UNIT I.

Introduction
Overview
This unit serves as the introductory concept to the mechanics of deformable bodies.
This unit studies the internal effects of subjected forces causing stress and strain on the
solid body. The concept of stress was also emphasized on this unit because it is important in
analysis of further design codes at higher courses you will take.

Learning Objectives
At the end of the unit, I am able to:
1. define mechanics of deformable bodies;
2. define and compute stress under tension or compression;
3. define shearing stress, bending stress and allowable stress in building
structures; and
4. analyze and compute problems about thin-walled cylinders

Topics
1.1 Introduction
1.2 A Short Review of the Method of Statics
1.2.1 External Loads
1.2.2 Support Reactions
1.2.3 Equations of Equilibrium
1.3 Analysis of Internal Forces
1.4 Stress
1.4.1 Normal Stress
1.4.2 Shear Stress
1.4.3 Bearing Stress
1.5 Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
Motivation Activity
Name: Date:
Course/Year/Section:

Directions: Find and encircle the terminologies that you think is associated with
Mechanics of Deformable Bodies. Look for words in different directions including
backwards and diagonally.

B A D E G H S L E D
N O C K L A P I V S
R E S S E R O N P F
E D E H D E L E O N
F S R E E A H R F O
E I T A M T C D G E
G N I R A E B T H V
O D O T E N S R S E
I N N E R S I E E R
N B G N L O S V R T
Lesson Proper

INTRODUCTION
Mechanics of deformable bodies is a branch of mechanics that analyze the effects
of external forces when subjected to a solid body. Statics is the study of body subjected to an
external body system of forces. When the internal state of the body was analyzed as
external forces were applied, the study is known as mechanics of materials or mechanics of
deformable bodies. A body also experience stress, an analysis of strength where the
material was made and strain, a measure of deformation, when subjected to external
loading. It is imperative that these concepts and terms were understood carefully because
most of the terms continually occur in all phases of technical study and many of the
formulas and rules for design cited in engineering codes are based upon the principles of
this subject.

A short review of the Method of Statics

As stated earlier, statics clearly has relation to what we will tackle on this unit, thus,
the development of knowledge in mechanics of deformable bodies must start with a good
grasp of its fundamentals.
Let’s review some of the main concept principle of statics that will be used
throughout our course study.

External Loads
A body is said to be subjected only to two types of external forces;
namely, surface forces and body forces.
Surface forces
Surface forces are direct forces distributed
over the contact area between bodies. It can
be idealized as a concentrated force applied
to a point on the body when the area of
contact is small with respect to the surface
area of the whole body. A linear distributed
load has an intensity of force/length where
the applied load is along a narrow strip of
area. The resultant force in this strip is
equivalent to the area under the distributed
loading curve and acts through the centroid
Source: Mechanics of Materials Ninth Edition or geometric center of the area.
 Body Forces
When one body exerts a force on another
body without direct physical contact between the
bodies, a body force is developed. Examples include
the case of gravitation which the force is called the
weight of the body and acts through the body’s center
of gravity as a single concentrated force.

Support Reactions
Support reactions are surface forces developed at the supports or
points of contact between bodies. A support produces a force in a particular
direction on its attached member if it prevents translation of the member in
that direction, and it produces a couple moment on the member if it
prevents rotation.

Source: Mechanics of Materials Ninth Edition

Equations of Equilibrium
The equations of equilibrium ΣF = 0 and ΣM = 0 must be satisfied in
order to prevent a body from translating with accelerated motion and from
rotating. When applying the equations of equilibrium, it is important to first
draw the free-body diagram for the body in order to account for all the
terms in the equations.
Analysis of Internal Forces
When you cut or pass an imaginary section or use the method of sections through a
body, internal loadings can be seen and classified as shown below. For three dimensions,
these 4 can be seen at the section of the body, but if the body is subjected to a coplanar
system of forces, then, only normal force, shear force and bending moments will only exist
in the section.

