Mgchanica!

Design
of Process Systems
Volumel
Piping and
Pressure Vessels

A.Keith Escoe

Gulf Publishing Company

Book Division
Houston, London, Paris, Tokyo
Mechanical Dsign
of hocess Sy$erns
Volume I
Piping ard hesun \bsels

Copyright O 1986 by Gulf Publishing Compann Houston,'Ibxas.

All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This
book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduc€d in any form without
permission of the publisher.

Library of Congrcss Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Escoe, A. Keith.
Mechanical design of process systems.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Chemical plants-Design and consbuction.
L Title.
TP155.5.E83 1986 6@.2' 8l 85-22005

ISBN G87201-562-9 (Vol. 1)

ISBN G 87201-565-3 (Vol. 2)

IY
 Contents

Foreword ...,....vii Fluid Forces Exerted on Piping Systems, 81

by John J. McKetta Extraneous Piping Loads, 83
Example 2-l: Applying the Stiffness Method to a
Preface .. , .... ... ix Modular Skid-Mounted Gas Liquefaction
Facility,88
Chapter 1 Example 2-2: Applying the Flexibility Method to
Piping Fluid Mechanics ........... 1 a Steam Turbine Exhaust Line, 95
Example 2-3: Flexibility Analysis for Hot Oil
Basic Equations, I
Piping,96
Non-Newtonian Fluids, 5
Example 2-42 Lug Design, 98
Velocity Heads, 8
Example 2-5: Relief Valve Piping System, 99
Pipe Flow Geometries, 22
Example 2-61 Wind-Induced Vibrations of
Comoressible Flow. 25
Piping, 100
Piping Fluid Mechanics Problem Formulation, 25
Notation, 101
Example 1-1: Friction Pressure Drop for a References, 101
Hydrocarbon Gas-Steam Mixture in a Pipe, 27
Example 1-2: Frictional Ptessure Drop for a Hot
Oil System of a Process Thnk, 33 Chapter 3
Example 1-3: Friction Pressure Drop for a Waste Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment ... 103
Heat Recovery System, 42 Jacketed Pipe versus Traced Pipe, 103
Example 1-4: Pressure Drop in Relief Valve Tracing Piping Systems, 106
Piping System, 43 Traced Piping without Heat Tmnsfer Cement.
Notation, 45 Traced Piping with Heat Transfer Cement.
Condensate Return. Jacketed Pipe. Vessel and
References, 45
Equipment Traced Systems.
Heat Transfer in Residual Systems, 132
Heat Transfer through Cylindrical Shells.
Chapter 2 Residual Heat Transfer through Pipe Shoes.
The Engineering Mechanics of Piping .,...47 Example 3-1: Steam Tracing Design, 136
Piping Criteria, 47 Example 3-2: Hot Oil Tracing Design, 137
Primary and Secondary Stresses, 49 Example 3-3: Jacketed Pipe Design, 139
Allowable stress Range for Secondary Stresses. Example 3-4: Thermal Evaluation of a Process
Flexibility and Stiffness of Piping Systems, 52 Thnk, 140
Stiffness Method Advantages. Flexibility Example 3-5: Thermal Design of a Process
Method Advantages. Tank, 142
Stiffness Method and Large Piping, 58 Internal Baffle Plates Film Coefficient. Film
Flexibility Method of Piping Mechanics. Pipe Coefficient External to Baffles-Forced
Loops. Convection. Heat Duty of Internal Vessel
- Restraints and Anchors. 68
PiDe
Pipe Lug Supports. Spfing Supports. Expansion
Plates. Outside Heat Transfer Jacket Plates.
Heat Duty of Jacket Plates Clamped to Bottom
Joints. Pre-stressed Piping. Vessel Head. Total Heat Duty of Tank.
 Example 3-6: Transient and Static Heat Transfer Example 4-3: Seismic Analysis of a Vertical
Design, 148 Tower, 237
Static Heat Transfer Analysis. Total Heat
Example 44: Vibration Analysis for Tower with
Removal. Water Required for Cooling.
Transient Hear Transfer Analysis. Large Vortex-Induced Displacements, 241
Moments of Inertia. Wind Deflections.
Example 3-7: Heat Transfer through Vessel
Example 4-5: Saddle Plate Analysis of a
Skirts, 152
Horizontal Vessel, 249
Example 3-E: Residual Heat Transfer, 154 Saddle Plate Buckling Analysis. Horizontal
Example 3-9: Heat Transfer through Pipe Shoe, Reaction Force on Saddle.
156 Notation,252
Notation, 156 References,254
References, 157
Appendix A
Chapter 4
Partial Volumes and Pressure Vessel
The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure
Vessels ... . ..... 159
Cafcufations .....25s
Partial Volumes of Spherically Dished Heads,
Designing for Internal Pressure, 159
256
Designing for External Pressure, 160
Partial Volumes of Elliptical Heads, 257
Design of Horizontal Pressure Vessels, 166
Longitudinal Bending Stresses. Location of
Partial Volumes of Torispherical Heads, 259
Saddle Supports. Wear Plate Design. Zick Internal Pressure ASME Formulations with
Stiffening Rings. Outside Dimensions, 261
Steel Saddle Plate Design, 174 Internal Pressure ASME Formulations with Inside
Saddle Bearing Plate Thickness, 180 Dimensions,262
Design of Self-Supported Vertical Vessels, 180
Minimum Shell Thickness Reouired for Appendix B
Combined Loads, 181
Support Skirt Design, 183
National Wind Design Standards ......... 265
Anchor Bolts, 184 Criteria for Determining Wind Speed, 265
Base Plate Thickness Design, 186 Wind Speed Relationships, 266
Compression Ring and Gusset Plate Design, 189 ANSI A58.1-1982 Wind Cateeories. 267
Anchor Bolt Torque, 189
Whd Aralysis of Towers, 190 Appendix C
r'\'ind Design Speeds. Wind-Induced Moments.
$ ind-Induced Deflections of Towers. Properties of Pipe. ,.....271
l ind-Induced Vibrations on Tall Towers.
O\aling. Criteda for Vibration Analysis. Insulation Weight Factors, 278
Seismic Design of Tall Towers, 209 Weights of Piping Materials, 279
\anical Distribution of Shear Forces.
Tower Shell Discontinuities and Conical Sections, Appendix D
1t i
Conversion Factors ..... . 303
Exanple {-l: Wear Plate Requirement Analysis,
215 Alphabetical Conversion Factors, 304
Example 12: Mechanical Design of Process Synchronous Speeds, 31 1
Column. 215 Temperature Conversion. 3l 2
Sectron lt{omenls of Inertial lbwer Section Altitude and Atmospheric Pressures, 313
Stress Calcularions. Skirt and Base Plate Pressure Conversion Chart, 314
Design- Section Centroids. Vortex-Induced
vibrarion. Equivalent Diameter Approach
versus -{\S[ A58.1- 1982. Index .. . .... . ... 315

vl

The engineer who understands the impact of process
design decisions on mechanical design details is in a po-
sition to save his client or his company a lot of money.
That is because the test of any process design is in how
cost-effectively it yields the desired product, and how
"cost" generally translates to "equipment": How much
will the process require? How long will it last? How
much energy will it consume per unit of product?
In this two-volume work on Mechanical Design of
Process Systems,A. K. Escoe has performed a monu-
mental service for mechanical design engineers and
chemical process engineers alike. It is presented in such
a manner that even the neophyte engineer can grasp its
full value. He has produced an in-depth review of the
way in which process design specifications are inter-
preted into precise equipment designs. Perhaps most
valuable of all are the extensive worked examples
throughout the text, of actual designs that have been suc-
cessfully executed in the field.
The piping system is the central nervous system of a
fluid flow orocess. and the author has treated this with
vii
Foreword
proper respect in two excellent chapters on fluid me-
chanics and the engineering mechanics of piping.
The chapter on heat transfer in vessels and piping il-
lustrates lucidly the interrelationship between process
and mechanical design. Every engineer working with in-
dustrial process systems will benefit from reading this
chaDter.
Although the author has made a herculean effort in
covering the mechanical design of pressure vessels, heat
exchangers, rotating equipment, and bins, silos and
stacks, it is true that there are omissions. It is hoped that,
as the author hints in his preface, a future volume might
be added covering multiphase flow, specific cogenera-
tion processes, turbines, and detailed piping dynamics.
Still, at this writing these two volumes comprise an
outstanding practical reference for chemical and me-
chanical engineers and a detailed instructional manual
for students.
I recommend these volumes highly for each design en-
gineer's professional library.
John J. McKexa. Ph.D., P.E.
Joe C. Waher Professor of Chemical Engineering
UniversitY of Texas ' Austin
 Dedication

To the memory of my beloved parents, Aubrey H. Es-

coe and Odessa Davies Escoe; and to. the dedicated engi-
neer, Dr. Judith Arlene Resnik, U.S. astronaut aboard
the ill-fated space shuttle Chnllenger (Flight 5l-L).

v|ll
d{ ry,'
This book's purpose is to show how to apply mechani-
cal engineering concepts to process system design. Pro-
cess systems are common to a wide variety of industries
including petrochemical processing, food and pharma-
ceutical manufacturing, power generation (including co-
generation), ship building, and even the aerospace indus-
try. The book is based on years of proven, successful
practice, and almost all of the examples described are
from process systems now in operation.
While practicality is probably its key asset, this first
volume contains a unique collection ofvaluable informa-
tion, such as velocity head data; comparison ofthe flexi-
bility and stiffness methods of pipe stress analyses; anal-
ysis of heat transfer through pipe supports and vessel
skirts; a comprehensive method on the design of hori-
zontal vessel saddles as well as a method to determine
when wear plates are required; detailed static and dy-
namic methods of tower design considering wind gusts,
vortex-induced vibration and seismic analysis of towers;
and a comparative synopsis of the various national wind
cooes.
Topics include.d in the text are considered to be those
typically encountered in engineering practice. There-
fore, because most mechanical systems involve single-
phase flow, two-phase flow is not covered. Because of
its ubiquitous coverage in the literature, flange design is
also excluded in this presentation. Since all of the major
pressure vessel codes thoroughly discuss and illustrate
the phenomenon of external pressure, this subject is only
mentioned briefly.
This book is not intended to be a substitute or a re-
placement of any accepted code or standard. The reader
is strongly encouraged to consult and be knowledgeable
of any accepted standard or code that may govern. It is
ix
--*
heface to Volume I
felt that this book is a valuable supplement to any stan-
dard or code used.
The book is slanted toward the practices of the ASME
vessel and piping codes. In one area of vessel design the
British Standard is favored because it nrovides excellent
technical information on Zick rings. The book is written
to be useful regardless of which code or standard is used.
The intent is not to be heavily prejudiced toward any
standard, but to discuss the issue-engineering. If one
feels that a certain standard or code should be men-
tione.d, please keep in mind that there are others who
may be using different standards and it is impossible to
discuss all of them.
The reader's academic level is assumed to be a bache-
lor of science degree in mechanical engineering, but en-
gineers with bachelor of science degrees in civil, chemi-
cal, electrical, or other engineering disciplines should
have little difficulty with the book, provided, of course,
that they have received adequate academic training or
experience.
Junior or senior undergraduate engineering students
should find the book a useful introduction to the applica-
tion of mechanical engineering to process systems. Pro-
fessors should find the book a helpful reference (and a
source for potential exam problems), as well as a practi-
cal textbook for junior-, senior-, or graduateJevel
courses in the mechanical, civil, or chemical engineering
fields. The book can also be used to supplement an intro-
ductory level textbook.
The French philosopher Voltaire once said, "Common
sense is not very common," and unfortunately, this is
sometimes the case in engineering. Common sense is of-
ten the by-product of experience, and while both are es-
sential to sound engineering practice, neither can be
learned from books alone. It is one ofthis book's eoats to
unite these three elements of "book learning," c6mmon
sense, and experience to give the novice a better grasp of
engineering principles and procedures, and serve as a
practical design reference for the veteran engineer.
Finally, I wish to thank Dr. John J. McKetta, professor
of chemical engineering at the University of Texas at
Austin, who had many helpful comments, suggestions,
and words of encouragement. I also wish to thank other
engineering faculty members at the University of Texas
at Austin for their comments. I must exDress thanks to
Larry D. Briggs for reviewing some ialculations in
Chapter 4; and last, but certainly not least, I wish to ex-
press gratitude to William J. Lowe and Timothy W. Calk
of Gulf Publishing Company, whose hard work and pa-
tience made this book oossible.
A. Keith Escoe, PE.
.{ j&ir,,

Piping Fluid Mechanics

The study of fluid energy in piping systems is a com- Pr - Pz = V,t=- vrt + (y. _yr;€1p (r-2)
prehensive subject that could in itself fill countless vol- p 28" c"
umes. This chapter is primarily concerned witl fluid en-
ergy dissipated as friction resulting in a head loss. where subscripts I and 2 refer to flow upstream (after
Although this topic is popularly known in industry as the flow process) and downstream (before the flow pro-
"hydraulics," the term "piping fluid mechanics" is used cess), respectively, and
here to avoid confusion.
Pt - Pz : change in pressure head
p
BASIC EOUATIONS
Vt^- V' : change in velocity head (kinetic energy)
29"
The basic equation of fluid mechanics, originally de-
rived by Daniel Bernoulli in 1738, evolved from the :dz
principle of conservation of energy:
(Yr - Yr) I = change in static head (potential energy)
,]V r ,{E -r- ,llr. + ,1ll- (l-l)
p 29" g" ^
cm (kg)
F : friction 1o* in !JlQ,
where density, lb./ft3 or g./cm3
P: pressure, lb/ft2 or kg/cm2
velocity, ftlsec or cm/sec
The following are expressions of the Bernoulli equa-
8": conversion constant, 32. 17 (ft-lb./sec2lbr)
: tion when applied to various incompressible and com-
gravitational acceleration 32.2 fllsecz,
cm/sec2; g/9" : 1.0
pressible flow conditions:
height above datum, ft, cm
dY: differential between height above datum and Incompressible flow-
reference point, ft, cm
p, - P. v,2
F: head loss, friction loss, or frictional pressure - v.2
drop, ft-lbr/Ib., cm-kg6/g. P zE" gc
He: energy added by mechanical devices, e.g.
pumps, ft-lb/Ib., cm-kg/g.
HE: energy extracted by mechanical devices, e.g. Compre s sib le -i s othermal f low -
turbines, ftlb6/1b., cm-kg/g.
: _[*l + (zz - z,
Rewriting Equation l-1 along a fluid streamline between
points 1 and 2 with steady, incompressible flow and no
FJn H X[ [*l]
mechanical energy added or extracted results in +F+HA+HE
2 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Compre s s ib le -adiabati c f low Forcing a fluid through a pipe component requires en-
- ergy. This energy is expended by shear forces that de-

H [1 [' - (,*J'.-"'] : xl' -FJ^ [*J] velop between the pipe wall and the fluid, and to a lesser
extent among the fluid elements themselves. These shear
forces are opposed to fluid flow and require excess en-
+(22-z)+F ergy to overcome. Figure 1-l shows a simple version of
this phenomenon and illustrates how shear stresses in-
+HA+HE crease in the radial direction away from the pipe center
line and are maximum within the boundary layer next to
. /o \* /p\ the wall. Friction energy loss is a resuit of these shear
where l- | : l:l : general gas law stresses next to the pipe wall. Excess loss in energy oc-
\Prl \rrl
curs because of local turbulence and changes in the di-
k : .specific heat ratio (adiabatic coefficient), rection and speed of flow. As a fluid changes direction,
t- lt-
energy is expended because of a change in momentum.
Cp : sPecific heat at constant pressure,
The methods used to determine energy loss caused by
Btu/lb.-'F
C, : specific heat at constant volume, Btu/lb--"F
wall friction are essentially the same, where the pipe
component is treated as a straight piece of pipe. How-
Equation 1-2 is the analytical expression that states a ever, the methods used to determine energy loss caused
pressure loss is caused by a change in velocity head, by change in momentum differ, and a couple are de-
static head, and ftiction head. The most cofirmon units scribed as follows.
are "feet of head." lb. and lbr do not cancel out and the
expression is exactly "energy (ft-lb) per pound of Equivalent Length
mass."
In most industrial fluid problems, Equation 1-2 is In this approach to determining energy loss caused by
cumbersome to use, because the friction loss is the pa- a change in fluid momentum, a piping component is ex-
rameter most often desired. The friction loss is the work tended a theoretical length that would yield the same en-
done by the fluid in overcoming viscous resistance. This ergy loss as the actual component. This length is called
friction loss can only rarely be analytically derived and is the "equivalent length" because it is that length required
determined by empirical data developed through experi- to obtain the same amount of friction pressure drop as
mental testins . the piping component alone. The major problem with

dv
oy
x+c

---[, . 9e a"] or1'1 rf>

--

Figure 1-1. Shear stresses in fully developed flow. Shown here are imaginary fluid elements "slipping" over one another.
 Piping Fluid Mechanics 3

this method is that the equivalent length for a pipe com-
ponent varies with the Reynolds number, roughness,
size, and geometry of the pipe. All these par.rmeters
must be analyzed in using this method.
Velocity Head llethod
Since the excess head loss is mostly attributed to fluid
turbulence, the velocity head method is widely accepted
and is replacing the equivalent length method in fluid
calculations. Throughout this book, the velocity head ap-
proach will be used.
The velocity head is the amount of kinetic energy in a
fluid, Y2l2g". This quantity may be represented by the
into the piping system, the factor F in Equation 1-2 be-
comes the desired parameter. This friction loss is the
work done by the fluid in overcoming viscous resistance
and loss attributed to turbulence. The parameter F is
composed of two components, pipe wall friction and
losses for the various pipe fittings, pipe entrances, pipe
exits, and fluid obstructions that contribute to a loss in
fluid energy. These latter losses are described in terms of
velocity heads, K;. In solving for F in Equation 1-2, we
first obtain pressure loss attributed to pipe wall friction,
represented by
-AP.' =.: eyll]
2e. \d/
(1-3)

amount of potential energy required to accelerate a fluid

to a given velocity. Consider a tank holding a fluid with a By adding values of velocity head losses to Equation 1-3,
pipe entrance shown in Figure 1-2. We draw a streamline we obtain the lollowing for any piping system:
from point 1 of the fluid surface to point 2 at the pipe
t". \ .,,
entrance. Applying Equation 1-2 at point 1 we obtain the
followins: - aP, : ILL + )-r,l4I (l-4)
\u I.6c

1= \,, g where flld

p diameter d over the length L, and DK; the summation of
And applying Equation 1-2 at point 2 we have
Pr-P2_Pr_V22
PP2g"
in which the change in fluid pressure between points I
and,2 is Y ] l2g, or one velocity head. A pressure gauge
mounted on the pipe entrance would record the differ-
ence of pressure of one velocity head. This term is ac-
counted for in Equation 1-2 by Y y2 - Y2212g..
Analyzing a simple conversion from potential to ki-
netic energy is an elementary procedure, as demon-
strated. After the fluid passes through the pipe entrance
is the dependent pipe friction of the pipe of
velocity head losses. Equation l-4 provides the friction
pressure drop in a pipe for a steady-state incompressible
fluid of fully developed flow with a flat veiocity profile.
Examples of this equation are given after the terms in
Equation 14 are further explained.
The term (flld) (pV2l2g") expresses the amount of en-
ergy loss attributed to shear forces at the pipe wall and is
based on experimental evidence. It is a function of the
pipe component length and diameter and the velocity of
the fluid. Writing the relationship for friction pressure
drop as a result of pipe wall friction results in
-'p' - [L pV']
t+qd 2i- ' '-J'
where Fp, : i.i"aion torr, pri
L: length of pipe, in.
d: corroded inside diameter, in.

