapora-
tors and the fluidized bed must be considered.
The optimal bed depth is determined by the type
of product being frozen and is controlled through
air velocity and particle size. The evaporators
are defrosted automatically at intervals, without
interrupting the overall process; the refrigerant,
usually R 22, is conveyed through the loop by
pumping.
Freezing with Boiling Liquids. Two freez-
ing processes involving boiling liquids have
found limited application. One employs liquid
nitrogen; in the other, boiling R 12 is placed in
direct contact with the product.
Liquid nitrogen is sprayed onto the product
in a tunnel (Fig. 44). The product is precooled
by the cold gas produced by evaporation. Fans
(h) circulate the gas around the product to pre-
vent surface cracking, which would otherwise
occur if the uncooled product suddenly came in
contact with liquid nitrogen (d), which boils at
ca. − 190 ◦ C. To avoid excessive residence times
and thus overlong tunnels, the large temperature
difference between the surface and the interior
of the product is not equalized in the tunnel. The
product only remains in the tunnel as long as is
necessary to remove the heat needed to bring its
average temperature down to its desired storage
temperature. Final temperature equalization bet-
ween the core and the surface occurs later dur-
36 Refrigeration Technology
ing frozen storage. With 1 kg of liquid nitrogen
(1.245 L), some 330 kJ of heat can be removed
from the product. The large temperature differ-
ence and good heat transfer allow quick freez-
ing and thus good product quality. Liquid carbon
dioxide can be used instead of liquid nitrogen.
With R 12, the liquefied refrigerant is brought
into contact with the product, again in a tunnel.
The refrigerant evaporates at a temperature of ca.
−30 ◦ C. In contrast to nitrogen, R 12 can easily
be recondensed with a condenser mounted in the
tunnel. The condenser is held at about −45 ◦ C by
a two-stage R 22 refrigerating unit. Withdraw-
ing a given amount of heat requires much less
energy than with liquid nitrogen, because of the
higher evaporating temperature. For economical
operation, refrigerant losses resulting from leaks
in the tunnel and entrainment with product must
not exceed 1 – 2 wt % of product.
Freeze Drying (see also → Drying of Solid
Materials, Chap. 2.5.). Frozen-dried products
are of better quality than conventionally dried
products because of reduced cell damage.
Freeze drying consists of the following steps:
(1) freezing and cooling of the product to ca.
−20 ◦ C, (2) evacuation to 50 – 100 Pa, (3) addi-
tion of heat of sublimation through heated plates,
and (4) condensation of water vapor on cold sur-
faces (−40 to −60 ◦ C). The residual water con-
tent is <2 %. Finely divided products are more
Figure 44. Quick-freezing apparatus with liquid nitrogen
a) Freezing tunnel with belt conveyor; b) Product feed; c) Product removal; d) Liquid nitrogen feed from supply tank; e) Control
valve; f) Temperature sensor; g) Spray nozzle; h) Circulating fans; i) Suction blower
suitable than coarse ones, because both the freez-
ing time and, more important, the drying time are
shorter. The main difficulty is to remove water
vapor quickly from the interior of the product
without causing local overheating of the exte-
rior. To prevent oxidation during storage, freeze-
dried products are packaged under vacuum or in
a nitrogen atmosphere.
Cold is produced with multistage compres-
sion and absorption machines. The energy con-
sumption is high (10 to 15 times that required for
frozen-food production) because the required re-
frigerating capacity is about eightfold and the
evaporating temperatures are 10 – 20 K lower.
However, energy costs for three months’ storage
of frozen food are roughly the same as for freeze
drying. Nevertheless, the process is much more
expensive than frozen storage, so freeze drying
of foods is not very important; it is used increas-
ingly for high-quality food and pharmaceutical
products.
Ice Making. Ice, especially in finely divided
form such as “tube” or “snow” ice, is used for
cooling products during transport (factory ships,
refrigerator railroad cars, etc.). It also helps
avoid drying. In the chemical industry, finely di-
vided ice is used to absorb the heat of reaction.
Ice plays an important part in concrete construc-
tion work, where it removes the heat of setting.

A further application is in cold storage. Large
amounts of ice are often stored in nuclear reac-
tor buildings, so that radioactive steam can be
completely condensed on the stored ice if the
steam pipes rupture. The storage of cold also al-
lows better use of refrigerating capacity when
cold demand is variable. Ice is frozen on a re-
frigerant evaporator (coiled-pipe or plate evap-
orator) located in an open, water-filled vessel.
The water, which is close to 0 ◦ C, serves mainly
as a secondary refrigerant in food production,
especially in dairies. When the demand for cold
rises, the ice layer frozen on the evaporator coils
is melted, providing additional cooling capac-
ity. Ice-storage units are used in air condition-
ing, where ice produced with cheap nighttime
power is used to meet peak daytime loads. In this
way, refrigerating systems can be made smaller,
power-connected load can be reduced, and en-
ergy costs can be lowered.