Source: Mechanics of Materials Ninth Edition

Normal force, N.
This force acts perpendicular to the area. It tends to push or pull
the body. When the force push the body, it is called as
compressive internal force while when it pulls the body, it is
called as tensile internal force.
Shear force, V.
The shear force lies in the plane of the area, or the analyzed
cross-section and it is developed when the external loads causes
sliding to the two segments.
Torsional moment or torque, T.
Torque is developed when the external loads tend to twist the
body.
Bending moment, M.
The bending moment is caused by the external loads that tend to
bend the body about an axis.
 Source: Mechanics of Materials

Steps in Analysis of Internal Loadings

1. Supports. Identify the supports and solve the reactions.
2. Free-Body Diagram. Use the method of sections to the part of the body to be
analyzed and draw a free body diagram of the “cut” segments and indicate the
internal unknown forces.
3. Equations of Equilibrium. Use the equations of equilibrium in finding the
unknown internal forces.
Note: If it yields a negative value, the directional sense of the resultant is
opposite to what you have assumed in the free-body diagram.
Stress
Stress is the unit strength of the materials. It is the measure of the intensity of an
internal load acting on a cross section of an object. This intensity calculation allows you to
compare the intensity of the applied loads to the actual strength (or capacity) of the
material itself. The stress in any member under loading is:

P
¿σ where σ=stress P=force A=area
A
Steps in Analysis of Internal Loadings
1. Internal Forces. Cut the section and identify and solve the internal forces.
2. Cross Sectional Area. It is important to correctly identify the cross-sectional
area to be used.
3. Stress. Note which type of stress is needed or applicable for the problem. Use
the above formula as the basic formula in solving stress.
Normal Stress or Axial Stresses

Source: Mechanics of Materials

We know from statics that when the loading is uniform, its
resultant passes through the centroid of the area. Then, we can say
that the load P on the figure can be called as axial or centroidal
loads.
In this stress, we assume that the center region of the bar to
deform uniformly as an external load was applied when a bar is
prismatic, made from homogeneous and isotropic material. Thus,
making the bar subjected only to normal stress. This stress is
uniform and averaged to the cross-sectional area and also called
average normal stress.
Normal Stress can either be tensile or compressive stress
produced by force acting perpendicular to the area, thus, normal.
Tensile Stress tends to pull and elongate the bar making the bar in
tension state while the Compressive Stress tends to push and
shorten the bar making the bar in compression state.
These stresses as said earlier, are axial stresses and act along
the longitudinal axis of the member. In most texts, the lowercase
Greek symbol sigma, or σ, indicates the normal stress.

Source: Mechanics of Materials for Dummies

Example 1:
A 100 mm diameter round bar is subjected to an axial tension of 30 kN as shown in
the figure. Find the normal stress caused by the applied force.

Diameter
Location 1 100 mm

30 kN 30 kN FINT 30 kN

(a) Real System (b) F.B.D. at Location 1

1. Internal Forces. Cut the section at location 1, to analyze the internal axial force
FINT.
Using statics, the value of internal axial force on the figure a is 30KN which
acts on the shaded cross-section.
2. Cross-sectional area. Identify the area of contact for axial stress. This should be
perpendicular to the internal axial force FINT. The are needed is shaded and
shown in figure (b) and can be computed as follows:

3. Stress. You can identify the stress by simply looking at the F.B.D and the figure
shows that the force acts longitudinally, thus, it is an axial stress or normal
stress. Use the basic formula earlier and solve the needed stress.

Note: Be careful in units, usually dimensions were given as

millimeters(mm).You should have a consistency in units.
Shearing Stress

Shear stress is produced whenever applied load causes sliding to the

sections. It also a shear stress if the force component V, is acting parallel to (or
shearing) a cross section or the contact area. It is either a single shear or double
shear. Usually, the lowercase Greek symbol tau, or τ, was used to indicate the
shear stress.

Source: Mechanics of Materials for Dummies

Example:
A 20mmØ is subjected to the 200N as shown in the figure. A shear
effect was created at the shaft as the two loads were applied in opposite
direction and causes sliding at location 4. (as seen at Location 4).

1. Internal Forces. Cut the section and identify in the plane of cross-section
the internal forces acting and needed in the section. VINT
VINT , the internal shear force can be computed by equilibrium as:

2. Cross-Sectional Area. Identify the parallel area to the force, or the area
that slides once the external force is applied. It is the area where the
internal shear force is acting.
 Since diameter is given and as the figure shows, you should get a
circular cross-sectional area which can be solved as:

3. Stress. As asked in the problem, the shear stress is needed, use the basic
formula earlier and solve the shear stress, τ.