The other terms are explained with Equation 1-1.

Equation l-5 may be expressed in various forms. To ex-
press flow rate in gpm (w) and d in inches use

FPf : 0.000217 fLW/d5 (l-5a)

Equation l-5 is the most commonly used relationship

Figure 1-2. Storage tank.
and is known as the Fanning equation. Dividing the
equation by p/144 yields feet of friction loss rather than
psl.
The reader is cautioned in applying the friction factor
f, because it is not always defined as above and some au-
4 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

thors use 4f1 in place of f. If such factors are used, par- factor data can be obtained and better understood
ticular attention should be paid to the specific friction through use of new methods for measuring roughness.
factor chart used. Figure 1-3 is broken into three flow regimes-
The friction factor f is dependent upon the dimension- laminar, transition from laminar to turbulent, and turbu-
less term expressing the roughness of the pipe (E/D, lent. The Reynolds numbers establishing these zones are
where E is the depth of the pipe) and the dimensionless 2,100 for laminar, 2,100 to 3,000 for transition zone,
Reynolds number Nr" : dpV/M, where l1, is the absolute and 3,000 or more for turbulent
viscosity of the fluid, inJb1-sec/ftz. The Reynolds num- The basis for Figure 1-3 is the classic Colebrook equa-
ber is the single most important parameter in fluid me- tron
chanics because it establishes flow regimes and dynamic
sirnilarity. The relationship between the friction factor f, | : -.^.to8ro Idd 2.51 I
(l -6a)
the pipe roughness, and the Reynolds number is shown r1r, [- " **,rpi
in the classic relationship given by Moody in Figure 1-3.
Figure l-3 may be presented in a more convenient for (3,000 to 4,000) < NR" < 108

form as shown in Figure 1-4, where the relative rough- For laminar flow the friction factor is determined by the
ness of the pipe is based on a single value of roughness. simple expression
This value of roughness must be an average value esti-
mated to simplii/ the problem. The figures presented "64 (1-6b)
herein are the best available until more reliable friction Nn.

.09

.08

.07 .05

.04
.06
.01

.o?

.0t5
.04
^
: .01
.008
.006
.03 a
=-
oo4 :
003 :
002
.0015 :
^^,
-0008 -'
.0006

.01

.009

.008
? 3 4 56 I 2 3 4 56 Blo5 2 3 4 56 € to7 \2
z J 4 56 8 rot -q-s9l
r, -If* , o i' n., ,' ir *4r =
R?ynotds Nunber n"
= f
'. ff
Figure 1-3. Moody friction factors. (Repdnted from Pipe Friction Manual, @ 1954 by Hydraulic Institute. Data from L. F.
Moody, Frioion Faaors for Pipe Flow, permission of ASME.)
#( -8u

Piping Fluid Mechanics

Pipe oiameter, in Fe€t -/)

,=

Pipe Diafleier, in Inch€s -,/

Figure 1-4. Relative roughness of pipe materials and friction factors for complete turbulence. (Courtesy of Crane Company [5].
Data from L. F Moody, Friction Factors for Pipe Flow permission of ASME.)

Equation 1-6a, which describes the friction factor for
turbulent flow in pipe of any roughness, is a simple addi
tion of the Prandtl solution for smooth pipe and the von
Karman solution for rough pipe. The relationship holds
for the transition between rough and smooth pipe.
To solve Equation 1-6a for the friction factor f an itera-
tive analysis is required because the function is nonho-
mogeneous and inseparable. There are several empirical
relations of f expressed as an independent separate func-
tion of f G/d, NR.), but with today's micro-computers
Equation l-6 can be solved more accurately and expe-
diently with iteration.
Dimensional forms of Equation 1-4 are presented in
Table 1-1 [1], where the equation is conveniently shown
in various units that are used to solve fluid pressure loss
problems.
NON.NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
The Colebrook equation holds for fluids whose flow
properties are dependent on the fluid viscosity. These
fluids consist of all gases, liquids, and solutions of low
molecular weieht and are known as Newonian fluids. In

-rll
 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Table 1-1
Dimensional Forms Used With Equation 1-4
[11
Plessure Ol?p, ne r, ana
= rate -APr or pHr L
Row

g IrNr">2,ooo'r:[2 loglqQ27etD+(?/NR"o)],'
w {*-r^,.i
\ rr 'l *
pt)- +
pD
nvz
pD2 e
'l uoQ' cQP dQ pv'
/!& * ",. D4 pD
"- \ D ' -L\J D2 .
Units and constants
Conventlonal units Metric units

-AP(H' psl psl (ft) (f9 inHrO[60"F] bar bar Pa (m)

w(Q) lb/h (gprn) tb/h (acfm) kg/s (L/s)
D ln. kg/s (m3/s)
tn. ln. ln. In. mm mm
in. m m
e tn. ln. in. in. rnm mm
I ft m m
ft ft ft ft m m m m
p lb/ft3 lb/ft3 lb/ft3 lb/ft3 tb/f13 kglm3 kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/m3
cp cp cp cp cp mPa-s(cp) mPa-s(cp) Pa-s Pa-s
ftls ftls ftls ft/s ft/min m/s
HV
m/s m/s m/s
psi psr ft ft in. H2O bar bar Pa m
a 2.799x10-7 1.801x 10-5 4.031 x l0-5 2.593 x 10-3 0.02792 8.106 x 106 8.106 0.8106 0.08265
b t2 t2 12 12 t2 1,000 1,000
c 6.316 I I
50.66 6.316 50.66 379.0 1.273 x 1.273
d 0.05093
106 r.273 1.273
0.4085 0.05093 0.4085 183.3 1.273 x106 1.273
e 1.273 1.273
9,266 9,266 64 1aY ^ 64.35 x p x 2xttr
1.204 106 2xlo5 2 19.61xp
a,b,c,d,e piF length HV = velocity head
D = pipe diameter frictional pressure drop
f
HI
= \lbisbach friction factor
= frictional head loss
a= volumetric flowrate
Reynolds number :
= pipe roughness
fluid viscosity
K - number of velocity heads velocity = fluid density

Newtonian fluids the viscosity alone defines the rheolos_
ical behavior.
Non-Newtonian fluids are those in which the viscosity
alone does not define their rheological behavior. Sucir
fluids are solutions composed of solid particles that ex_
pand. Clay and very dense slurries are examples of non_
)iewronian fluids. The flow properties of suih fluids are
a function of the particle characteristics, e.g., size and
flexibility and thermal expansion.
Purely viscous non-Newtonian fluids are classified
into dree categories: time-dependent and time-indepen_
dent and viscoelastic. A time-dependent fluid displays
slo*' changes in rheological properties, such as thixbtr-o_
pic fluids that exhibit reversible structural chanses. Sev-
eral ty,pes ofcrude oil fit inro this category. Anoiher rype
of tinre{ependent non-Newtonian fiuid is rheooectic
fluids- Under constant sustained shear, these fluidi. rate
of srrucrural deformation exceeds the rate of structural
decav. One such category of fluids is polvester.
Rheqectic fluids are less common than thixotrooic flu-
ids.
Time-independent fluids that are purely viscous are
_
classified as. pseudoplastic, dilatant, Bingham, and yield-
pseudoplastic fluids. ln pseudoplastic
fluids an intinites-
imal shear stress will initiate motion and the ratio of
shear stress with velocity decreases with increasins ve_
locity gradient. This type of fluid is encountered in iolu_
tions or- suspensions of fine particles that form loosely
bounded aggregates that can break down or reform witL
an increase or decrease in shear rate. Such solutions are
aqueous dispersions of polyvinyl acetate and of an acrv_
clic copolymer: aqueous solutions of sodium carboxy_
methyl cellulose, and of ammonium polymethacrylatl;
and an aqueous suspension of limestone.
In dilatant fluids an infinitesimal shear stress will start
motion and the ratio of shear stress to velocity increases
as the velocity is increased. A dilatant fluid ij character-
ized by an increase in volume of a fixed amount of dis-
persion, such as wet sand, when subiected to a deforma_
tion that alters the interparticli distances oI its
constituents from their minimum-size confisuration.
Such fluids are titanium dioxide particles in waier or su-
':bl&,,

Piping Fluid Mechanics 7

crose solution. Dilatant fluids are much rarer than ( 100,000 the following empirical relations can be used
pseudoplastic fluids. for determinins the friction factor:
ln Bingham fluids a finite shearing stress is required to
initiate motion and there is a linear relationship between
the shearing stress-after motion impends-and the ve- (Ni") b"
locity gradient. Such fluids include thickened hydrocar-
bon greases, certain asphalts, water suspensions of clay, where bn : 0.0019498 (n)-45"
fly ash, finely divided minerals, quartz, sewage sludge, n= (7.8958 x l0-7) (a") 182.1321
and point systems.
Yield-pseudoplastic fluids are similar to Bingham flu- Typical values for "y and n are given in Table 1-2 [3].
ids, but the relationship between the excess shearing Values for "y and n not available in literature must be de-
stress after motion impends and velocity gradient is non- termined by viscosimeter measurements.
linear. Fluids in this category are defined by their rheo- Figure 1-5 shows the rheological classification of non-
grams, where relationships between the shear stress and Newtonian mixtures that behave as single-phase flow.
rate of shear exhibit a geometric convexity to the shear The reader is urged to refer to Govier [4] for further in-
stress axis. Such fluids are many clay-water and similar formation on non-Newtonian fluid or other complex
suspensions and aqueous solutions of carboxypoly- mixtures. Usually, the mechanical design of process sys-
methylene (carbopol). tems does not involve non-Newtonian fluids, but knowl-
Viscoelastic fluids make up the last category of non- edge of them and their peculiarities is a must if the need
Newtonian fluids. The term "viscoelastic fluid" is ap- anses.
plied to the most general of fluids-those that exhibit the
characteristic of partial elastic recovery of the fluid
structure. Whenever a viscoelastic fluid is subiected to a
rapid change in deformation, elastic recoil oi stress re-
laxation occurs. Many solutions exhibit viscoelastic
properties under appropriate conditions-molten poly-
mers, which are highly elastic; and solutions of long-
charged molecules, such as polyethylene oxide and poly-
MULTI.PHASE
acrylamides. Processes such as coagulation, oil-well SINGLE PHASE
fracturing, and high-capacity pipelines rely on polymeric
additives to cause pressure drops. Viscoelastic fluids ex-
hibit the "Weissenberg effect," which is caused by nor-
TRUE HOMOGENEOUS
mal stresses and produces unusual phenomena, such as
the tendency of the fluid to climb up a shaft rotating in
the fluid.
For any time-independent non-Newtonian fluid, Met-
zer and Reed [2] have developed the following general-
ized Reynolds number fraction:
=

_ D' U2-np
N*" (1-7)
"l PLASTIC C OILAIAI.II 9
where D : pipe ID, ft
U : average bulk velocity, ftlsec
p : density, lb,/fC I
^l : generalized viscosity coefficient, lb./ft
sec :gc c 8n-r (see Table 1-1)
: experimentally determined flow constant, //g"
for a Newtonian fluid
n: empirical constant that is a function of
non-Newtonian behavior (flow behavior
index), 1.0 for Newtonian fluids

For n: 1.0 and C : p/g", Equation 1-7 reduces to Figure 1-5. Rheological classification of complex mixtures
Np" = Du p/p for Newtonian fluids. For 2,100 < NR" that behave as single phase fluids [4].
 Mechanical Design of Proces: Slstems

Tabte 1-2
Rheological Constants tor Some Typical Non-Newtonian Fluids* 13I
Rheological Constants Rheological Constanis
ol Fluid n of Fluid n
23.3% Illinois yellow clay in water 0.229 0.863 18.6% solids, Mississippi clay in

0.67 % carboxy -methyf cellulose

water 0.022 0.105
(CMC) in water o.716 0.121 14.3 7o clay in water 0.350 0.0344
1.5% CMC in water 0.554 0.920 2l .2% clay ln \nater 0.335 0.0855
3.0% CMC in water 0.566 2.80 25.0% clay in water 0.185 0.2M
33% \me water 0.171 0.983 31.9% clay in water 0.251 0.414
10% napalm in kerosene 0.520 1. 18 36.8% clay in water 0.1'16 1.07
4% paper pulp in water 0.575 6.13 40.4% clay in water 0.132 2.30
54.3% cement rock in water 0.153 0.331 23% Iime in water 0. 178 1.04
* Reproduced by permission: A. B. Metzner and J. C. Reed, AICHE Jownal,
l,434 (1955\.

VELOCITY HEADS
Returning to Equation 1-4, let's focus on the term
EKi. This term represents the excess velocity heads lost
in fluid motion due to fluid turbulence caused by local
turbulence at the pipe wall and change in flow direction.
The latter is the greatest contributor to the DKi term.
When a fluid strikes a surface and chanses flow direc-
tion. it loses momentum and. therelore. Jnergy. Consid-
ering the 90' elbow in Figure l-6, we see that the fluid
changes direction from the x to the y direction and im-
parts reactions Fx and Fy, each a function of the pressure
and velocity of the fluid. End conditions of the elbow de-
termine some of the velocity head loss, that is, where the
fitting is a "smooth elbow" or a "screwed elbow." A
smooth elbow is one that is either flansed or welded to
the pipe such that a smooth internal srirface is encoun-
tered by the flow. In a screwed elbow there are abrupt
changes in the wall causing local turbulence and henie
increased velocity head loss.
Analytical determination of velocity heads can only be
accomplished in a few simplified cases. The values for
velocity heads must be determined and verified empiri-
cally. Comprehensive listings of such velocity head (K)
values are given in Figures 1-7 t5l, 1-8 [5], 1-9 [6], and
1-10. Using these values in Equation 1-4, you can ana-
lyze most cases of friction pressure drop for pipe under
24 inches in diameter. For pipe with diameter greater
than 24 inches, an additional analysis must be made in
solving for the velocity head term. This method, pre-
sented by Hooper [7] is called the "two-K method."
TWO.K METHOD
As explained previously, the value of K does not de-
pend on the roughness of the fitting or the fitting size,
but rather on the Reynolds number and the geometry of
the fitting. The published data for single K values apply
to fully-developed turbulent flow and K is independent
of N*. when N^. is well into the turbulent zone. As Nq.
approaches 1,000, the value of K increases. When Na"
< 1,000, the value ofK becomes inversely proportional
to NR". In large diameter pipe ( > 24 in.) the value of NRe
must be carefully considered if values of 1,000 or less
are encountered. The two-K method accounts for this de-
pendency in the following equatron:

K: K1/Np" + K- (1 + lid) (1-8)

where K1 : K for the fitting of NR" : I

K- : K for a large fitting of NR" : oo
Figure 1-6. Reactions on an elbow induced by a change of
d: internal diameter of attached pipe, in.
flow. kxt continued page 22

:i. a.t'- ;;t: :::a*a;=-:;i{ilif/r td

nt-*":m

Piping Fluid Mechanics

Represenlolive Resisfonce Coeflicients (K) for Volves ond Fittings

PIPE FRICTION DATA FOR CTEAN CO'\AMERCIAL STEET PIPE

WITH FIOW IN ZONE OF COMPIETE TURBUTENCE

Nominol Size t/^n 3/q" I Y4" 1Y2" 2V2.3" 8.10" 12-16" t8-24"
Friclion .o27 .o25 .o23 .o22 .021 .0r9 .018 .o17 .01 6 .01 5 .014 .01 3 .ot2
Focfor ( fr.)

FORMULAS FOR CALCULATING "K" FACTORS'

FOR VALVES AND FITTINGS WITH REDUCED PORT

o.s(in9(, - o'r K.
: Kr= - Formula z , Formula
rz=
t/\2/^1
Ba tr
O
4

lA
,, K,- o r !sin i(r - trt + (r - E )2

tJ'|

Kz= "iG-p)\f"# a4
Kr
lf
k.
Kr= j.n - 0(Formulaz 'Formula+) uhen d = r8o"
/.\
6(sin+(I - P)'?
2
K,
K, _ ,__]____184 = E K,+O [o : (, - g') + (t - 9')']
Kz=

|, a2\2 Kr
R4

^ d,r

lJ \2
Kr=SO *Formr.rla I + Formula l az_\d,J
12\ -
1I
_au
"
Subscript I dennes dimensions
and coefncients with reference to
Kr +sin3[o.a 0 - P\ +2.6 (t - 02)2) the smaller diameter.
K"= Subscript 2 refers to the larger

SUDDEN AND GRADUAI. CONTRACTION SUDDEN AND GRADUAT ENI.ARGEMENT

E;l

0< +5".........K, - Formula r 0. 4to. . .. . . . ..K2 - Formula 3

45" <e< r8oo...Kr = Formula z 45o<0< r8o-. . .Kr = Formula 4

Figure 1-7A. Selected Crane Company velocity head values. (Courtesy Crane Company [5].)
 10 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

GATE VAIVES SWING CHECK VATVES

Wedge Disc, Double Disc, or Plug Type

Et#
JLI I.-
-+ -ffa-r-
TL€
r-L-r
fNr,
FI-/f F
- K: rcof7 K:sof,
lf . ts = r,0 = o. ........... . K' : 8 -/r Minimum pipe velocity Minimum pipe velocity
P< r and 0 < 45o ........K2: Formula 5
(fps) for full disc lift (fps) for full disc lift
B< r and 45"<0< r8oo...Kz - Formula 6 =)5vv -a8!V

LIFT CHECK VAIVES

GTOBE AND ANGTE VAIVES

r
E
If: B: r...Kr=6oo/z
9. r.. .K, = Irormula 7
Minimum pipc r tlocitr itp.; ior full .lisc Iifr
If: B:r...Kt=l+ofr : F p2 \,/ v

lf: r...K,:
tr
9= ;s fr
B< r. . . K, = Irormula 7
lf A-t.. Kr=sjfr Minimum pipe velocicy (fps) for fr-rll disc lift
: t4o B|V V

TIITING DISC CHECK VALVES

l--4-lV
l'- I z++ll l-
F Ftr-IF
L

If : A=r...lit=riofr If: B:r...Kr:S5fr Sizes zto 8'...K:

Sizes ro to t+'...K:
Sizes 16 to 18". . .K =
All globe ancl angle valves,
t hcthcr rcducccl scat or throttled, Minimum pipe velocity
(fps) for full clisc lift -
Ii: 13 < r. . .l(2: Formula 7
Figure 1-78. Selected Crane Company velocity head values. (Courtesy Crane Company [5].)

li:il- -:::i::
8t'-n*"

Piping Fluid Mechanics 11

40

+.[
< 45. ora ( 22.50
lf d
l 830
:E
.4

llo
20

t.o 2.o 3.O 4.O 5.o

VBLoCITY-FPllxl03
6.0

SHADED AREA UNDER CURVE IS CRITERIA FOR UULTIPLYING

Kr = 2.6(1 - B'?)2 sin e
CORRECTION FACTOR, A,BY lHE VALUE OF It FOR EACH
ll 45" < 0 < 1800 or 22.50 <o(90o FITTINC AND PIPE COI4PONENT .