Figure 45. Schematic of a tube ice maker
a) Shell-and-tube heat exchanger; b) Freezing tubes; c) Up-
per water tank; d) Tube-side space of exchanger; e) Lower
water tank; f) Water pump; g) Ice breaker; h) Ice chute;
i) Draining screen; j) Belt conveyor
Tube Ice. Ice in short tubular pieces (diame-
ter ca. 40 mm, wall thickness 8 mm) is produced
in tube ice makers. Figure 45 shows such a ma-
chine. In a vertical shell-and-tube device, refrig-
erant evaporates in the shell-side space, while
water from a tank flows through distributors and
down the inside of the tubes. Some of the water
Refrigeration Technology 37
freezes; the rest goes to a receiver, where a float
controller admits fresh water to make up for the
amount frozen. About twice an hour, a timer cuts
off the water flow and admits pressurized gas
from the condenser to start the defrosting pro-
cess. The ice released from the tubes is broken,
then passes over a draining screen and through
a chute to a belt conveyor, which carries it to an
ice hopper or directly to the consumer. For a tube
ice maker operating with ammonia (evaporating
temperature ca. − 12 ◦ C) and having a capacity
of ca. 400 kg/h, the specific cold consumption is
ca. 780 kJ/kg of ice.
Flaked Ice. Ice in the form of thin flakes is
made continuously in machines where freezing
takes place on the inside or outside surface of a
cylinder. Water is sprayed onto the inner surface
of the cylinder from a revolving distributor; the
cylinder is cooled from the outside by refrigerant
evaporating in a jacket. The ice is removed by a
revolving scraper. In another design, the cylinder
is cooled from the inside by brine or evaporat-
ing refrigerant and rotates; the water feed and
scraping devices are stationary. Capacities for
this type of icemaking equipment are between 5
and 30 t/d.
Block Ice. Ice blocks are generally 1 m long
and weigh 12.5 or 25 kg each. Water is charged
into a large number of conical ice cells situated
in an open brine tank. Because the brine used as
secondary refrigerant is corrosive, the ice cells
are made of lead-coated sheet steel or stainless
steel. An agitator moves the brine to a vertical-
tube evaporator in the brine tank, where it is
chilled and then circulated around the ice cells.
At a brine temperature of ca. − 7 ◦ C, the freez-
ing time is ca. 8 h for a 12.5-kg block or 19 h for
a 25-kg block. After freezing, the ice cells are
hoisted out of the brine tank and briefly dipped
in warm water to release the ice blocks, which
are then easily displaced by tipping.
To shorten the freezing time, double-walled
ice cells are used in the “Rapid-Eis” freez-
ing process. The refrigerant is evaporated in
the jacket space and freezing is accelerated by
means of an evaporator tube located inside the
ice cell. To melt the ice and free it from the cell,
the jacket and evaporator tube are connected to
the condenser side of the refrigerating system.
Drawbacks of this process are the high manu-
facturing costs and high mass of the ice cells,
which must be designed for the refrigerant pres-
38 Refrigeration Technology
sure. The process can also operate with brine;
cell costs are then lower. Refrigerating systems
for this process are single-stage ammonia ma-
chines with reciprocating compressors.
Dry Ice. The method most commonly em-
ployed for producing dry ice (solid carbon diox-
ide) consists of expanding pressurized liquid
carbon dioxide to ambient pressure; the temper-
ature falls below the triple point and snowlike
carbon dioxide is obtained (→ Carbon Dioxide,
Chap. 9.). Roughly a third of the liquid is trans-
formed to the solid state; the remaining gas is
recycled. The carbon dioxide “snow” is molded
into 12 – 100-kg blocks in hydraulic presses.
Dry ice sublimes at − 78.9 ◦ C and has a heat
of sublimation of 573 kJ/kg. It is used chiefly in
the transport of deep-frozen products and, to a
minor extent, in laboratory chilling apparatus.
2.7. Use of Cold in Construction [13],
[21], [31], [159–162]
The heat of setting in concrete gravity dams
ranges from 250 to 500 kJ/kg, depending on
the aggregate used and the cement : sand ra-
tio. This heat must be removed, especially in
thick dams, so that it does not buildup and
cause cracking. In postcooling, chilled water is
pumped through pipes inside the structure; com-
pact water-chilling plants are used for this pur-
pose. About 75 000 kJ of cold is required per cu-
bic meter of concrete. In precooling, excessive
temperatures are prevented either by cooling the
aggregate and water before mixing or by adding
finely divided (flaked or tube-frozen) ice during
mixing. Aggregate cooling is usually performed
with chilled water, but other methods employing
air chilled to − 20 ◦ C also offer some operational
advantages.
When tunneling or similar construction work
requires shaft sinking in water-bearing ground,
the ground around the planned excavation is
stabilized by freezing. Double-walled pipes are
driven into the soil. A secondary refrigerant
(usually brine) at − 20 to − 40 ◦ C flows down
the inner pipe and returns through the outer
space. The time required for freezing with these
parallel pipes depends on the type and size of the
excavation, the spacing of the pipes, and the tem-
perature of the secondary refrigerant; months
are often necessary. Transportable brine-cooling
units with reciprocating or screw compressors,
using ammonia as primary refrigerant, are em-
ployed.