Stresses on Inclined Planes

The following figure represents the forces distribution when a material was
cut with an angle. Using the principles of statics and trigonometry, there are two
important points to remember on inclined planes.
1. Components of P. Using statics, P as an internal force should be into x and y
component because when we analyze shear and normal force, we need them to
be parallel and perpendicular to the cross-section area.
2. Cross-Section Area. It is a common mistake for students to use the dimension
of the material. Using trigonometry, when you put the view on the cross section,
the other needed dimension should be get and solved from the inclined side of
the material.

The following formula for stress were derived from the two
important points shown above.
Bearing Stress
It is the contact pressure between separate bodies.

For flat surfaces:

Source: Mechanics of Materials for Dummies

vcv

When dealing with bolts and shafts:

dBOLT
dBOLT
dBOLT

PCONTACT
tPLATE

tPLATE

Source: Mechanics of Materials for Dummies

Gross and Net Area:
Consider the bar example shown and calculate the stress at locations 1, 2
and 3.
¼ in

2 in
F = 2,000 lbs F = 2,000 lbs
2 in
2 in
6 in

Location Location Location

1 2 3

(a) Real System

Cross-sectional
area A 1
FINT = 2,000 lbs F = 2,000 lbs F = 2,000 lbs

FINT = 2,000 lbs

For Location 1 and 3:

1. Internal Forces. You must first slice the bar to expose the internal force
acting on the cross section. From static equilibrium, you can find the internal
axial force FINT from the following:

2. Cross-Sectional Area. For location 1 and 3 it will cause tearing in the

section, thus it acts as a normal tensile force. Getting the gross cross-
sectional perpendicular area will result to:
AGROSS = (6 in) (0.25 in) = 1.5 in2,

3. Stress. The average stress at these locations is

σ
AVG = (+2,000 lbs) ÷ (1.5 in2) = 1,333 psi.

For Location 2:
1. Internal Forces. We’ll also need the internal force acting on the location 2.
Cutting and using equilibrium, well get the same internal normal force which is
2000 lbs.
 2. Cross-Sectional Area. To calculate the net area at Location 2, you can
approach the problem in several ways.

✓ Compute the area of the shaded region above the hole and simply add it
to the shaded region below the hole.

✓ Find the gross cross-sectional area and subtract the area of the hole
contained on the cross section.

Note: Gross area is different to Net area, in some situations such as riveted
connection, you’ll need to get the gross net area of a cross-section.

3. Stress. You can now get the average stress at 2.

Example:

Two plates, upper

plate 15mm thick and
lower plate 10mm
thick, are joined by
four rivets of 20mm
diameter as shown. 15 mm 10 mm
Assume the load is
equally divided among
the rivets.
1. Calculate load P that can be applied if the shearing stress in the rivets is
limited to 80 MPa.

P
80=
4 ( π4 )(20 ) ; P = 100.53 kN
2

2. Calculate load P that can be applied if the bearing stress in the plates is
limited to 140 MPa.

P /4
140= ; P = 112 kN
( 20 ) (10)
Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels

A tank or pipe carrying a fluid or gas under a pressure is subjected to

tensile forces, which resist bursting, developed across longitudinal and
transverse sections.
σ HOOP
σ AXIAL
Longitudinal
axis

Longitudinal
axis

Source: Mechanics of Materials for Dummies

Longitudinal Stress, σL
-also known as axial stress acts at the length of the member
along the longitudinal axis and tangentially around the
circumference of the cross section.

Source: Strength of Materials

Tangential Stress

-also known as hoop stress or circumferential stress. It is always

double the stress of axial stress for thin-walled pressured vessels.

σ t = 2 σL

Source: Strength of Materials

 Spherical Shell
If a spherical tank of diameter D and thickness t contains gas
under a pressure of p, the stress at the wall can be expressed as:

Example1:
If the stress is limited to 8000 psi , calculate the allowable internal
pressure of a 4-ft diameter spherical tank with a wall thickness of 5/16 in.