K'=(1 -0"f CORRECTION FACTOR TABLB

. td,-
d=arcslnl- d,ll=- 0
\21 /2
Figure 1-8. Calculated Crane K-values for concentric conical Figure 1-9. Correction factor.
diffusers are tabulated in Table l-6.

T./1
Dl ( ,l
_l_ \,-,/

TWO.MITERED ELBOW

1.0

0
Figure 1-10A. Velocity heads for change of flow [6].

'*
12 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

ot

1Eo
n =number miters
or segments

1
mitered ell
644+
I
smooth ell

.5 t.o 1.5
R/o

Figure 1-108. Velocity heads for change of flow [6].

h*":ns

Piping Fluid Mechanics 13

2<.- <*3
-V-
+s"(o<go.

an az/og
=
Figure l-10C. Velocity heads for change of flow [6].

'4
Mechanical Design of Process Systems

on= 9/og
Figure 1-10D. Velocity heads for change of flow [6].
 Piping Fluid Mechanics 15

\sri
\7 tAl
| |I Ai= A2: A3

aR = or
/ag
Figure 1-10E. Velocity heads for change of flow [6].
16 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

on or/ag
=

Figure 1-10F. Velocity heads for change of flow [6].

k-...n*

Piping Fluid Mechanics 17

OR: O1/o3

Figure 1-10G. Velocity heads for change of flow [6].

'*
18 Mechanical Desisn of Process Svstems

o*= 02/o3

2-----> -_)> 3

Figure 1-10H. Velocity heads for change of flow [6].

k*--=*

Piping Fluid Mechanics 19

--v'.
.
---)t -->2

OR= 01/O3

Figure 1-101. Velocity heads for change of flow l6l.

' 'drF'
 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

-llt-
2--+ ----)3

Kzg

on= oz/o,
Figure 1-10J. Velocity heads for change of flow [6].
it - 'I[||,,'

Piping Fluid Mechanics 21

or: o.' /o3

Figure 1-10K. Velocity heads for change of flow [6].
 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Small pipe fittings have more surface roughness and Table |-3
abrupt changes in cross sections, making Kl insignificant Constants for the Two-K Method I7l
at values of Nr" ) 10,000. For this reason, the new
Crane method is recommended for pipe diameters 24 in. Filting Type Kl K-
and less. Comparison of the methods for elbows is de- Standard (R/D : l),
screwed 800 0.40
picted in Figure 1-11. Table 1-3 lists Kr and K- values. :
Standard (R/D 1),
The two-K method is preferred over the equivalent flanged/welded 800 0.25
length method because in large, multi-alloy sysiems the Long-radius
equivalent length method could predict losses 300% too (R/D : 1.5), all
high, resulting in oversized pumps and equipment. With typqs 800 0.20
laminar flow, the equivalent length method predicts head 90" 1-Weld
losses too low. Also, in the equivalent length method, (90") I,000 1.15
Mitered 2-Weld
every equivalent length has a specific friction factor as- elbows (45') 800 0.35
sociated with it, because the equivalent leneths are de- (R/D : l 5) 3-Weld
rived from the expression L. = K D/t. (30') 800 0.30
The Hydraulic Institute's widely used K-factors are 4-Weld
good for l-in. to 8-in. pipe, but result in errors in larger (22t/2") 800 o.27
5-Weld
piping. (18") 800 0.25
Elbows
The disadvantage of the two-K method is it is limited
Standard (R/D : l),
to the number of values of K1 and K- available, shown all types 500 0.20
in Thble 1-3. For other fittings, approximations must be Long-radius
made from data in Table 1-3. (R/D : 1.5), all types 500 0.15
Mitered, 1 weld, 45" 500 0.25
Mitered, 2 weld, 22rlz" 500 0. 15
Standard (R/D : 1),
screwed 1,000 0.60
180' Standard (R/D : l),
flanged/welded 1,000 0.3s
PIPE FLOW GEOMETRIES Long radius
(R/D : 1.s), all
In using Equation 1-4 the geometry of the flow area
types 1,000 0.30
must be considered if the area is noncircular. In calculat- Standard, screwed 500 0.70
ing the Reynolds number and the diameter for a noncir-
Used Long-radius,screwed 800 0.40
as Standard, flansed or
cular cross section, the hydraulic radius is applied: etbow welded 800 0.80
Tees
Slub-in-type branch 1,000 1.00

R11 : hydraulic radius : cross-sectional flow area Run- Screwed 200 0.10
wetted perimeter through Flanged or welded 150 0.50
tee Stub-in-type branch 100 0.00
This relationship applies to noncircular cross sections Gate, Full line size,
flowing full or partially full, oval, rectangulat etc., but
p: 1.0 300 0.10
ball, Reduced trim,
not to extremely narrow shapes, such as annular or elon- p:0.e 500 0.15
gated openings, where the width is small relative to the plug Reduced trim,
length. In such cases the value of Rs is approximately p=0.8 1.000 0.25
one-half the width of the passage. Globe, standard 1,500 4.00
The value of 4RH is substituted for d in Equation 1-4. Globe, angle or Y-type 1,000 2.00
Diaphragm, dam type 1,000 2.00
Butterfly 800
**" : r,1*, Lift 2,000
0.25
10.00
Check Swing 1,500 1.50
Tilting-disk 1,000 0.50
Thble l-4 provides hydraulic radii for various cross :
Note: Use R/D = 1.5 values for R/D 5 pipe bends, 45' ro 180'.
sections. Use appropriate tee values for flow through crosses.
< - -8l

Piping Fluid Mechanics 23

Screwed tee Globe valve

Screwed 9d ell
Line Screwod
flow
Regular

D K1

rfi-I|l
0.8
10

6
0.3
H
r\
Long
radius
K
I 10
T
Branch
}J flow
Flanged
0.3 1 4
D

FlangEd tee

Flanged 90oell Gate valve

Screwed

K o.2

0.1
0.3 0.6 I
D

Long
radius
o.4

t\\_t Branch
flow 1

20 p!"..ffi
Contraction

o'?FidG,i\
0

Square-odged inlet [24]

o.4 0.8 Regular screwed 45oell

*Hl--
p 0.6

X 0.4
K=o.b 0.3
ffi'=.err-r,rf(fia-r] 0.3 0.5
Inward ptojocting pipe
Enlargem€nt

Lonq radius flanged 4soell

(:;
*-1---lJ/, 0.3
/(=1.0
K
K
0.1
0.00' 0.5
0.02
0.28
0.04
o.24
0.06
0.r 5
0_10 p= lmall diamete./larse dismerer
0.09
0.15&up I o.o+ K based on velocity in slnatter pipe
Hydraulic inltitote [24]

based on main pipe for orifice. l40j .........,...... crane It2l

For (, see table 'Sharp{dged
[,liller. based on water at 6 ft^ 132]

Figure 1-11. Velocity head values for common piping components [1]. (Reprinted by special permission from Chemical Engi-
neering, @ 1978, by McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York.)

'd
 24 Mechanical Design of Process Systems
E F nninqfricrlon lactor for fllribl. m6.tl hc. Il4l
v
Swing chock valve
n tLtLtt- _
Screwed

4 flilj-ll-lH;E
Tvoictl dimh'ioo3
0.
9 o.12
.T Nomimr LDr LE 0.08
tize {in.l {in.l u tL
1/2 0.520 0.250
,I 0.6 '1 24
314 0.750 0.275 0.04t04
r t.000 0.187 106
r1n 1.500 0.200 Feynolds number, /VF"
2 2.O@ 0,161
3 2.962 0.143
K
4 4.000 0.081
Head loss in conical diffuse6 1.2
Flanged
4 6 10 tr9l
1.0

5 o.e

Angle valve
Scre$red

6l-
-
4l-
Ir
,t- P, des.

,I llIl
0.3 0.6 1

Head loss in circular mite6

147l
63
Flanged 1
K= 1.2 (1 -cos0

Screw€d return bend

Pf0g cock valve lr9l Buttertly valve ll9l

Flanged return bend

0 0

5" o.24
0.05
to' 0.29 to' o.52
20" 1.54
2o' r.56
+0" 10.8
lo" 11.3
I18.0
60" 206.0 6o'

d is angle between pipe axit and llapper plate

dk anste ber@en pipe axis and plus cock axis

Figure l-11. Continued.

 Piping Fluid Mechanics

Table 1-4 where Y 1214a12 : 0 for incompressible flow since

\ralues ot hydlaulic radius (RH) for various Cross a?- @, the term ar2 multiplied by the fluid density pl is
Sections the bulk compressibility modulus of the fluid and gives
Cross Section RH the pressure change for the fractional change in density.
Values of the bulk compressibility modulus for various
substances are given in Appendix A. The term a1 is the
velocity of sound waves propagated in a compressible
medium.
As Equation 1-9 shows, the velocity of the fluid is
compared to the fluid velocity of sound in the term V1'l
4a12. If this ratio is small, compressibility effects can be
ignored because the error is the difference between this
L- term and unity. This analysis is valid only for barotropic
fluids, which are typical of most industrial applications
involving flow of gas through a nozzle and the flow of
water in conduits or over obstacles.

IN/
E+=
0.153 Di Compressibility effects of a fluid are small when the
fluid velocity is small, compared to the fluid sonic ve-
locity. If V1/al is equal to 0.3, the error in the velocity is
less than I % when using the incompressible assumption.
For ambient air, this limitation corresponds to a velocity
of 300 ftlsec without causing significant error.
The phenomenon ofnonsteady flow is somewhat more
complex than that of steady flow. The acceleration or de-
celeration of liquid particles immersed in a two-phase
solution is one such example. The time required for the
nonsteady phenomenon to occur is compared to the time
reouired for a sound wave to traverse the flow in which
substantial differences in velocity occur. If the time dif-
ferences are small, then the incompressible Bernoulli
equation (Equation 1-2) may be applied.

PIPING FLUID MECHANICS PBOBLEM

FORMULATION

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW To solve piping fluid problems a firm understanding of

The preceding analysis assumes steady and incom-
:::ssible fluid flow. This is a reasonable assumption
:jce most liquids are steady flow, but frequently the as-
.-nption is valid for gases. Because some liquids and all
:-ies are compressible, a criterion is needed to deter-
-,ne what percent of error is incurred assuming constant
:::1Slty.
-\n estimate of the error can easily be made for a baro-
::pic fluid-a fluid whose density is a function of pres-
.-::. Sabersky and Acusta [8] have shown that for a
: .:idstream of velocityVr, static pressure R and density
: mat
(1-9)
basic equations and units is essential. The units should be
carefully defined and used throughout the calculations.
Thble 1-5 presents reasonable velocities for various ser-
vices used in mechanical systems. These velocities are
only guides intended to give the reader foresight for trial
values and are only for mechanical systems; for such
values of chemical processes the reader should consult
chemical engineering sources.
Viscosity
Widely misunderstood and often improperly applied,
viscosity is perhaps the most recondite of all the proper-
ties associated with fluid mechanics. However, a clear
conception of this physical property is critical to the suc-
26 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Table 1-5 Thus, ifone has a fluid such as a fuel oil (see Example
Reasonable Velocities 6-1), which for a given temperature has an absolute vis-
Liquids Feet per Second cosity of 139.53 centipoise, we calculate the kinematic
Service water mains 2to5 viscosity, z, in the English system of units as follows:
General service water piping 4 to l0
Boiler feed water piping 6 to 13 p= 139.53 cp at 90'F
Heat medium oils 2to6 w : 54.725lb^/tr
Lubricating oils 2to6 lb,-rT, ij!-.
Gases (rry )r)cP /o.oooozol\
|1 r ., /= :2. iz,
lbrsecr
Low-pressure steam heating
and process piping 15 to 70
Low-pressure steam mains 70 to 165 (s4.72s) E
fP
High-pressure steam mains 165 to 400
Steam engine and pump piping 100 to 150
Steam turbine piping 150 to 330 r: 0.0017 :ft2
sec
Natural gas 100
Air, 0 to 30 psig 70 ft2
Forced draft ducts 40 to 60 0.0017 -::-
Induced-draft flues 30 to 50 centistoke : 159.261 centistokes
Chimneys and stacks
Ventilating ducts
35
7 0.00001076e il
sec

Since the kinematic viscosity is a function of the fluid

cessful design of hydraulic systems and rotating equip-
ment that transport fluids (see Chapter 6).
Viscosity is the property of a fluid to resist flow. Con-
sider how much more freely and easily gasoline pours
from a container than does black strap molasses. In fluid
mechanics terminology, the heavier, bulkier nature of
molasses is caused by the fluid's high shear stresses.
These high shear stresses make the molasses very resis-
tant to flow.
The fundamental measurement of flow resistance is
the dynamic or absolute viscosity. In the cgs (centimeter-
gram-second) system of units the basic unit of viscosity
is the poise, which is equal to one hundred centipoises,
(For a detailed explanation ofhow absolute viscosities of
fluids are determined, the reader should consult a basic
text on fluid mechanics.) The centipoise (cp) is now the
standard unit of absolute viscosity, but because other
units are still used, as illustrated in some of the examples
scattered throughout this book, methods for converting
to and from centipoises are provided. With the centi-
poise, one must be careful in using the English system of
units when converting to the kinematic viscosity. Illus-
trating this conversion we have the following:
p= absolute viscosity, centipoise
= i.0 lb-sec/ft2 = 478.7 poise = 4.787 centipoise
z : kinematic viscosity, centistokQ2
: & 8", for the English system of units
fr-lh
Wnefe gc = JZ.|t aa---------a
lDrSeC'
w= mass density of the fluid, lb./ft3
density, the above value is only valid at the specified
temperature of 90'F. In the metric system the kinematic
viscosity can be obtained by dividing the absolute viscos-
ity by the specific gravity. This is only for the metic sys-
tem of units.It is a common mistake in using the English
system of units to compute the kinematic viscosity by di-
viding the absolute viscosity by the specific gravity of
the fluid. Equipment manufacturers often use other units
of viscosity. One ofthe most widely used units is the Sec-
onds Saybolt Universal (SSU). This unit represents the
number of seconds required for sixty cubic centimeters
of liquid at a constant temperature to flow through a cali-
brated orifice. For liquids of high viscosity a larger ori-
fice is used and the unit applied is termed Seconds Say-
bolt Furol (SSF). It is customary to specify these units of
viscosity at standard temperatures.
The following are formulas for converting SSU's and
SSF'S to centistokes. Below the value of 32 the SSU is
undefined and below the value of 25 the SSF is unde-
fined. Throughout this book, the centipoise and the cen-
tistoke are the standard units of absolute and kinematic
viscosity, respectively. Where the need arises, the centis-
toke is converted to SSU.
SSU to centistokes
t: Seconds Saybolt Universal
:
,/ centistokes
For32(t(99, 6.2261 - P7 :
t
For t) 100, o.zzu - !1
t
:
*( ----L'

Piping Fluid Mechanics

SSF to centistokes with COz in steam. The properties of the mixture are as
follows:
:: Seconds Saybolt Furol
p= 0.01322 cp
lR4 p= 0.085 lb/ft3 P : 10 PSig
Rrr 25 ( t( 39, 2.24r - -:- : v e: 0.0015 in.
t
60
5rt>40, 2.16t - -:--
t
= v The velocity head approach is used in determining the
friction pressure drop. The line shown in Figure 1-12 is
coming off two nozzles on top of the reboiler and merg-
ing at a tee before entering the amine still tower. The di-
EXAMPLE l.l: FRIGTION PRESSURE DROP mensions shown are identical with both sides coming off
FOR A HYDROCARBON GAS.STEAM the reboiler nozzles (exemplified by the word "TYR"
MIXTURE IN A PIPE meaning for both sides). To solve this problem, we must
apply Equation l-4. To use this equation, we divide the
An amine still reboiler boils off a hydrocarbon gas- connecting pipe into three components (see Figures
{eam mixture that flows in a 3M ss line connecting the 1-13-l-15)-an 18-in. f portion with W = 25,291 lbl
:eboiler with an amine still tower. It is desired to deter- hr a24-in. d portion with W : 25,291lblhr; and a24-
rine the maximum pressure drop in the line as shown in in. d with W : 50,582 lb/hr, Equation 1-4 is applied to
Fieure 1-12. The sas is a small tract of amine immersed each portion and the pressure drop for each is added to

Figure 1-12. Amine still reboiler hydraulics.

d
Mechanical Design of Process Systems

FLUID ANALYSIS FOR SINGLE PHAS€ FLOW - GAS OR LIOUID

coNFtq!84[!9X. LINE NUMBER IE"6 PoRTt oN - tr'6 scttEOULE tcs PAGE _OF _

L,, (z'.- a"\ r{z'-j"\ + (r'-et) , 1'- z" = 1, 1s.7 p7

y- rerzr\H (=#l) +i,+81#
(o.,s$$ f"*",i,"'(##) =

SERVICE ov
iE;G'dr;BrE-vEEcrw REYNoLDS
E No= t
Ki= No oF ver-ocrri ems; x=.ov/,
FoR sERvtcE = DEpENDENT ptpE FRtcrtoN = rt6
K VALUES ILD = 5OK, D=rNStDE D|AMFTEFtfrll lL= o,ot32? cp
FOR COMPONENTS: p
y== o,O85 Lb/cu tl
1, I L'l I'
)*, € = O,OOI5 in
PIPE ENTRANCE . o,7 80
?1.x ta" u FFUSER (cs/{rRrc). o,079 f=
t6" t R 90' ELL = o, oza D: 17' 50 in.