2.8. Air Refrigeration in Mining [13],
[163–165]
The temperature and humidity in mines often
become so high that ordinary ventilation with
outside air is inadequate. Refrigeration equip-
ment can be set up below ground in the shaft,
or central cooling plants can be erected at the
surface to produce cold water, which is then led
to air coolers near the working face.
Refrigerating systems for underground in-
stallation are compact, transportable, explosion-
proof units that cool air to ca. 18 – 20 ◦ C and de-
humidify it. The air is introduced into the venti-
lation tubing ca. 50 – 100 m before the road end-
ing. The plants usually have watercooled con-
densers and employ R 22 or R 12 as refrigerant.
Such machines can be driven by a compressed-
air motor instead of an electric motor.
2.9. Artificially Cooled Skating Rinks
[13], [21], [31], [166]
An artificially cooled skating rink consists of
tubes embedded in a concrete slab that rests on
a frost-proof base. The pipes are parallel, spaced
some distance apart, and ca. 25 – 30 mm below
the surface. A secondary refrigerant (usually
brine), evaporating ammonia, or R 22 is pumped
through the pipes. The surface temperature of the
ice over the entire rink surface must stay within
narrow limits; stringent requirements thus ap-
ply to both the supply of secondary or primary
refrigerant and the control system.
3. Heat Pumps [167–172]
Heat pumps operate on the refrigeration prin-
ciples described in Sections 1.1 and 1.2. The
process is shifted toward higher temperatures,
and the temperature of the rejected heat allows
a medium to be heated for a given application.

The economic significance of the heat pump
lies in the saving of primary energy in ther-
motechnical processes. The useful energy con-
sists partly of primary energy and partly of
energy from the surroundings or another heat
source.
In a heat pump driven by an electric motor, the
heat rejected in the condenser is used for heating.
The process is assessed from the energy stand-
point in terms of the coefficient of performance
ε, which is the ratio of thermal power to power
consumption:
Q̇c
ε=
Pel
It is determined essentially by the temperatures
in the heat-source loop and the useful-heat loop.
An electrically driven heat pump is evalu-
ated economically over a given span of time in
terms of the average coefficient of performance
β, which is the ratio of the heat generated to the
electrical work consumed during this period:
Qc
β=
Wel
In many applications, the compressor is driven
by an internal-combustion (gas or diesel) en-
gine. Heat from the engine coolant and from the
engine exhaust is used in addition to that pro-
duced in the condenser.
The heating medium absorbs heat in the con-
denser, and is then delivered by a pump to the
motor coolant heat exchanger and, subsequently,
to the exhaust heat exchanger. In this way, useful
heat is obtained at higher temperatures than in
heat pumps with electrical drive.
With regard to primary energy utilization, this
heat-pump system is very economical as a heat-
ing method because a substantial part of the pri-
mary energy applied is available for heating pur-
poses, and heat from the surroundings or some
other heat source is also used.
Heat pumps driven with primary energy (in-
cluding absorption heat pumps) are character-
ized by the performance ratio ζ. This quantity is
the ratio of thermal power to power supplied by
the fuel:
Q̇
ζ=
PF
The average performance ratio γ is, accordingly,
defined as
Refrigeration Technology 39
Q
γ=
WF
where Q is the useful heat generated in the in-
terval under consideration and W F is the fuel
energy consumed in the same interval.
The components used in heat-pump systems
are largely the same as those in compression and
absorption refrigerating systems. In heat pumps
with internal-combustion drives, the engines and
their control and monitoring equipment are sup-
plemented by heat exchangers for recovering
heat from the coolant and exhaust. Most such
exchangers are of the shell-and-tube type.
With R 114, the thermal stability of the halo-
carbon refrigerant limits the temperature of the
useful heat to between 100 and 130 ◦ C. In gen-
eral, however, these temperatures are between
50 and 80 ◦ C when R 12 is used as refrigerant.
The most important application of heat
pumps in industry is the generation of process
heat, especially for drying, in the food indus-
try, and for process technology. Heat generation
with heat pumps is especially economical when
the coupled production of cold and heat is pos-
sible, as in galvanizing, plastics fabrication, or
food technology.
4. References
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40 Refrigeration Technology
11. Die Anwendung der Kälte in der
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Refrigeration Technology 41
68. F. Schulenberg: “Wärmeübergang und
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Kältemitteldämpfen in luftgekühlten
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81. B. Slipcevic: “Wärmeübergang bei der
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42 Refrigeration Technology
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118. G. Dinglinger: “Die Wärmeübertragung im
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120. W. Niebergall: “Anwendung künstlicher Kälte
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122. E. Hofmann: “L’Exploitation industrielle du
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123. R. C. Burns: “Freezing Process for Conversion
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124. W. Beutler: “Kältemaschinen in der
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125. K. H. Richter: “Gaskühlverfahren,” Kälte
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127. D. Dibbern: “Reif- und Schneebildung beim
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129. E. Emblick: “Über die Verflüssigung von Chlor
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Refrigeration Technology 43
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44 Refrigeration Technology
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