Example 2:
The diameter of a vessel is 2 ft, and the stress is limited to 12 ksi. If
it is to carry gas at pressure 1400 psi, calculate the minimum wall thickness
for a cylindrical vessel.

Example 3:
A cylindrical pressure vessel is fabricated from steel plating that has
a thickness of 20 mm. The diameter of the pressure vessel is 450 mm and its
 length is 2.0 m. Determine the maximum internal pressure that can be
applied if the longitudinal stress is limited to 140 MPa, and the
circumferential stress is limited to 60 MPa.

References

Allen III, J,(2011). Mechanics of Materials for Dummies. Indianapolis, Indiana: Wiley
Publishing Inc. pp 131-144
Ghavami, P. (2015). Mechanics of Materials An Introduction to Engineering Technology.
Switzerland: Springer. pp 143-151
Hibbeler, R.C. (2014). Mechanics of Materials Ninth Edition. United States of America:
Pearson Prentice Hall. pp 03-27
Pytel, S., & Singer, F.(1987) . Strength of Materials. United States of America:
HarperCollinsPublishers Inc. pp 01-25
Assessing Learning
Activity 1
Name: ________________________________________ Score: ______________
Course/Year/Section: _______________________ Date: _______________

SITUATION 1: The lap joint

shown in the figure is fastened by
four ¾-in.-diameter rivets.
Calculate the maximum safe load
P that can be applied if the
shearing stress in the rivets is
limited to 14 ksi and the bearing
stress in the plates is limited to
18 ksi. Assume the applied load is
uniformly distributed among the
four rivets.
1. Calculate load P that can be applied if the shearing stress in the rivets is limited to
14 ksi.
a. 47.25 kips
b. 24.74 kips
c. 71.99 kips
d. 22.51 kips
2. Calculate load P that can be applied if the bearing stress in the plates is limited to 18
ksi.
a. 47.25 kips
b. 24.74 kips
c. 71.99 kips
d. 22.51 kips
3. What is the maximum safe load P?
a. 47.25 kips
b. 24.74 kips
c. 71.99 kips
d. 22.51 kips

SITUATION 2: In the clevis shown, find the minimum bolt diameter

and the minimum thickness of each yoke that will support a load P =
14 kips without exceeding a shearing stress of 12 ksi and a bearing
stress of 20 ksi
4. What is the minimum bolt diameter?
a. 0.8122 in
b. 0.4061 in
c. 0.8618 in
d. 0.6041 in
5. What is the minimum thickness of each yoke?
a. 0.8122 in
b. 0.4061 in
c. 0.8618 in
d. 0.6041 in
Assessing Learning
Activity 2
Name: ________________________________________ Score: ______________
Course/Year/Section: _______________________ Date: _______________
SITUATION 1: An aluminum rod is
rigidly attached between a steel rod
and a bronze rod as shown in the
figure. Axial loads are applied at the
positions indicated. Find the
maximum value of P that will not
exceed a stress in steel of 140 MPa,
in aluminum of 90 MPa, or in
bronze of 100 MPa.
a. 10000 N
b. 20000 N
c. 14000 N
d. 28000 N

SITUATION 2: A 12-inches square steel bearing plate lies

between an 8-inches diameter wooden post and a
concrete footing as shown in the figure. Determine the
maximum value of the load P if the stress in wood is
limited to 1800 psi and that in concrete to 650 psi.
What is P with respect to wood?
e. 90 500 lb
f. 91 200 lb
g. 92 400 lb
h. 93 600 lb
What is P with respect to concrete?
i. 90 500 lb
j. 91 200 lb
k. 92 400 lb
l. 93 600 lb
What is safe load P?
m. 90 500 lb
n. 91 200 lb
o. 92 400 lb
p. 93 600 lb
Assessing Learning
Activity 3
Name: ________________________________________ Score: ______________
Course/Year/Section: _______________________ Date: _______________

1. The two pieces of wood 2 in height by 4 in width are glued together along the 40°.
Determine the maximum safe axial load P that can be applied if the shear stress in
the glue is limited to 250 psi and the bearing stress in the wood is limited only to
400 psi. Also, at what angle of the plane is the shear stress maximum?