) [p= o, O?9 psi

*=,..,u v = *9,18'1 1y
NpE= 690,49/ ".
| = o,otl
Q=
W= 2sz9t tt/nr

Figure 1-13. Fluid analysis for single phase flow-gas or liquid.

 Piping Fluid Mechanics

FLUID ANALYSIS FOR SINGLE PHASE FLOW - GAS OR

coNFtquRAI!9!L LINE NUMBER

L,.= (i'-o') + (1'-t tv/1i']1 + (rg'' rr"\ = 2+'- o 'tli = 2+076 ++

..r-
- '
raszgr\E(#c'"J
("
- 21,++2 *
i,,''
""n #n"cr.z\ Gfi],,)

SERVICE REYNOLDS NO= DVM'

FEASOMBLE VELOCITY
^.,2
KI=NO OF VELOCITY HEADSiK= .ov72
FOR SERVICE = DEPENDENT prpe rRrctroH = fl
K vALUEs [LD= soK,D=tNStDE DIAMFTERlft]l lL= 322
o,ot cp
FOR COMPONENTS: P= o.o?s Lb/cu ll
)*, = 21.C78 t'
y
6 = OOOI5 1n.
rwo 9d LR ELt s - K- o,1?o /=-
p= - 23,5 ;n.
[p= o,O29 1si
y
= 21a12 191"".
€t+,t17.r25
o.oll
Q=
w= ZS29l tyn

flow-gas or liquid.
Figure'l-14. Fluid analysis for single phase-gpm

J
Mechanical Design of Process Systems

FLUID ANALYSIS FOR SINGLE PHASE FLOW - cAS OH LtOUtD

CONFI6URAT1ON LINE NUMBER

lt Z''tt" = 2,9l.1 k

Sh
= <2."
"4q

rs'srz'tiF (=za!=ai
= r7,s84 *
fo,oa,iS h*l\ru.(ffi

K vALUEs ILD= 50K,D=tNstDE DTAMFTER tftll lL= O.ol32? co

FOF COMPONENTS: P= O.O?S Lb/cu tr
t= ?-91'7 n'
)*, e= o,OOl5 in
coMatNtNG FLOV'I TEE, t2
PIPE ExtT = 04<
!r- --:::_tn.
)*= 2,2
Ap= oQ6, psi
V= 5'1, 884 .11rl"""
NRE= l.o2A,35+. esp
t= otol3
Q=
111r= So Sg2 .L/rrr

--gpm

Figure 1-15. Fluid analysis for single phase flow-gas or liquid.

 Piping Fluid Mechanics

the other portions to give the total frictional pressure

drop for the line (For velocity head value of concentric
conical diffusers, the reader is referred to Thble 1-6).
The calculations are as follows.
Table 1-6
Lr : 6.167 ft K-Values tor Concentric Conical Diffusers
d2(in.) d1(in.) L(in.) d(deg) Kr

p : (6.72 x 10-4)(0.01322) : (8.384 x l0 6)-]!L Sch

80 tlc 0.546 0.302
It-sec tl2 x
ls 0.546 0.423

lr1:50)r, 1+r.+tzr a
secro.oasl k
Sch

=DVP: \ tz I rr- 80
3lc x
3lt 0.742 0.423 1.500 6.104 0.126
p tlz 0.742 0.546 1.500 3.746 0.036
(8.884 x 10-6) ;lb'
n-sec Sch
80 4s 0.957 0.423 2.000 7.672 0.225
: 690,491.450 1X 1lz 0.957 0.546 2.000 5.898 Q.121
3lc 0.957 0.'742 2.000 3.081 0.022
,fl-05 - _2 ron,^ [{g
"- * _?r_] ( 1-6a) Sch
[3'7 NR"(f)"'l 80 tlz 1.278 0.546 2.000 10.545 0.318
Let f: 0.014 I r/4 x r.278 0.742 2.000 7.701 0.153
1.278 0.957 2.000 4.603 0.040
'0.014)-05
: 8.452 : -2 logr0 [(2.317 x 10 5)
Sch
+ (3.072 x :
10-5)l -8.537 80 1.500 0.546 2.500 10.999 0.373
f- 0.014 3lq 1.500 0.742 2.500 8.720 0.225
1tl2 x
1.500 0.957 2.5W 6.235 0.099
lPf = (?. r'.l# (l -4)
Sch
lUq 1.500 1.278 2.500 2.545 0.009

40 lc 2.067 0.742 3.000 12.758 0.436

2x ll/c 2.067 0.957 3.000 10.661 0.297

-ro, :I (0.014X6. 167X12)
(17.50)
* ,"--'l
,rol 2.067 1.278 3.000 7.556 0.131
llz 2.067 1.500 3.000 5.423 0.055
g Sch
,o.oss,
ft (4e.487),

fr lh
H*) 40
Itlq
2.469 0.957
2.469 1.278
3.500 12.474
3.500 9.796
0.406
0.237
ztlz x
S€C'lD6
lt/z 2.469 1.500 3.500 7.957 0.143
2.469 2.067 3.500 3.292 0.013
lP1, : 9-929 O.t Sch
40 3.068 0.957
1

L. : 24.078 tt 1V+ 3.068 1.278 3.500 14.816 0.454

3 x lyz 3.068 1.500 3.500 12.944 0.337
Similarly, 3.068 2.067 3.500 8.221 0.11 I
2tl2 3.068 2.467 3.500 4.9@ 0.028
\R" : 514,177.125 and f = 0.014 Sch
40 lV+ 3.548 1.278 4.000 16.484 0.559
lUz 3.548 1.500 4.000 14.833 0.449
_\p. - [(0.014X24.07s)
t (23.s0)
+ o.72ol
I
3t/2 x 2 3.548 2.067 4.000 10.668 0.210
zth 3.548 2.469 4.000 7.151 0.093
3.548 3.068 4.000 3.440
( o. o8r
H ei . 44zf !(, * *-) 0.010

fr lh
S€C'lD1

c--,-..,&
32 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Table 1-6 continued Table 1-6 continued

Size dr(in.) dl(in.) L(in.) d(deg) Kr d2(in.) d10n.) L(in.)

Sch std
40 ltlz 1.500 4.026 4.000 18.406 0.609 wt8 7.981 r7.2s0 15.000 17.997 0.496
2.067 4.026 4.000 r4.r74 0.345 10 10.020 r7.2s0 15.000 13.946 0.275
4 x 2tl2 2.469 4.026 4.000 11.223 0.197 18 x 12 11.938 17.250 15.000 10.199 0.125
3.068 4.026 4.000 6.878 0.055 14 13.250 17.250 15.000 7.662 0.058
31lz 3.548 4.026 4.000 3.425 0.088 16 15.250 r7.250 1s.000 3.823 0.008
Sch srd
402 2.067 s.u'l 5.000 17.338 0.537 wt8 7.981 19.25Q
Ztlz 2.469 5.047 5.000 14.940 0.388 10 10.020 19.250
5x 3.068 5.047 5.000 1r.4r4 0.205 12
20x 14
11.938 19.250 20.000 10.533 0.180
3t/z 3.548 5.U7 5.000 8.621 0.100 13.250 t9.250 20.000 8.627 0.108
4.026 5.U7 5.000 5.860 0.035 16 15.250 19.250 20.000 s.739 0.036
Sch l8 17.250 19.250 20.000 2.866 0.005
40 2.469
Ztlz 6.065 5.s00 19.08 std
3.068 6.065 5.500 15.810 wt l0 10.020 2t.250
6 x 3tlz 3.548 6.065 5.500 13.228 0.257 12 1 1.938 2r.250
4.026 6.065 5.500 10.682 0.151 14 1,3.250 21,.250 20.000 11.537
22x 16 15.250 21.250 20.000 8.627
0.194
5.047 6.065 5.500 5.310 0.023 0.092
Sch 18 r7 .250 2r.250 20.000 5.739 0.030
403 3.068 7.981 6.000 24.168 0.726 ?0 19.250 2r.250 20.000 2.866 0.004
3t/z 3.548 7.981 6.000 21.680 0.618 std
8x 4.026 7.981 6.000 19.243 0.476 wt 10 10.020 23.250
5.V7 7.98t 6.000 r4.r52 0.229 12 11 .938 23.250
6.065 7.98t 6.000 9.188 Q.O74 14 13.250 23.250
Sch
24x 16 r5.2s0 23.250 20.000 1t.537 0.169
40 4.A6 10.020 7.000 25.350 0.703 18 17.250 23.250 20.000 8.627 0.079
l0x 5.M7 10.020 7.000 20.807 0.514 20 19.2s0 23.250 20.000 5.739 0.026
6.065 10.020 7.000 16.409 0.295
Srd
7.981 10.020 7.000 0.051 wr 12 r1 .938 25.250
Sch 14 13.250 25 .250
40 5.047 11.938 8.000 25.511 0.674
16 15.250 25.250
6.065 11.938 8.000 2r.535 x t8 r'1 .250 25 .250 24 .W0 9 .s94
12x 7.98t 11.938 8.000 14.319 0.197
26 0.123

10 10.020 11.938 8.000 6.885 0.027

20 19.2sO 2s.2s0 24.000 7.181 0.057
22 2t.250 25.250 24.0W 4.780 0.018
Sch
40 13.250 13.000 t6.042 0.449 24 23.250 2s.2s0 24.000 2.388 0.003
7.981 13.250 13.000 1r.692 0.214 std
14x 10 10.020 13.250 13.000 7.136 0.059 Wr 14
16
12 rr.938 13.250 13.000 2.892 0.005
std
l8
wt6 6.065 15.250 14.000 19.150 0.604 20 19.2s0 29.250 24.W0 12.025 0.174
30x
7.98r 15.250 14.000 r5.U7 0.356
16 x 10 10.020 15.250 14.000 10.765 0.157 24 23.2s0 29.250 24.000 7.181 0.044
12 rr.938 15.250 14.000 6.793 0.046 26 25.2s0 29.250 24.000 4.780 0.014
14 13.250 15.250 14.000 4.096 0.011 28 27 .2s0 29.250 24.WO 0.002
 Piping Fluid Mechanics 33

Table 1-6 continued APt, : 6.961 O.'

Total Friction Pressure Drop for Line : AP

Size dr(in.) d1(in,) L(in.) @(deg) K1

Srd APl = APr, * APr, * AP;, : (0.029 + 0.005 + 0.061)

\\i 16
pst
18
20 AP1 : 6.695 O"'
22
_\ x 24 23.250 33.250 24.Un p.025 0.141
26 25.250 33.250 24.000 9.594 0.078
EXAMPLE t-2: FRIGTIONAL PRESSURE
30 29.250 33.250 24.000 4.780 0.011
DROP FOR A HOT OIL SYSTEII OF A
32 31 .250 33 .250 24 .NO 0.001
PROCESS TANK
Std
\\'t 16
A pressure vessel storage tank contains 6,000 gallons
18
of filler coating that must be maintained at 370'F to be
used in the manufacture of roofing products. To maintain
20
the coating mixture at the required temperature, external
jacket coils are placed on the outside shell and bottom
24 23.250 35.250 24.W0 14.478 0.207 head as well as four internal coils inside the tank with an
16x
26 25.250 35.250 24.000 12.025 0.128 agitator. The tank is depicted in Figure 1-16 and the hot

30 29.250 35.250 24.000 7.181 0.032

32 3t .250 35 .250 24 .000 4.780 0.010
34 33.250 3s.250 24.000 2.388 0.001
Srd
1\l 24 23.250 41.250 24.000 22.024 0.4s4
26 25 .250 41 .250 24.000 19 .47 | 0.339
30 29.250 41.250 24.000 14.478 0.161
32 31.250 4r.250 24.000 12.025 0.098
34 33.250 41.250 24.000 9.s94 0.053
36 35.250 41.250 24.000 7.181 0.024

:P,. = 0.005 psi

'-. : 2.917 ft

\r. : 1,028,354.250 and f = 0.013

't:
(0.013x2.917)
rP.- I + 2.201
(23.s0)

(o.oss) (s4.884F
H
-i1Fl",ooJ
r,.r r' ft lb.
-\J-.-/ --7-a-
S€C'lD1 Figure 1-16. Process surge tank. (Courtesy of Tranter, Inc.)
34 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

oil system in Figures l-17, l-18, and 1-19. It is desired Bottom Head Hot Oil Supply
to determine how much frictional pressure drop will be
incurred for the entire tank so that pump sizes may be I Hot Oil Entrance from the 2-in. Header and Flow
selected. Through Station 1. (Figure 1-U):
The tank is divided into two systems-the hot oil sup-
ply system and the hot oil return system. Each system
connects to the three components-the four internal coils
inside the tank, the outside shell jacket coils, and the Yt,, z.s'
jacket coils connected to the bottom head-and each of 6 gpm ,l/ 30 spm
the three components must be analyzed separately.
"1,
t
Bottom llead System I

A 2-in. pipe header supplies hot oil to the six inlet

jacket nozzles and returns hot oil from six outlet iacket For Q : 36 gpm
nozzles. The supply nozzles are designated by an S and L : 26.5 in., p = 0.15 cp, e : 0.0018
the return nozzles by an R. We will analyze the supply o :2.067, p = 58.7 lb/ft3
system. The piping system is divided up into "stations," p : (6.72 x 10-4)(0.150) : 1.008 x 10-5
lb./ft-sec
which are points designating flow change due to separat-
ing fluid. Each line following a station must be analyzed
(36) sd (___u, ){_1.'"
separately because the flow rate decreases after the flow ' min \7.479 gal/ \60 sec
separates in the tee. We will consider the pressure drop : 3.442 ft.lsec
from point A to B, since that path involves more stations
and the maximum amount of pressure drop.

g=11h"x31a"
C=11h"x1,
D=2"xEa"
E=2" x1"
F=2'x1112"

Figure 1-17. Process surge tank bottom head coils.

 Pipiry Fluid Mechanics

___.1

Figure 1-18, hocess surge tank-shell coiis Qooking south).

35 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

rl

tl t^
JI r3-
q- 0l Il-
q.\
{t
{t-\| \t I
7sm \l
|\l
NI
t\l
| \l
t\
tt\
_l I

-@

Figure 1-19. Process surge tank-shell coils (ooking north).

fm&----*

Piping Fluid Mechanics 37

n L: 4.0 ft
osD* { I rc \ltgi
_DVp_ ?8\o"*" .io\
'--'
sar
rnin \7.479.9aU \60 sec/
Nn"
P
"I x lo )
v_ : 2.869 ft/sec
(t.oo8 -tD'
n-sec
ilrt I
(J.JJbtrn.'t-......_l
\144 in.'/l
:3,452,9\0

l{q!q'!) _\
12
67lr,,z.sost
/
a,sa.;, I
I 2.51 I
DVp 12 sec

(1o s -z roe,o
ffi +
a,qsz,srol(D\ (1.008 x 10 4)
--l!'
n-sec

: 0.040 : 287 ,7U

K-factors [/o.oora\ I
1 l\-0.
-2 logp 3r -
i z.st rzz I

Pipe entrance K : 0.78 (fl0.5

[ e8lJwtfi{-'
Branch flow tee K= 0.46 :0.040
K-factors
+ (-0.78)
\- .-
0.78 + 1. I 90" LR ell :K: 0.570
Flow-lhru tee :K: 0.910

aP,: (dLL. D")# 1.480

or,^ _ *,.orol
_ rzr '' [ro.o+orr+.orrtzt
I Q.067)
(2.067) *
[to.o+oxz.zoelt ,.r6al I
[ I
_^ ^-^.. fc I I ft,
.-^-. lb {r.6oe]' I
rh rr2 / rfi2 \ ()d. /) , l.fil
/5R?\::11 M)\2:L | -" I =
n' sec' \r+4 ln.'/
'-' ,ftr.- -. ss62 \144 in.2/
lrql rr ft lb'
-'--'-'sec2
,rrta j:b:l'- sec'lDf
lbr
APr, = 0.126 n.t

$rr : 0.186 psi

Z Hot Oil Fl.ow from Station 2 to Station 3:

- Hot Oil Fbw from Station 1 to Station 2:

..^. sal
tlxl-l-ll I 1ftr ll I min
'--' min V.a79 ga| \60 sec : 2.837 ftlsec
t tt'.1
12.036)in., I
18gpm \144 in.J
(ril!.lo r'
o.ru secrss.zr P
fi'
Nn" : \r2 l
th
(1.008 x 10 4) -j:'
n-sec
., -Q,- l8
-*-Q,- 30 22t,657

I
 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

[/ooore\ I
1ft
l\ r:+ 1* z.st ,,^, / I ft3 \/1 min\
1
-z
a I t"' ca1
(flo
[- rnrsvltf 'oi" \2.+zs s"il \60 '*/ =
s
'oc'o 4.457 ftlsec
1
/ t e'z \
(0.864)in.,tfr1n}/
:0.M2
K-values
A
o 2-in. x ltlz-in. LR ell Nn. = t#)o,0.0", or.a *
(1.008 x 1o-) .lb'
ft-sec
t' - e'i],u,
. - "'
o
[(9 : 226,889.525
1u9'

Ir rr o\2
= l- -^"1 = 0.607
lb''4
/
l\ o0s7 2.51
I
|
1
-r rocro * |

[ 3i tz26seo]flri
\2.M7 5
(o0

= P4 : 0.368
:0.051
* _ 0.8 sin [(5.423)(l - 0.607)] _ o.o'
(0.368)

. Flow-thru tee K-values

1)
Q*:18-:0.667-K:0.53 . lr/2-in. x f-in. reducer

p,)] _
--- [c(l -
,. _ 0.8 sin 0.8 sin [(6.23s)(0.593)1
^R - - - r.v
et- - 0.166

Dr: o.oar + 0.53 : 0.611

or,, : [,oq?!u1'uo]t't, * 0.u,,]

. Flow-thru tee
.-^
(J6. -.
lb .^ ^^-.. n, / r ft, \
/) {r.6J /)'
.*r- h44 i" j-l
. o, 6 = 0.5lAn:
-_ _ = 1.0=K :0.87
Ar
ftr Q*: *Q: = _:_
t2
z1zz.z1
!!y A3

Sec' lDf Dr:0.:rt+0.87:1.181

APr, : 0.063 Ott

Z Hot Al Flow from Station 3 to Station 4:

6 gpm
*r:I (0.051x1.0x12)
(r .049)
+ r. 1811

,l

t!' h
r1 l2x't
I
I
,<o rr lb r,,, ,.t', fC / t t' \
---A -spm | +6 -oFm
sec \t+a 1"31
= O.222 psr
12 fr-lh
I

@ S€C'-lD6
 Piping Fluid Mechanics 39

E Hot Oil Flow from Station 4 to Exit B: rh rr2/ rcz\

(58.7) (3.612F
ft; **- |rfri".,I
tcrrr!jq.-
S€C'-lD;

APq = 0.405 Ott

Total friction pressure drop from entrance A to exit B:

Path (Figure 1-17) APl psi

@ Entrance A thru branch flow tee 0.186 psi
L:2ft @ Flow from station I to station 2 0.126 psi

/4\ sal /
1ft3 t-l \/r -i"\ @ Flow from statioo 2 to station 3 0.063 psi
\"/ min t-t
- \7.479 ga| \60 sec/ _ 3.612 ftlser @ Flow from station 3 to station 4 0.222 psi
@ Flow from statioD 4 to exit B O.zlO5 psi
(0.533)in.'(+) 1.002 psi

a rsa.zr'tt'I
{o't'lo,r.utl'sec' Dot, = 1.002 psi = Total frictional pressure drop
\12l : A4.449 from entrance A to exit B

Z Shzll mils-Soutft ride (Figure 1-18)

1^ Station 1-
(o0.5

= 0.055

35spm
I-values 2
o.7
o" =:.r : 42 : 0.167
. l-in. x 3/a-in. reducer Qr
Kr = -0.032
Header entrance = K = 0.78
_____7-_
,. _ 0.8 sin [a(l - F1] _ 0.8 sin [(3.081X1 - 0.601I station 1 : K = -0.03
(0.361) K : O.75
Q: : 42
: 0.0'[8
epm
'L = 10ft;/ = 0.15cp;d = 2.067in.
. p:58.7 lb/ft3;6 = 9.9613
3-90' LR ells V = 4.016 ff/sec; f : 0.020; Nr, : 402,829
APr : 9.195 *'
K : 3(0.025X30) : 2.25O
Station 2-
Pi1r exit + 1q : 1.0

E* : o.o+s + z.zso + r.ooo = 3.298 35 gpm

&r, _
- l(0.055x2.0)(12) +
28 gpm
t to^szat
3.2esl
40 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

n. 1 Station 5-
Qr: ::] = JJ.-:0.200
Qr
Kaz = -0'03
L = 5in. = 0.417 ft;d = 2.O67 in.
Qa : 35 epm
Y : 3.346 tusec; f : 0.020; Nn : 335,691
AP, : g.gg1 n"t

Station 3-

9:1:o.soo
Qr 14
L: 10ft
Krz : 0.015
v = 1.339 ft/sec;,f : 0.021
Nn":134,276
APs : 9.914 O.t

Friction pressure drop from station 6 to coil entrance

Q3 = 28 gPm

Q:.128 :o.zs
Qr
L = 10ft
d : 2.O67 rn.
v : 2.677 ft/sec; K32 : -0.036
Nr":268,553
f : 0.020
APr : 6.952 n.'

Station 4-

21 gpm
o^:Qt=ro
I Qr
&r = 1.28
Tspm For 2-in. x 1tlz-in. reducer,K = O-129
K : 0.311
I
14gpm lrlz-in. xl-in. reduceq
I l-in. x 3/a-in. reducer, K : 0.048
2 r/+-in. plug valve, K : 18(0.025) : 0.450
2-l1lz-in.90" LR ells, K = 2(30)(0.021\ : 1.2@
1-1-in. 90" LR ell, K : (30X0.023) = 0.690
1-3l+-in. 90. LR ell, K : (30X0.025) : 0.750
Q:1:o.rgr
2l Exit into coil, K : 1.0
Q:
&z = -0.030 Q = 7 gPm; L : 7 -25 f7
L:5in.:0.417ft; d = 2.067 ln. F.- = 5.168
!K
Qr : 21 epm :
. For 2-in. { pipe, d 2.067 in.
V = 2.008 ff/sec; f : 0.021 L:7in.:0.583ft
Nn' = 201'415 K: 1.049
AP+ : g.ggt O.t V= 0.669 fl:/sec
 Piping Fluid Mechanics 4'l

Nr":67,138 n.
f:0.023 QR::r
\J3
= 0.333
AP : 0.0M psi Kr: -0.030
o For lrlz-in. d Pipe, d : !.610 in. L: 10ft
L:3ft Qr : 21 gpm
K : 1.571 p:58.7 lblff; p :0.015 cp; e:0.0018;
V : 1.103 ftlsec; Nx" : 86,195; d : 2.067 \n.
f : 0.023 V = 2.008 tusec; Nr" : 201,415t f : 0.021
: AP1 : g.g3g O.'
AP 0.016 psi
o For 1-in. { pipe, d : 1.049 in.
Station
L:Zft 2
-
K = 0.738
V : 2.599 ftlsec; Nq" : 132,292',
f : 0.024
AP : 0.055 psi
. For 3/a-in. { pipe, d : 0.824 in
L :2ft
K : 2.2O
Y : 4.Zll ft/sec; Nx" : 168'416;
f:0.025
AP = 0.330 pst

Toral frictional pressure drop from station 1 to bottom shell o, : Q' : o.5ool L = roft
Qr
.nil is
K:z = 0.015
!s\
Q3 : 14 gpm
llP = 0.195 psi + 0.001 psi
i-!-Z
+ 0.052 psi +
\-!-
0.001 psi
--/- v : 1.339 ft/sec; N3" : 134,2'16: f: 0.021
\--

3 :
AP 0.014 psi
station 1 station 2 station station 4

+ 0.014 psi + (0.004 + 0.016 + 0.055 Friction pressure drop from station 2 to coil entrance:
+ 0.330) psi
station 5 station 6

I-t" : O.OOS psi : Total Drop for Shetl Coil on South

Side

Shell coils-Nonh side (Figure 1-18)

-
Sration 1-

3
n.
+ 21spm o" : lll
r)^
= 1.0: K,, = 1.28
For 2-in. x 1-in. reducer, K : 2.538
;'il] I
1-in. x :/q-in. reducer, K = 0.048
3/4-in. plug valve, K : 0.450
I Exit into coil, K : 1.0
r 14 gpm For l-in. 90" LR ell, K = 0.690
2 For l-in. { pipe, d : 1.049 in.

d
 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Q : : 4fr,
7 gPm, L EXAIIPLE l-3: FRIGTION PBESSURE DROP
:
K 0.738 FOR A WASTE HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEM
V = 2.599f1/sec; f : 0.024
Ns.:132'292
A gas turbine manufacturer specifies that the maxi-
AP : 0.079 mum back pressure on the unit used in this system be 10
in. of water pressure, therefore, the waste heat recovery
system should be designed so that the frictional pressure
For 2-i'].0 pipe:Q:7gpm,L: llft drop does not exceed 10 in. of water. The system is
K:2.538
V : 0.669 tusec shown in Figure l-20.
Nn":67'138.184
f : 0.023 Z Turbine exhaust dntq for outside air ot 6l)'F
Ap : 0.0t1psi
Temp. ofexhaust gas : 795"F; V= 131 fusec
For3A-in. opipe:d : 0.8241 L: 2 ft: K = 1.450
V: th .n
4.211 tusec tt : 0.0759 .':. \0.4132) lb/n-hr
It-hr --l= = 0.03 t cp
Nn":168'416
f : 0.025
Ap : 0.245 psi L: l2O ft; : (commercial steel)
O.OOOO+Z
D
Total frictional pressure drop from station 1 to bottom shell
coil is e= 0.00015
sr
l-r AP 0.030 psi + 0.014
= \-!-\-.-/ psi
a = 0.0759 lb {--!t
: VDP, '|
N""
station 1 station 2 t' ft-hr \3,600 sec/

+ (0.011 + 0.079 + 0.245)psi : 2.108 x 10-5 -lb

ft-sec

I | ftin./I {0.031) !ftJ

station 3
fl 1t.0) a(4t.25)i".
sr : sec
L AP = 0.3'19 psi Toml Drop for Shell Coil on North Nn: \12
Side (2.108 x 10 5)
-.!!-
rr-sec
Maximum friction pressure drop in supply system is in-
curred at bottom head coil line with AP : 1.002 psi. = 662,224

B{SS STAC i(

42'6 670 9a

4zV srD

Figure 1-20. Waste heat recovery system.

 Piping Fluid Mechanics

From Equation l-6a, For 42-in. d portion,

, : log,o I n o!goo38j : :
10.00001I + :-:
-:* -2 K.*r 0.770 + 3.161 + 0.340 4.271
ri t rttot / From equation l-4,

f:0.0130
op = ILL*
\d -
rr)ey
I2e,
D= 41.25 in. = 3.438 ft

fL (0.0130)(120) (r 3r .oo,12
il
.. _ , "-,1
to.oiU rt"
-19,
sec'
D 3.438 ^,r..4 ur = [(0.0130)(I20)
t- 1- +,zt1l
L (3.44) I
2\32.2)
fr
". (144)
fr2

From Equation 1-8, sec' ln.'

--:-
t : K1/Np. + K- (l + '/d) AP : 0.271 psi
ior straight pipe, 42-in. { section
For l0 ft x 4 ft x 42-Lrr. { transition piece,
.. fL (0.0130)(120 - 30)
d 3.438 D:68.571 in.: L = 4.0ft: K:0.615
th
(0.031r: (47.458), j ,
ii-\'alues ff2

It- sec'
\:lr nKr K- nK-
o, - [<o.ot:ot<+.ot
| 5.714
* o u,rl
es and Fittings Kr I :fr
2132.2)
fr2

tsrtterfly valve I 800 800 0.25 0.25 sec'1144) =

ln.'
R.un-thru tee r 150 150 0.50 0.50
950 0.75 AP = 0.005 psi

( _
qso
-" | (0.75) /ll I _lr\ = 0.770 in
'::::::L
H,O ar 62.F
662.224 \ 4t.251 AP = 0.005 osi t27.912t
' t psi
: 0.140 in. H2O
AP thru heating coils : 2 in. H:O
Itirer K-values
Total AP = 7.564 tn. + 0.140 in. + 2.000 in.
i.De entrance at turbine nozzle l .000 OI
rl-in.dx30-in.d 0.161
.lrste heat recovery unit entry duct 1.000 AP : 9.704 in. HrO < l0 in. allowed
l-rck exit 1.000
3. 161

:rr a rectangular duct,

i.=ab/2(a+b) EXAMPLE I-4 PRESSURE DROP IN RELIEF

:-'r round pipe, VALVE PIPING SYSTEM

i. = Di4 Relief valve piping systems are designed to have mini-

mum pressure drop. In this application the plant rules
_ 2(10)ft (4)fr _ < ",, r, stipulate that the pressure drop will not exceed 3 % of the
a+b l0ft+4ft valve set pressure. The system is to have two valves,
shown in Figure 1-21.
The relieving fluid is Freon 114 and the flow rate is W
:243,755lblhr. First we compute the velocity heads, or
68.571 in. : Equivalent circular diameter K-values.
 Mechanical Desisn of Process Svstems

The total pressure drop for 6-in. and 4-in. lines : Pr

Pr : 3.869 psi + 5.935 psi : 9.804 psi

Set pressure : 205 psi
%^P:#:4.8vo>3vo
Consider moving 6-in. x 4-in. swages above gate valves
and making 90" LR and gate valve 6-in., as shown in Figure
1-22. Recomputing the K-values we have

6-in. 90' LR ell, K : 30 fi : 30(0.015) : 0.4s0

6-in. gatevalve, K : 8ft : 8(0.015) : 0.120
Entrance, K : 0.780
Tee, K : 0.900
6-in. 90' LR ell, K : 0.450
6-in. gate valve, K = 0.120
+ 6-in. x 4-in. swage, K : 0.019
Figure 1-21. Relief valve piping system.
D*: z.zas

For 6-in. @ line from entrance through swage, Lo : 10 ft

AP = 4.869 psi: Ns. : l4,g3l,g2g
V : 37.N2 ft/sec; f = 0.01741
6-in. tee
Vo AP :4869 : 0.024 = 2.470 <37o
205
K: 60 ft = 60(0.015) : 0.900
6-in. x 4-in. swage nipple = 0 : 60'
The pressure drop in the system in Figure 1-22 does
6:d,:4.@6=o.ao+
' d2 6.065 not exceed 37o \p to the relief valve as the plant rules
require, thus, Figve l-22 is the final configuration.
From Figure 1-7, Latet in example 2-5, we will examine the structural in-
tegrity of the system.
0.5(l - 0.,141)(sin 30')05
K: = 1.019
0.194

4-in. d 90' LR elbow,

k: 30 ft : 30(0.015) : 0.450

4-in. gate valve,

B : I : 1.0 +r( = 8ft : 8(o.ol5) : o.l2o

Entrance, K: 0.78

6-in. d line from entrance thru swage, Lo : 5 ft

\-r
LtK : 0.'78 + 0.90 + 1.019 : 2.699
AP : 3.869 psi; Np" : 14,931,929
V : 37.002 tusec; f : 0.01741
4-in. line from swage to relief valve, L4 : 5 ft

Dr = o.oso+o.l2o = 0.570
AP = 5.935 psi; NRe =22.494.325
V :83.973 ftlsec: = 0.01913f Flgure 1-22. Relief valve piping system.
 The Engineering Mechanics of Piping 45

NOTATION Greek Symbols

al : sonic velocity of sound waves in compressible d: angle, degrees

medium, ft/sec 6: ratio of smaller diameter of pipe fitting to larger
a. : rheological variable, dimensionless diameter
AR : =
ratio of branch area to header area, dimensionless "y generalized viscosity coefficient lb'/(ft)Gec)
b. : rheological variable, dimensionless
e : absolute roughness or effective height of pipe wall
irregularities, ft
c: experimentally determined flow constant where
p=
:
c plE" for a Newtonian fluid y=
absolute (dynamic) viscosity, centipoise
kinematic viscosity, centistokes
d= inside diameter (lD) of pipe. in.
:
D: inside diameter (ID) of pipe, ft cr angle, degrees
f: friction factor, dimensionless
F: head loss, friction ioss or frictional pressure
droo. ft(.br) .
cm(kgr)
'. lb. g. REFERENCES
g: gravitational acceleration constant, 32.2 ftlseczl
cm/sec- 1. Simpson, L. L. and Weirick, M. L., "Designing
g" : English system conversion factor, 32.17 Plant Piping," Chem. Eng., April 3, 1978.
2. Metzer, A. B. and Reed, N. C. A.l.Ch.E. Jownal,
lbt vol. 1, no.434, A.S.M.E., New York, 1955.
Ha: energy added by mechanical devices, e.g. 3. Rase, H. F., Piping Design for Process Plazts, John
pumps, ft(lb)/Ib.", cm(kg)/g. Wiiey, New York, 1963.
He: energy extracted by mechanical devices, e.g. 4. Govier, G. W. and Aziz, K., The Flow of Complex
turbines, f(lbr)nb*, cm(kg)/g. Mixtures in Pipes, Robert E. Krieger Publishing Co.,
k = specific heat ratio (adiabatic coefficient), Co/C, Huntington, New York, 1977.
K : velocity head, (ft)(lb)/lb* 5. Crane Co., Technical Paper No. 410 Flow of Fluids,
K- : velocity head for a large fitting at Np" = o Crane Co., New York. 1981.
L = length of pipe or piping component, in. 6. SMACNA, HVAC Duct System Design, SMACNA,
n' = rheological variable, dimensionless Vienna, Virginia 1981.
Nr" : Reynolds number, dimensionless 7. Hooper, B., "The Two-K Method Predicts Head
P: pressure, l!lt9, kgrlcrfi Losses in Pipe Fittings," Chem. Eng., Ang. 24,
Rn : hydraulic radius, ft, in' 1981.
u= average bulk velocity, ftlsec 8. Sabersky, R. H. and Acosta, A. J. Fluid Flow-A
v: velocity, lblt(, kgrlcrfi First Course in Fluid. Mechanics, The MacMillan
Y: height above datum, ft, cm Company, New York, 1964.
 The Engineering Mechanics of Piping
Static and dynamic analyses require clear and precise
c.efinition of terms-their misuse can often lead to mis-
:-;nderstandings, a problem the engineer greatly appreci-
The application of engineering mechanics to piping
"tes.
:s mainly referred to in industry as "pipe stress analy-
-.rs." However, the term is not comprehensive enough
recause engineers are usually more concerned about
:orces and moments exerted on equipment than stress.
Cerrainly, stress is a concern and is discussed along with
rtier phenomena in the chapter.
-{nother popular term used in industry is "piping flex-
-:ility analysis." The word flexibility can pose a prob-
-em because in the stiffness method of analysis it is actu-
-:lh the structural stiffness of pipe supports, rather than
:ieribility, that is important. For this reason the term
-'piping
flexibility analysis" is avoided.
-\ piping component is any constituent part of a piping
.-, stem, of any finite length of pipe-a valve, flange, el-
:\.\\\'. pump, or anything else within the piping system.
llping is supported for various reasons-an obvious one
-rng to counteract the force of gravity-and to begin to
-:rderstand the applications we must start with some ba-
a.: concepts.
Consider a piping component as shown in Figure 2-1.
i{:re we have a three-dimensional axis system with the
: rmponent-a short length of straight pipe-subjected to
: rrces and moments about each axis. The forces and mo-
:.nts are considered as vector quantities and often ex-
::essed in terms of resultant vectors. For convenience
:: u'ill express resultant vectors in terms of a resultant
' :.ror operator defined as follows:
; \.\.2) : ,tll*-Z (2-1)
-je resultant force and moments change in magnitude
-J direction along the length of the piping system.
47
These forces and moments are controlled by structural
supports attached to the piping using pipe supporrs ro
control forces and moments in the pipe and attaching
components bring up two fundamental concepts-stiff-
ness and f lexibility-which are discussed later in this
chaDter.
PIPING CRITERIA
In analyzing piping mechanics, the following parame-
ters must be considered:
1. The appropriate code that applies to the system.
2. The design pressure and temperature.
3. The type of material.
4. The pipe size and wall thickness of each pipe com-
ponent.
5. The piping geometry including movements of an-
chors and restraints.
6. The allowable stresses for the desisn conditions set
by the appropriate code.
7. Limitations of forces and moments on equipment
nozzles set by API, NEMA, or the equipment man-
ulacturers.
8. Metallurgical considerations, such as protecting
material from critical temperatures, like carbon
steel below its transition temperature.
For any piping system, these criteria must be consid-
ered and satisfied. While it is sufficient to analyze a
pip-
ing system, it is not always necessary. For example, a
system having only two terminal points and pipe of uni
form size does not require a formal analysis if the fol-
lowing approximate criterion is satisfied:
 Mechanical Design of Process Systems
Figure 2-1. An element in a pipe wall is subjected to four
SIrESSES.
(2-2)
o?w""
where D, = outside diameter (OD) of piPe. in' (mm)
-y = resultant of total displacement strains to be
absorbed by the piping system. in (mm)
L= developed length of line axis between
anchors, ft (m)
U: anchor distance (length of straight line joining
anchors), ft (m)
C: 0.03 for U.S. units
: 208.3 for SI units, in Parentheses
Usually. however. the piping sysrem has either more
rhan two terminal points or not all of the previous cnterla
are met, and a formal analysis is required'
After the first five criteria are considered the next and
foremost factor to consider is Step 6-the allowable
stress of the pipe. To determine this, one must reter to
the appropriaie code that governs the piping system-' The
following are codes applicable to industrial piplng ln the
United States:
ASME 83l. I Piping-governs piping
-Power
in the Power industries (e'g''
high-Pressure steam lines)
ASME B31.3-Ct emical Plant and Petroleum
RefinerY PiPing-governs PiP-
ing sYstems used in the chemical
and Petroleum industrY
ASME B31.4-Zt qiid Petroleum Transportation
PiPing SYstems
ASME 831.5-RdiEeration Plnins . ^.
ASME 83l .8-C,as Transmission and ulstrlou-
tion PiPing SYstems
ASME Section |II-Nuclear PiPing'
Most foreign codes are similar to the ASME (Ameri-
can Society of Mechanical Engineers) codes' particu-
larlv as fai as the theoretical basis is concerned' lne
onlv code that is different from the ASME codes is the
Geiman DIN code, where the basis of yield is different'
The code basis and theories of yield are discussed later'
Reeardless of what ASME codes are used, the user is
cauti6ned that the codes are written by ASME to be
euidelines and not design handbooks. The intent of the
lodes is merely to set minimum rules and procedures for
desrgn. This does not include operation ofplants' Opera-
tionil problems are not intended to be governed by
ASME codes. Such problems as bowing of the pipe and
geysering are considered operational and are not consrd-
ered as design Phenomena.
Pioine codes-are not the only ones with which the de-
sien'eniineer should be familiar. It would be expedient
utia n.t-pru if he or she is familiar with ASME Section
vnl Di;. I and II. Also, the AISC (American Institute of
Steel Construction\ Manual of Steel Construction is
mandatory in the design of structural supports-a re-
quirement that will be obvious later.
'The reader will notice a stark contrast between the
ASME and AISC philosophies of codes' The AISC Man-
ual of Steel Constiuaion is intended to be a design hand-
book and is considered as such. AISC' unlike ASME'
covers all industries of steel construction, from the
buildine of tall office buildings to major chemical plants '
Unlike ASME, the AISC codes give a commenta'ry on
what bases are used in formulating the code and why
these bases were used' It cannot be emphasized too
much
and civil
that engineering mechanics crosses mechanical
aisiiplines known in the United States A
ensindrine as
kniwleaee"of some of both is necessary to understand
the overill perspective of piping mechanics'
ln satisfuing Step 6 in the list of criteria, once the ap-
propriate iodi is selected. the system must be analyzed
io ditermine if any portion of the system exceeds the al-
lowable stress given by the code' The allowable stress
br the cide is' in the ASME and most foreign
"i;;;
EoA... Uu."a on ttte maximu-m shear stress theory
of fail-
itrit tft"ory is based orfthe fact that a material yields
"i".
when the maxihum sheir stress equals the yield stress'
data
This theory is in good agreement with experimental
rnO"i .,"ufv stati and iatigue stress conditions and for
this reason has been adoPted'
--iince
tnowledge of thi different theories of yield is
noi dir""tly pertiient to industrial applications of
pip-ing
Ill for
r."ft-i.., the reader is referred to Fairesstresses further
It to note what are re-
discussion. is pertinent
cuired bv the codes in analyzing piping systems'
' An element of pipe wall subjected to four stresses ls
pressure
shown in Figure 2:i. The pipe is under internal
and the four stresses are as follows:
:
oL longitudinal stress
: circumferential or hooP stress
oc
 The Engineedng Mechanics of Piping 49

rR : radial stress Direct shear stress is negligible and is not considered

Jr : shear or torsional stress when caused by the piping temperature, because local
The longitudinal stress is the sum of the following yielding or "creep" reduces the stress at piping compo-
dlree components: nents. Local strain hardening restricts the local yielding
l. Bending stress induced by thermal expansion. and prevents the material from rupturing. This phenom-
For straight pipe: enon of locai yielding reducing stress is termed "self-
springing," and has the same or similar effect as cold or
M
: ,7 hot springing. The operating stress ("operating" is used
oB Q-3)
LM because it can be either hot or cold) diminishes with
time. This change in stress is compensated for by the al-
For curved pipe: lowable stress range, which is the sum of the operating
and down condition stresses and remains practically con-
oe: _M.| (2-4)
stant for one cycle. This sum is obtained as follows:
LM
ot : f 0.25 o" i O.25 oe) (2-11)
2. Bending stress induced by the weight of the pipe.
(This stress should not be a consideration ifthe pip- f : stress range reduction factor for cyclic condition
ing is properly supported and will not be consid-
Total no. of full temp.
ered in this analysis.)
cycles over expected life
,1. Longitudinal stress induced by internal pressure.
< 7,000
< 14,000
"' = Pi (2-s) <
<
22,000
45,000
< 100,000
3ecause both longitudinal stress caused by internal pres-
.-re and bending stress act in the same direction, Expansion stress, caused by thermal expansion, must
not exceed the allowable stress range, oo, and is defined:
:- = oBL + oP (2-6)
oe=[@s)2+4(o)2] (2-tz)
lle circumferential or hoop stress is caused primarily by
::ernal pressure. Thus.
The piping codes further state that the sum of the lon-
gitudinal stresses caused by pressure, weight, and other
sustained loadings shall not exceed op. This also in-
,- = P(D - 2Py) (2-'7) cludes the longitudinal stress caused by internal pres-
2tE
sure, op, defined above.
i ,: thin-walled cylinders op is negligible. However, for When torsional stress becomes significant, as in many
--::k-walled pipe, the following relationship may be multiplane systems, the resultant fiber stress, or com-
bined stress, is determined by the following:
--'d for determining the radial stress:
__
-il --l- _- Gt:'5r
r,2P, rozPo rozri2(Pi - t = * *
- Po)
(2-6) llor+ op [4(o1), (o1 - op)r]05] (2-13 )

ic shere external pressure, P6 - 0, we have

PBIMARY AND SECONDARY STRESSES
,_ rilP; _ rotr,.P,
(2-9)
h: - ri2 (ro, - ar,)r These two concepts are very important in analyzing
piping mechanics problems. A more detailed discussion
l::.ional or shear stress is of the various types of primary stresses is given in Chap-
ter 4. The reader is encouraged to review Chapter 4 for
-T (2-10) an understanding of pressure vessels, as well as this
lZm chapter for help in solving piping mechanics problems.
Secondary stresses are called self-limiting or self-
| ::ie torsion is generated in a multiplane system. equilibrating because as they increase in magnitude, lo-
50 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

cal yielding causes local deformation which in turn re-

duces the stresses. Self-springing is an example of this
ohenomenon.
-
Primary stresses are not selflimiting because as they
increase, local yielding does not reduce them. One ex-
ample of primary stress is internal pressure. Under suffi-
cient pressure a pipe will undergo local yielding and de-
form, but the stress will not diminish and the pipe wall
deformations will be excessive and unacceptable. For
this reason, it is necessary to assign lower allowable
stress limits to primary stresses than to secondary
e ---:>
stresses. This fact is extremely important, as prlmary
and secondary stresses are evaluated differently' and Figure 2-2. Stress-strain curve.
have different allowable limits. It must be remembered
that piping and vessel codes give allowable stresses only
for primary sresses. Secondary stresses must be as-
signed allowable limits as shown in the following discus-
sion.

ALLOWABLE STFESS RANGE FOR

SECOI{DARY STRESSES
The most important secondary stresses are those in-
duced by thermal expansion (or contraction) and surface
discontinuities, the latter being more relevant to vessels.
The most widely used approach in designing equipment'
vessels, and piping is to keep the induced stresses in the
elastic range. In the case of ductile materials, the elastic
range is well defined by the minimum yield point. Duc-
tilehaterials are often used in piping systems subjected
to loads that induce secondary stresses. Materials that do
not have a well defined minimum yield point are de-
signed on the basis of their ultimate yield strength, which
is the maximum tensile load divided by the original
cross-sectional area of the specimen. The minimum yield
point is the tensile load required to develop permanent
deformation in the material. Materials that do not have a
well defined minimum yield point are generally not used
temperatures and
'Thus, subjected to extreme
in piping systems
presiures. this discussion applies to those materi-
als with minimum yield Points.
Consider the stress-strain curve shown in Figure 2-2'
Here the metal specimen is loaded to point A and then
unloaded. Because point A is the minimum yield point'
no deformation occurs because the material is still in the
elastic range. Now, consider Figure 2-3 where the mate-
rial is loaded beyond point A' Because the minimum
yield point is exceeded, plastic deformation sets in that
permanently deforms the material to point B. When the
specimen is unloaded, er is the amount of permanent de-
formation, denoted by point C. Point B' is the theoreti-
cal stress point if the material had not deformed to point
B. Figure 2-4 shows a case where a specimen is loaded Figure 2-4. Stress-shan curve.

inro the plastic region. For complete plastic deformation
to occur, the entire area ofthe pipe wall must exceed the
minimum yield point. This would not be acceptable in
practice because of permanent deformation and the pos-
sibility of rupture.
There are acceptable cases where the loads will fail be-
tween Figure 2-2 and Figve 2-3. This condition is
shown on Figtre 2-4, where part of the pipe wall is in
the elastic range and the other part is on the plastic re-
gion. For cases where the portion in the plastic range is
small compared with the portion in the elastic range, the
amount of permanent plastic deformation is impercepti-
ble. For this reason, the distance between points A and B
m Figure 2-4 is small compared to Figure 2-3 because
the portion of material in the elastic range limits the
amount of permanent deformation . Thus , when the spec-
Frgure 2-5. Stress-strain curve.
The Engineering Mechanics of Piping 51
imen is unloaded, residual stresses are developed that
cause reverse yielding when the material exceeds the
compressive yield point. This is shown graphically in
Figure 2-5. The specimen is loaded to point A and an ex-
cessive load deforms it to point B. At point B, part of the
material is in the plastic range and the other portion is in
the elastic range. When the specimen is unloaded, the
stresses in the material go into compression shown at
point C. Residual stresses caused by the combination of
material in the elastic and plastic regions make part of
the material exceed the compressive yield point and the
specimen deforms from point C to point D. Upon appli-
cation of the same initial tensile load, the material is
loaded to point E. Point E is larger in value and, thus, to
the right of point A, because the initial loading of part of
the specimen into the plastic range causes strain harden-
B
I
tl
ll
,l
,l
STBAIN =>
52 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

ing and, thus, increases the minimum yield point of the This analysis indicates that the allowable stress should
material. As excessive loads are applied, the minimum be based on the yield point rather than ultimate strength.
yield point E is exceeded and the material deforms to The material's ability to revert into compression and
point F. As the material is unloaded again the initial pro- limit itself to the amount of permanent plastic deforma-
cess repeats itself and the stresses in the material move to tion is termed "shake down." The material "shaking
point G and then to point H as the compressive yield down" limits the amount of deformation and, thus, has
point is exceeded. an elastic response.
Point Q represents the stress in the loaded condition af- From this discussion, we see tlat there is a range of
ter several loading cycles, and point P represents the allowable stresses available. Direct membrane stresses
stress in the unloaded condition. It is possible that no sig- are limited by oy, bending stress is limited by l.5oy, and
nificant plastic deformation will occur after many load a limited, one-time permanent deformation from A to B
cycles. However, should stress values of Q and P exceed occurring from secondary stresses is limited by 2oy.
the fatigue limit of the material, small cracks will propa- Table 2-l gives recommended values for design allow-
gate throughout the strain-hardened material. After the able stresses. As shown in ASME Section VIII, Division
small cracks appear, further cyclic loading will result in I, paragraph UA-5e, different stress levels for different
brittle fracture failure. The stress magnitude P results stress categories are acceptable.
from the specimen being unloaded when the load condi-
tion, point Q, is reached. Thus, since Q is the tensile
stress opposite to the compressive stress P in the paral- FLEXIBILITY AND STIFFNESS OF PIPING
lelogram OB'QR the sides OB' and QP are equal in SYSTEMS
iength. Therefore, Q : 0.5 B'. Fracture by strain hard-
ening will not occur if the theoretical tensile stress B' There are two basic approaches to piping mechanics-
does not exceed twice the minimum yield stress of point
flexibility and stiffness. The former approach is more
A, and the magnitude of Q does not exceed the ultimate common and easier to understand. Piping mechanics
yield strength of point A. (more popularly known as "pipe stress") is often re-
When a ductile material, that is a material with a de- ferred to as "flexibility analysis," but it will become ob-
fined minirnum yield point, is subjected to repeated load- vious in the following discussion that such a term is not
ing, a certain behavior occurs. When a component, such complete.
as a nozzle on a header pipe, is repeatedly loaded and In the flexibility approach, the piping configuration is
unloaded, the strain hardening makes the material made more flexible by using loops that allow the pipe to
stronger from load cycle to load cycle. As the material
becomes harder, it is better able to resist yield. However,
the maximum point at which this repeated loading cycle
Table 2-1
can occur is 2oyp. The stress o : 2ovp is the limit ofthe Allowable Stresses'
maximum stress range. This process is called elastic
shakedown. that is. the material "shakes down" to an Pressure Component Design Conditions
elastic response, and undergoes deformations or strains
l. Internal pressure . ....... oA
2. Internal Dressure
induced by loads beyond the minimum yield point of the plus therinal loading . ... . 1.25 (oa * op)
material. 3. Temporary mechanical
It must be noted that at elevated temperatures the value overload . ..... l.33oa < oy
of 2oyp can be altered by hydrogen embrittlement. Car- 4. Hydrotest . . ... oo X hydrotest factor
bon steel exposed to hydrogen at elevated temperatures Non-pressure Components Design Conditions
1. Pipe supports and
can fail during elastic shakedown because the hydrogen connections other
combines with the carbon causing embrittlement. than bolts .. ... 1.330a
The relationship between the maximum stress range 2. Bolting ....... Per AISC Manual of Steel
and the initial yield point can be expressed as Construction considerable
savinss in material can be
incuried if high strength
bols are utilized, such as
o1,s 3 Zoyp (2-1,4) SA-193-87. Followins
AISC guidelines in n6n
where MR : maximum local stress range not producing pressure components will
fatigue failure, psi result in prudent
YP : initial yield point of the matedal at the economical desisn.
operatrng temperature, psl ' Courtes) of American Socier) o[ Mechanica] Engineers

displace itself, resulting in lower stresses, forces, and
moments in the system. This method is often the most
desirable when relatively inexpensive piping material is
used (pipe elbows can be very expensive in alloy piping)
and space is available for the loop(s).
However, the stiffness method becomes quite impor-
tant when the flexibility method is neither practicai nor
economical. When limited space reduces piping flexibil-
ity or makes it irnpossible or undesirable to use flexibil-
ity loops, restraining the piping using the stiffness of
pipe supports becomes the alternative. This approach is
gaining popularity with the increased use of modular de-
signs of petrochemical plants, offshore platforms, and
other industrial facilities.
The following is a summary of the advantages of both
methods:
St iffne s s Me thod Ady anta g es
l. Requires less pipe fittings and is thus more eco-
nomical than flexibility method, because pipe re-
straints required are far less expensive than the
number of fittings they replace. In alloy piping
these savings are enormous.
2. Requires far less space for piping, such as in modu-
Iar skid-mounted plants, offshore platforms, and
ships.
3. Method is safer because in case ofa failure, such as
a leak in a weld crack, the pipe restraints can (and
have) kept systems from blowing apart.
4. Piping and system is more resistant to dynamic
loads, such as vibration and seismic shock loads.
Flexibility Method Advantages
1. Utilizes simpler pipe supports, and requires less
piping engineering skill.
2. Is more desirable in noncritical systems, e.g. ex-
haust and flare lines.
3. Many solutions do not require a computer. The
problems can be solved manually.
To better understand these two methods of piping me-
-'hanics, it is necessary to examine some basics of struc-
::rral analysis.
Stiffness is the amount of force or moment reouired to
:ioduce unit displacement. either translational or angu-
-.lr movement. The simplest concept of stiffness is to
::nagine using X pounds to compress a spring one inch.
Thus, the spring stiffness is in terms of pounds per inch.
This simple example illustrates translational stiffness.
Rotational stiffness can be thought of in a similar manner
as a spring that resists rotational movement, foot-pounds
rer unit degree of movement.
The Engineering Mechanics of Piping 53
A piping element has six degrees of freedom, three in
translation and three in rotation, as shown in Figure 2-6.
The amount of force or moment required to produce unit
displacement in each degree of freedom at points all
along the piping element is described mathematically as
the stiffness matrix. K. which is defined as
P:KU
where we have an elastic element subjected to a set of n
forces and moments
(2-ts)
the corresponding displacement of each P1 is described
by the matrix
(2-r6)
Therefore, the stiffness matrix can be expressed as
p
(2-17)
U
which can be in pounds per inch or foot pounds per de-
gree. The relationship
II
(2-18)
P
is defined as the compliance or flexibility matrix and can
be in inches per pounds or degrees per foot-pounds.
Thus, the stiffness K ofa system is the inverse of the sys-
tem compliance or flexibility, C, that is, the piping sys-
tem becomes more flexible, or less stiff than its initial
configuration .
The system stiffness matrix, K, is made up of elements
that are either direct stiffness or indirect stiffness compo-
nents. The direct stiffness component K;; is the value of
stiffness at the point i when the displacement U1 is pro-
duced by a force or moment P acting in the direction of
U1. The indirect stiffness Kij is the value of stiffness at
the point j, with the displacement Uj acting in the direc-
tion ofj, due to a force or moment at another point i in
the direction of i. The indirect stiffness can also be
thought of as relative stiffness-those stiffness values in-
duced by forces and moments in the system other than
the point in consideration. It is the combined grouping of
the complete direct and indirect stiffness values that
form what is called the "stiffness matrix." Each direct
and indirect stiffness is considered in the matrix when all
other matrix components are zero. Such as the system
described in the followins:
 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

translational stiffness for a beam element fixed on one

end and pinned at the other end is
P: tmi HniHtrHl iil]
*11-u:J
Q-1e)
--
n't :
3EI

lH ft: e ft [: t_3

For the 4-in. PiPe,

3(29 x 106) ${r.zr) in.o
K4 : ------GD3 ini
: S,Oal.OO P
where the values K11, Kzz, Fv:z, K44, K55, and K66 are m.
known as direct stiffness values and all the other compo-
n"rrt. u." known as indirect stiffness values' Each value For the 10-in. PiPe,
of U represents a unit displacement. The components ol
(a'tial
the stifiness matrix are ditermined by the nature 3(29 x lo) |rtoo.s) ln."
force, bending moment, shear force) of the force or mo-
ment inducin! unit displacement U at or arvay froT the Kro = = r26,497.40Y
point in que.iion. To eifectively see how these stiffness
- (48)' in ' 1n.

io-pon"nt, ur. utilized in practical applications'.we will The force required to move the 4-in. pipe
l/+ in' is
consider each type of force or moment rnduclng ols-
olacements, thai is, each component of the P matrix cor- : lh
iesponding to each value of the U matrix' Table 2-2 lists
F (5.687.66t .11 (0.25) in. = 1.421.92 lb

in"'airect'uatues of stiffness induced by direct and indi-

rect loadings shown in Figure 2-6. For analytic deriva- To generate the same amount of force in a 10-in' pipe the
tions, the rlader is referred to Przemieniecki [2]' same length would have to move
To illustrate how these concepts apply to piping me-
chanics, let us consider both a 4-in. schedule 40 pipe and |,421.92 lb : 0.011 in.
we
a 10-in. schedule 40 pipe shown in Figure 2-'7 He,re
are considering two pipe spool pieces subjected to.
that
a zo,qsl.+o !ln.
force F shown. Referring to Table 2-2' we see me

Figure 2-6. Pipe element.

 The Engineering Mechanics of Piping

Table 2-2
Stittness Properties ot Piping Elements

*"t
t"
-(*--u
rl'>'*- ->x
f A\l
l,k
r\ \.t

AF
Ktt=Kr:? Kr::Kzs:0 Kla:K2a:0

r,,:r,,:4EL _- =
or, tzEl ,. l2Er
il-+ e)L3 ^44:(l+o)L:
,, : -lzBl ,. : - tzEr
K:r:IQr:K5r=Iqr=0 ^or 11 1oy rr ^" rJi) IJ-
(

Kzz=Kqz:6tr=lQr=0 : rqi = Ky : Koq : 6EI

K53 .-=-
{1 + O)tr 1+o)Ll
,=---.---=

K.. f.r
/P t"t
--(.4-=-Y/^-
-""/ l--------9)'
\-1._________J /, .lffil

,/
TT
^.-_____________
Tu o-------4
"(\YI
f-l T/ t<----_T+

&::ree:d#r, r\55 : 466

(4 + O)EI
: .-);-- Kes = Kso =
(2 - a)EI
L(r r:-=:
9, L(l + O)
Note: In all cases

Krs=K:r=illo)U
-6FI - lzBr
GALI

and

--
K = cJ lorsronal sunness
-:L
56 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

g
,r,
FOR ONE END PINNED AND THE OTHER FIXED 10Q SCHEDULE 40
K1o )) K4
K,, = -3!.L- \
' l1+olL'

a"q scHeoure

Figure 2-7. Comparative stiffness.

In other words, if the pipe itself moved because of ther-

mal expansion and theie was a restraint of a given spring
."tttuioing the movement, the 10-in' pipe would
"onrt-t
onlv have to rnonJ0.0l I in. to exert ihe same force as
the'4-in. pipe moving r/+ in' Thus' the l0-in pipe is
the 4-in' pipe, which is a
-ore tltun 2i ti-es stiffer than
.igrifi"-t point because it indicates that the larger the
oiloine. the'less it must move to exert excessive forces
Iria rio."ntt on nozzle connections and pipe supports'
fi". ,fti, example it is obvious that the largeroften
the p^ip-
fail
i*. tt'" *t"ut"t itte stiffness' Piping designersmove very
toiealizJ that larger piping does not have to
-greit
much to generate ioads . This basic fact is important
in ttt" OE ign of-pipe supports, particularly using the
-stiffness apProach.
iarrvine^the analysis further. consider the two piping
shown in Figure 2-8 This situation is
similir to Figue 2-7 in that one end is fixed and the
"oniit,itu,iont
other pinnedi'e., both systems have the same boundary
The segment-B-C is flexible enough to bend
"""Jit'i""..
with enough rotatidnal flexibility to consider tut "ld^::
a pinned j6int. lf the temperature ofthe
piping is -luu'
f, the segment B-C moves

M
a: (-1.75)do,o'ft = -o.o70in'
The force required to move a 4-in schedule 40 pipe
0.070 in. is
th Figure 2-8. Pipe size makes a significant difference in nozzle
Fq: (5.687.66) I tO.OUOr in. = 398.14 lb'
loadins.s.
 The Engineering Mechanics of Piping

The force required to move a l0-in. schedule 40 pipe Aluminum

0.070 in. is exchanger
llange

Fto = oz6,4s7.40r Itn. to.ozol in. : 8,854.82 rb

l ielding a moment of
vro: (8,854.82)(4) : 35,4r9.27tt-lbl2 : l7,7o9.64ft-tb

at the nozzles A and B.

The 4-in. force of 398.14 lb would nroduce a moment of

\'r1 : (3e8.14)
! : na.ze uv
at nozzles A and B.
It is clear that the 10-in. pipe would exert moments
u ell above the allowable moments for most rotating and
stationary equipment. To reduce the loading at the noz-
zle, the engineer is faced with two options-make the
piping configuration more flexible or restrain the piping.
To fabricate the piping configuration to within a toler-
ance of 0.070 in. would be well beyond the practical
range of any fabricating shop. Exchanger
First, we will analyze a case where space is premium
and there is not enough room to make the piping more
flexible. This requires using piping restraints to transfer
loads from the pipe to structural steel or concrete. Con-
sider the piping system in Figure 2-9, where two alumi-
num heat exchangers are piped parallel to one another.
Here we use the fewest 90' elbows needed to give the
svstem enough flexibility to stay within the maximum al-
iowable stress range for the material at the given temper-
ature. Piping restraints are then placed close to the heat
3\changers to transfer loads from the pipe to the steel in-
stead of the nozzle of the exchanger.
Now, we analyze the component that makes the system
$ork-the pipe restraint at the equipment nozzle. The
:estraint's function is to transfer forces and moments ex- Figure 2-9. An MRS support-restraint designed to reduce
erted by the pipe to the structural steel below, simultane- forces and moments on an aluminum olate-fin heat exchanser.
ously allowing the equipment to move freely. This re-
quires a more careful design of the piping restraint, as
.\e are expecting it to do more.
In this example the piping restraints must allow the ex-
Jhangers to move upward as shown in Figure 2-9. A re-
straint that resists moments by transferring the moments simple MRS restraint is the anchor, where the pipe itself
:iom the pipe to the steel is termed a moment restraining or a pipe attachment is welded down to structural steel or
support (MRS). Different types of MRS supports are immersed in concrete. In that case, it is resisting three
shown in Figure 2-10. An MRS can vary from a boiled degrees of freedom in translation and three degrees of
plate connection shown in Figure 2-10A to a sophisti- freedom in rotation. In most applications, the moments
iated type in Figure 2-10C. MRS restraints' sophistica- at nozzle connections can become excessive, and it is of-
:ion is a function of how much rotation is resisted and ten desirable to resist rotation in one. two- or tlree axes
iow much translational movement is allowed. The most while allowins translational movement. Resistine rota-
58 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

tion along three axes is, if not impossible, wholly im-

practical. An MRS allowing two degrees of freedom in
translation and resisting three degrees of rotation is quite
complicated, although practical, very useful, and eco-
nomical when the situation warrants. In designing such
restraints Teflon and other materials with very low fric-
tion coefficients are desirable. Care must be made in as-
suring that such material selected can witlstand the
forces and moments being resisted. If the material used
is not resistant to shear, cold flow will result, leading to
uneven surfaces and an improperly functioning restraint.
In the engineering of MRS restraints, the principles
discussed previously must continuously be applied. No
support or restraint can be expected to be infinitely rigid
along the degrees of freedom that are being restrained.
Placing MRS devices in front of equipment nozzles will
Restrainl - KTX, KTY, not stop all loading exerted by the piping, because all re-
KRX, KRY KRZ
straints have a corresponding stifftress value for each deg
of freedom, either lbs/in. for translation or ft-lbs/deg for
rotation. The engineer must also understand what as-
sumptions are being made by the piping stress program
being applied. Almost all computerized pipe stress pack-
ages consider an anchor as six springs, three resisting
translational forces of 10e lbs/in. and three resistine rota-
tional forces of l0e ft-lbs/deg. There is no infinitel! rigid
anchor in nature, but 10e lbs/in. is sufficient to be called
an anchor in almost all applications.
In modular plant design it is often desirable for the en-
gineer to enter the actual stiffness of any anchor or re-
straint to obtain an accurate model of the piping system
being analyzed on the computer.

STIFFNESS METHOD AI{D LABGE PIPING

Large piping is rnore difficult to restrain than small
piping because of the surface to be restrained. The terms
"large" and "small" are quantified in the following dis-
cussion. The most common complication of restraining
large piping is the phenomenon of shear flow, which oc-
curs longitudinally and circumferentially. As illustrated
in Figure 2-1 I , longitudinal shear flow transfers bending
moments and shear forces to the equipment nozzle.
In modular construction longitudinal shear flow does
not become a problem until one starts using l0-in. pipe
and larger. Shear flow can be resisted to some degree by
making the attachment pipe size or structural member
size close to that of the pipe, but is most often impracti-
-=a'/ cal. What is often desirable is to mount an MRS on oppo-
site ends ofthe pipe, either top and bottom or offto both
C Fesl€inl = KTX, XRX. KRY KFz
sides, depending on what space is available. In piping
Figure 2-10. Various designs of moment restraint supports 30-in. and larger MRS restraints must be attached on
--=4
(MRs)-arrows indicate direction of allowed movement. four sides for the MRS effect to be effective. In pipe di-
 The Engineering Mechanics of Piping

Nozzle flange

_> Hequrres

Restraining pipe with MRS at AandB

required with pipe sizes
-normally
12" d and over
Uniaxial longitudinal shear flow
nozzle tlange

D Requires

Biaxial longitudinal shear flow Restraining pipe with MRS at A, B, C & D

around points A and B required with pipe sizes
-normally
-30 " d and over

Figure 2-11. Longitudinal shear flow-a phenomenon of large pipe.

meters 8-in. and smaller, attaching an MRS on one side
is sufficient for most modular construction.
Circumferential shear flow, on the other hand, is not a
lactor in most installations because torsion is very effec-
lively transferred to the structural steel by the MRS re-
sralnt.
Using piping restraints to transfer loads to structural
iteel or concrete to lower loads at equipment nozzles is
'becoming quite popular
and more widespread because
is more economical in modular skid design. Also, where
erpensive piping materials are used, the stiffness method
can help reduce the number ofelbows used for flexibility
end, thus, reduce the cost of the job because restraints
and supports are far cheaper than piping elbows.
FLEXIBILITY IIETHOD OF PIPING
HECHANICS
equipment, it is often more economical and desirable to
design the piping to be flexible enough to reduce load-
ings on supports and equipment nozzles. For pipe racks,
long headers, etc. this method is the only practical ap-
proach to solving piping mechanics problems. Tools used
in this approach include such well known devices and
techniques as piping loops, cut short and cut 1ong, and
expansion joints.
it
PIPE LOOPS
The most common types of pipe loops used today are
"U" shapes, "2" shapes, and "L" shapes. Curves for
these shapes showing stresses plotted against the loop di-
mensions are shown in Figures 2-12 and the equations
are as follows:

In non-modular skid construction (block-mounted t" :

plants) and areas where there is ample space to place
F1 = A1B -ll- tu, in.o
60 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

rol
t
,I I

8l

,l
Ry

it

tof
I

"I
I

"l
_l
Ry
6

Figure 2-12A. UJoop with equal legs'

 The Engineering Mechanics of Piping

1o

Ry

ro

Ry

'|

to 12 14 16 1A 20 22 24
Ay

Figure 2-128. Uloop with one leg twice the other leg.
 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

to

RY

Figure 2-128 (continued). UJoop with one leg twice the other leg'

10

6
Ry

180 ^ z&

Figure 2-12C. UJoop with one leg three times the other leg'
 The Engineering Mechanics of Piping

6
Ry

"* o,
ooo

Fv

10 t2 tO t"o, 22242a303234

Figwe 2-12C (continued). U-loop with one leg three times the other leg.
 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

to

I
I
7

Rv

tao oo 22o

10

I
a

6
Ry

15 ,o
2O o,
1, 25

Figure 2-12D. Uloop with one leg four times the other leg.
 The Engineering Mechanics of Piping

'to

2oo 300 400 500 500 700 800

Figure 2-12D (continued). UJoop with one leg four times the other leg.

a =
-i1 n=*

Ry

Ab

Figure 2-12E. UJoop: "2" configuration.

Mechanical Desisn of Process Svstems

Ry

10 20 30 40 50 60 m 80 gOAv IOO llo l2O l3O lr|o 15O 160 17O t8O

Ry
4

40o A, so

Figure 2-12E (continued). U-loop: "2" configuration.

 The Engineering Mechanics of Piping

"=E

Figure 2-12F. U-loop: "L" configuration.

 Mechanical Design of Process Systems
Figure 2-12F (continued). U-loop:
Fv: AvB{lb,
oo:
-L A"B P osi. L - fr. D = rn.
, , Thermal movement (in./100 ft)Eo
172.800
SIF = 1.0 (Verified by computer stress analysis)
Loops such as circle bends, double offsets, and other
geometrics involving completed circular geometry
should be avoided because they are impractical, expen-
sive, and unappealing to clients due to their complexity.
If excessive looping is required, the stiffness method
should be used to produce a practical, economical solu-
tion. The use of both the flexibility and stiffness ap-
proaches in areas, where applicable, can yield very at-
tractive and appealing piping designs.
In pipe racks, the "U" shape loop is invariably the
most practical shape to use because of its space effi
ciency. "U" loops are normally spaced together (i.e.,
lines running together on a pipe rack are, where practi-
cal, looped together as shown in Figve2-13). It is desir-
able to guide the pipe on each side of the loop and at ev-
ery other support thereafter as shown in Figure 2-14.
Make sure the first guide is far enough from the loop to
avoid jamming problems. Usually, this distance is twice
"L" configuration.
the bend radius of an elbow of the pipe size being used.
If you cannot put piping guides on the pipe coming down
from the loop, then put them on the inside ofthe loop as
shown in Figure 2-14.
Other configurations, such as "2" and "L" shapes,
are used in the normal routing of piping systems. It must
be remembered that when these shapes are anchored on
opposite ends, the ratio of the shortest leg to the longest
should fall in the range of 1.0 to 10.0 to avoid over-
stressing the pipe. When analyzing the shapes by com-
puter, any ratio can be used, but usually the aforemen-
tioned range is valid for most applications.
PIPE RESTRAINTS AND ANCHORS
Pipe restraints are used to counter forces of gravity,
wind, earthquake, vibration, and other dynamic forces
such as water hammer. The most common type is the
gravity support, which merely restrains the force of
gravity. A piping restraint can act in one or all degrees of
freedom. As discussed previously, there are no restraints
that are infinitely rigid-each has its own spring rate in
each degree of freedom of translation and rotation. Even
an "absolute" restraint has in each desree of freedom a
rranslational stiffness of tOq lbs/in. aidior a rotational
 The Engineering Mechanics of Piping

stiffness of 10e ft-lbs/deg. Such a restraint that restrains a

pipe in all degrees of freedom is termed an anchor.
Piping guides are restraints that counter movement in
one or several directions but allow total freedom of
movement in one or more directions. Total freedom is
defined as a stiffness value of zero. An anchor, by defini-
tion, has some value of stiffness in every degree of free-
Line smallesl in size aod has least
lhermal movement is placed on dom, even though the anchor itself can move. The move-
inside ment occurs while the anchor is still resisting movement
at a certain stiffness in each degree of freedom. Thus,
Lrne tnat has greatesl lhermal
the term "sliding anchor" in place ofa pipe guide is er-
movement and targesl size is placed roneous, because guides have a value of zero stiffness in
on oulsade to allow lor movement
one or more degrees of freedom. An anchor can restrain
movement, although it may move. It is important to be
Figure 2-13. Optimum grouping of UJoops. cognizant of restraint terminology to avoid unnecessary
confusion.
The stiffness of a support is not only a function of the
restraint material, but also a function of the structural
steel or concrete to which it is attached. Even thoush
very stiff in compression. concrete is not infinitely stifi.
As shown in Figure 2-15, the pipe restraint has a stiff-
ness value K,, the concrete a stiffness value of K6, and
)
the soil a value of IG. Because Ka ) Ks, the concrete
can sink or move in the soil if the concrete support is de-
signed correctly or if subsidence occurs. Movements
caused by soil conditions should be the responsibility of
the piping engineer as well as the civil/structural engi-
neer. The latter is responsible for limiting such move-
ments as much as possible, and the piping engineer is re-
sponsible for entering these movements in the stress
computer run or manual calculations.
Figure 2-14. Guides are necessary for controlling movement It was mentioned earlier that for a pipe restraint to be
r: loops. considered absolute in one direction it must restrain one
billion pounds per inch of translation and one billion
pounds per degree of rotation. However, very few pipe
restraints in nature are so rigid (an anchor being a re-
straint in three degrees of translation and three degrees
of rotation). If the actual flexibility of the restraint is
modeled into the pipe stress analysis, more realistic reac-
tions and moments are obtained. In the case of nressure
vessels much work has been done in determining realis-
tic spring constants for nozzles. For application to rotat-
ing equipment, the reader is discouraged from using
these spring constants, especially on equipment made of
brittle material such as cast iron. Also, these spring con-
stants are to be used only for ductile materials. Nozzle
loadings should be based on either manufacturer recom-
mendations or applicable standards. For further details
and discussion of nozzle loadings on rotating equipment
Frgure 2-15. Conceptualization of system stiffness. Each see Chapter 6.
-::rponent of the To treat a restraint with elastic end conditions, only ro-
- system-pipe, pipe supports, concrete, and
.::--has translational and rotational values ofstiffness (matri- tations are considered significant. Deformations induced
-.: ilbout each axis. These values can be modeled into the sys- by radial force and other translations are ignored, be-
'.- as springs, cause their influence is insisnificant.
70 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

The basic relationship for rotational deformation of Angle of Twist

nozzle ends is applying Equation 2-17 as
- : MD"K,
: H, " - tracransl
..

..P M " ler I

=
(2-r7)
Longitudinal

U e
- 180
-l-l [DNkr I
Circumferential :H: , MD"IC. ..
" - {fadl?llSl
where K : KRX or KRY, ft-lb/deg EI
M = moment, ft.lb
e : angle of rotation, deg where C1 : 0'09 for in Plane bending
F : modulus of elasticity of vessel metal at C. : O.2'l for out of Plane bending
ambient temperature, Psl D= diameter of vessel or pipe header' in.
I : moment of inertia of vessel rLozzle, in.a Dg = diameter of branch' in.
Dy = diameter of vessel nozzle, in. E = modulus ofelasticity. lb/in 2

kf : flexibility factor, referred to in piping codes I : moment of inerria of branch. in.a

as "k"
The flexibility factor, kr, is a parameter that has had
several formulations over the years. One widely used
variant was that proposed by the "Oak Ridge ORNL
Phase 3 Report- 1 15-3-1966 ." Since this document was
oublished in 1966, several revisions have been made'
the current ASME Section III Division I code gives de-
tailed discussions on the flexibility factor. If one is de-
siening piping for nuclear systems. then that person
str-oula only consult that code. Outside the nuclear indus-
try the piping engineer rarely knows all the parameters-
that are necessary to compute the flexibility factor of
Section III. Also, the piping engineer in nomuclear
work rarely knows which vendor will supply the piping
components, thereby making many Section III parame-
ters unknown.
Therefore, the more elementary "ORNLI" factors are
Dresented here, because they produce lower values for
[, which, in turn, produce higher, more conservative
values of K. These factors are as follows:
Flexibility Factor
c","o" (|i
Longitudinal = K.:
tD
^. ^
-,,8"8
lr\:
: : \T/
Circumferential K"
KL : longitudinal flexibility factor
K : circumferential flexibility factor
M : apPlied moment, in -lbs
Or : longitudinal angle of twist, radians
O. : circumferential angle of twist, radians
t : wall thickness of vessel or pipe header' in.
tB = wall thickness of branch, in
In-plane bending refers to longitudinal bending in Ihe
pipe header or vessel in the plane formed by the intersec-
iion of the branch and vessel or pipe header centerlines'
Out-of-plane bending refers to circumferential be.nding
in a plane perpendicular to the vessel or pipe header. di-
ameter. These rotational spring rates are necessary wnen
the stiffness of an anchor must be considered in pipe
sfess analySis.
PIPE LUG SUPPORTS
These are about the most common pipe suppo(ts' The
lug can provide a means for spring hangers or simple
clevis-rod hangers. As simple as these supports are' a
failure by one could result in loss of property or lives
Thus, their simplicity should not allow one to take them
for granted thinking that any design will suffice'
Tie following method is based on the Bijlaard analysis
discussed by wichman et al. [3]' Consider a pipe sub-
iected to a load P (lbs), as shown in Figure 2-16 The lug

Rotational Spring Rate

r-onsitudinal = *.: #or*[ry*)

: Figure 2-16. Pipe lug support for a pipe with internal pres-
Circumferential R" stresses must be added'
suie-primary and secondary
 The Engineering Mechanics of Piping

connection is free of moments because the pin connec-

tion at the lug hole allows the pipe to twist in all direc-
tions. The usual oversight in designing a lug support is
not considering the primary and secondary stresses,
which must be added together and compared to the mini-
mum tensile strength of the pipe material. First, we will
discuss the Bijlaard method, which is only concerned
with secondary stresses.
The pipe and 1ug geometries determine the attachment
parametet B, and the shell parameter, k, by

^C^L,RU
' 2Rna 2Ru L

r ff> r,, : [' - ](ui -

')(' -
*,)]

(B,B)os Q-20)

rr
pq
< | .u : [, - i(- -
'ff),, ",]
(Btp)o: (2-21)

where K1 and K2 are determined from Table 2-3. For cir-

cumferential stress, od, the circumferential membrane
and circumferential bending stresses are determined by
.l
f" - (f' ( f.l : circumferenrial membrane stress
r \P/RJ \R.V
=
H (9 - .,,".u'r.,ential bending stress
T Figure 2-17. Membrane force, Na,/P/R-, induced by radial
load P [3].
The membrane force, No/(P/R.), is determined from
Figure 2-17 or Figure 2-18, and the bending moment,
\1"/P, is determined from Figure 2-19 or F\gure 2-2O. Table 2-3
Stress concentration factors must be accounted for in Radial Load P
the surface discontinuity between the rectangular surface
Nd N, Md
rfthe lug and the circular surface ofthe pipe. The mem-
Kr 0.91 1.68 1.76 t.2
lrane stress concentration factor for Dure tension or K, 1.48 r.2 0.88 r.25
:omoression is determined bv

:< t
: r+l/ 6w/ \0.65
I (2-22)
Table 2-4
Recommended Minimum Weld Sizes for Plates
\5
Thickness t ol Thicker Minimum Size, w' ot Fillet
:rd the concentration factor for bendine stress is deter- Plare welded (in.) weld (in.)
Sned by t<Y2 3/ro
tlz1t13/c
=,*(-t'\" (2-23) 3l+<t1lt/z 51rc

\9.4wi lrlz<t<211c 3/z

; here w, the weld size, is given in Thble 2-4 for various

2t/c<t<6 !2
:-ite sizes. These values for w are only recommended 6<t 5/s
 72 Mechanical Design of Process Syslems

100

+ :H (9) :
'"'r"'o''"r
bending stress

The total longitudinal stress is thus found by adding

the two stresses,

,, N" ,,
o"T-^o 6M,
(2-2s)
*
The longitudinal stress and circumferential stress rep-
resent the secondary stresses in the pipe wall. These
stresses must be added to the primary stress which, in the
case of internal pressure in the pipe, is the pressure
stress. The pressure stress is determined by
I
€tE
z l:\ P"GD)
-
'2t
OD: . DSI Q-26)

Thus, the total stress for each secondary stress is as fol-

lows:

oT = q6+ op Q-2',1)

oT:qx+op Q-28)

where o1 < 2oa 1 oy

Often, with large piping, a simple lug will be overly

Figure 2-18. Membrane force, N-6/P/R., induced by radial
load P [3].
and the engineer should use whatever sizes are actually
to be used in practice.
The total circumferential stress, ox, is determined by
using these factors in the following equation:
*: "(9 **,(9 (2-24)
The longitudinal stress, ox, is determined in a similar
way. The membrane force, N*/(P/R.), and the bending
moment, M*/P, are determined from Figure 2 -17 or 2-18
and Figure 2-21 or Figure 2-22, respectively.
These parameters are used to determine the longitudi-
nal membrane and circumferential bendins stresses.
where
\ : (\) (i'l = r-onnituainal membrane stress
r \P/RJ \R.V
stressed because of localized stresses at the lug-pipe con-
nection. When the lug attachment dimension, c, becomes
small to the pipe radius, a clamp is normally put around
the entire pipe with the lug attaching to the top of the
clamp. This reduces localized stresses at the pipe wall by
adding extra metal. This same principle applies to vessel
nozzle reinforcement, which is discussed in Chapter 8.
SPRING SUPPORTS
These supports provide loading to a pipe that has un-
dergone displacement. Simple supports are no longer
useful if the pipe raises off and loads are transfered to
other supports or fragile equipment nozzles. To ensure
support for the pipe while it moves, a moving support is
desired. The most practical device to fill this require-
ment is the spring.
Springs come in two basic categories-variable
springs and constant springs. The former, which is by far
the most common, provides loading to a pipe at a fixed
spring rate, lb/in., but the amount of force to deflect the
spring varies with the amount of deflection. This force
versus spring rate is a linear relationship and is the rea-
son for a "variable" spring. The constant spring is a
74 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Mx
T
.ol

.30 .35 .40 45 .50 Figure 2-21. Bending moment, M"/P, induced by radial
p load P [3].

Mx
-T

Flgwe 2-22. Bending moment, M"/l induced by ra-

dial load P [3].
 The Engineering Mechanics of Piping 75

spring that will provide the same spring rate for any
force great enough to cause initial deflection. Constant
springs are used in critical installations where forces or
deflections induced on the piping system are critical.
These springs are considerably more expensive than the
variable types and are usually avoided by piping engi-
neers when not needed.
Constant springs provide constant supporting force for
the pipe throughout its full range of contraction and ex-
pansion. As shown in Figwe 2-23, this constant support
mechanism consists of a helical coil spring working in
conjunction with a bell crank lever in such a manner that
rhe spring force times its distance to the lever pivot is al-
ways equal to the pipe load times its distance to the lower
pivot. Thus, the constant spring is used where it is not
desirable for piping loads to be transferred to connecting
equipment or other supports.
moves upward. The amount of deflection, A, relates to
the amount of excessive force as
F" : AK' lb (2-29)
where K: spdng constant of spring, lb/in.
A= deflection, in.
It is common practice to calibratethe hanger in such a
manner that when the piping is at its operating (hot or
cold) condition, the supporting force of the spring is
equal to the weight of the pipe. This means that the maxi-
mum variation in supporting force occurs when the pipe
is in the down condition, when primary stresses are non-
existent because of no internal pressure. Therefore, in
the cold position, the suppo ing force of the spring is
F:F"+WP (2-30)

Variable springs are used where a variation in piping

loads can be tolerated. As an example, consider the fol-
where WP = pipe and insulation weight

Iowing example shown in Figtre 2-24. The spring is

above the pipe and is attached to it with a rod and clevis. To reduce the amount of variability, it is desirable to
This arrangement is called a spring hanger. As seen in use the smallest type of variable spring provided that the
Figure 2-24A, the spring supports the weight of the pipe deflections will not exceed those of the spring range.
and insulation. As the pipe heats up and expands it Typical spring sizes and ranges are shown in Table 2-5.

--F _

(A) F=Wt (B)

Cold Position Hot Condition

In thls case, hot = operating condition, cold = down condition
Flgure 2-23. A constant load spring support provides constant Figwe 2-24. The "cold" and "hot" loading positions ofa var-
.rpport loading in critical situations. iable spring hanger.
 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

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It is common practice to utilize the smallest spring size
possible.
In critical and large systems, spring loadings should be
eYaluated by computer analysis. Often, in large systems,
piping movements are not intuitively obvious and errors
can result because the entire system must be evaluated if
a correct analysis is to be obtained. In most systems,
hand calculations are far too cumbersome.
Occasionally, springs are used as moment resisting de-
vices, as shown in Figure 2-25. In such an application,
the spring preloads the pipe in a specific direction. As
the pipe expands or contracts, the spring counters the
rbrce created by the movement and, thus, reduces the
moment at an end connection. Such a system in normal
practice usually works in the operating mode but when
ihe system shuts down the spring overloads the piece of
equipment protected in the operating condition. Thus, if
such a scheme is used, care must be taken to ensure that
Cre protected items are safe in both the operating and
Jown conditions. These schemes can be avoided by use
..'i MRS devices where space does not warrant piping
t-lexibility.
lrcation of spring supports is of critical importance.
\\-hile springs should be placed where they will be most
3fficient, often such locations are undesirable from tle
itructural engineer's viewpoint. The piping engineer
:hould always be cognizant of available structural steel
Lrr concrete and loads to be placed on structures. Most
prings are supported from above at either mid spans or
at elbows. Many times it is desirable to support the pipe
tiom below. When using this type of spring, one must be
.autious of pipe movement, as excessive movement ( >
\ movement at Pl A
Figure 2-25. Utilizing a spring to counter a moment generated by piping is appropriate only when the spring movement, Ms, does
ilot overload the nozzle or overstress the piping system when the latter is in the down condition and there is no movement at A.
This condition is required after the operating condition is met.
The Engineering Mechanics of Piping 77
l/a in.) will cause such a spring to jam, as shown in Fig-
rre 2-26A. To avoid jamming, a guided load column is
used to prevent such a problem (Figure 2-268).
Springs are often used to support equipment to reduce
nozzle loadings, which are discussed in Chapter 6.
EXPA]ISION JOINTS
These devices accommodate movement in piping
caused by temperature changes. Such items range from
special slip joints that only allow movement in the axial
direction to corrugated bellows joints that can be de-
signed to accommodate movement in several directions.
It is the latter type that we will concentrate on, as they
are by far the most numerous and complicated of expan-
sion joints.
Corrugated bellows expansion joints have a bad repu-
tation with some users because of ignorance. Many bel-
lows expansion joints have been incorrecdy specified
and the consequences attributed to the device itself. This
is unfortunate because this device is invaluable when ei-
ther re-routing the line is impossible or cold spring or
other alternatives are not available. The surest way to
avoid problems with bellows expansion joints is to have
the piping (stress) engineer specify the unit and to pro-
cure the unit from a reputable manufacturer.
The bellows expansion joint is like the MRS device
discussed earlier because the more the unit is required to
accomplish the more complex is its configuration. The
simplest corrugated bellows expansion joint is the single
= momenl generated bY
lvla
) t" = moment generated by spring
)L2Nozzle
Direction oI Pt A movement
 Mechanical Design of Process Systems
:
:
Figure 2-26'. (A) Enough piping movement will cock load flange andjam spring. Note: arrows indicate
(B) A guide load column shown here will prevent situation in
1a--;. ttreie arJvarious designs for guide load columns, but for pipe
movement greater than t/+" one should consider a column with rollers or Teflon on top;f the ioad flange.
bellows type shown in Figtxe 2-27 A. This specific joint
is shown with flanges welded on each end, but is avail-
able from manufacturers with pipe spool pieces on each
end to enable the unit to be directly welded into a line.
The piping engineer should try to utilize this type ofjoint
whenever possible because of economy and simplicity of
operation. The single bellows is free to move in all de-
grees of freedom except about the longitudinal cen-
terline. In fact. no bellows expansion joint can accom-
modate torsion and any tendency for the pipe to exert a
high torsional moment could seriously damage thejoint.
External restraints are placed on the joint to restrict
movement in one or more degrees of freedom. Such de-
vices are tie rods or hinges that restrict movement or
pressure thrust. Figve 2-278-E are examples of joints
that are so restricted. Following the same nomenclature
shown in Figure 2-10, we consider each joint in a three-
dimensional axis system. KTX, KTY, and KTZ are the
translational stiffness values lb/in., about the X. Y. and
Z axes, respectively. KRX, KRY, and KRZ are the
rotational stiffness values, ft-lb/deg, about the X, Y, and
Z axes, respectively. For all bellows joints,
KRZ: (1.0 x 10') ft-lb/deg, as previously srared.
ln Figure2-27 A, we have finite values for KTX, KTy,
KTZ, KRX, and KRI the joint is free to translate about
three axes and rotate about two axes. The bellows does
direction ofmovement.
not support its own weight so this joint would not be de-
sirable where each end exceeds the maximum amount of
pipe span shown, as calculated by the following equa-
tion:
L:0.131
E : modulus of elasticity of pipe material, psi
I = moment of inertia of pipe, in.a
P : design pressure (psig)
A : bellows effective area. in.2
K : axial bellows stiffness (KTZ in F\gure 2-21)
The maximum length of unsupported pipe implies that
the unit itself is within this length. Preferably, the joinr is
close to one support or nozzle to avoid excessive deflec-
tron.
Thejoint in Figure 2-278 has values ofKTX and KRy
and KTY : KTZ : 10e lbs/in. and KRX = KRZ = 10e
lbs/deg. This means that the joint is free to translate in
the X-direction and free to rotate in the y-direction and is
rigid in all other directions. This type ofjoint is called a
"hinged" joint and is self-supporting in the y-direction
shown in Figure 2-27 . Placing high vertical loads on a
joint must be approved by the manufacturer.
 The Engineering Mechanics of Piping 79

The joint in Figure 2-27C has values of KRX and KRY
irut absolute values of KRZ, KTX, KTY, and KTZ. Nor-
nally, these joints are used in pairs to allow rotation
lbout two axes similar to swivel or ball joints and not
ellowing any translation. This action is seen in Figure 2-
t8.
The unit in Figure 2-27D is a pressure balanced uni-
r ersal joint. It is free to move about all degrees of move-
:nent except KRZ and is restricted by tie rods that bal-
.rnce pressure thrust. This type of joint is very common
in engine exhaust systems.
Figrre 2-278 depicts one of the most complicated ex-
pansion designs-an in{ine pressure balanced expansion
'oint. This joint eliminates pressure thrust, is self-sup-
rorting, and does not require a change in the piping sys-
aa :em to install. It is desirable where structural supports
.ire not available and a joint is needed because flexibility
rs required of the piping.
Pressure thrust is the amount of force generated by in-
ternal pressure and is simply internal pressure times
minimum bellows radius area (PA), lbs. This force can
become quite high as the pipe size and the internal pres-
sure increase. In many applications, the piping itself is
anchored and the joint is allowed to compress when the
thermal compression force exceeds the pressure thrust
force. As seen in Figure 2-28, when movement in the
form of lateral translation is desired (KTZ and KTY), tie
rods are used to restrain the joint in the axial direction
(KTZ: @). If tie rods are being used to overcome
pressure thrust, then any equipment flanged to the joint
should be able to withstand the load reouired to over-
come pressure thrust. Generally. tie rods are only used to
permit lateral movement.
Bellows expansion joints can be restrained and com-
bined in pairs or trios to perform certain tasks. It must be
emphasized that just because a joint is free to move in
)

A
{:,

,-T -.Fz .%^

Ftgure 2-27. Types of bellows expansion joints: (A) flanged-flanged end simple bellows joint; (B) hinge bellows expansion
::nt: (C) gimbal bellows expansion joint; (D) pressure balanced bellows expansion joint; (E) "inJine" pressure balanced self-
'-:oorting bellows expansion joint. (Courtesy of Pathway Bellows, Inc.)
80 Mechanical Design of Process Systems
MOVEMENT HOT
-LATERAL
Figure 2-28. Generally the use of tie rods is to allow only lateral movement. (Courtesy of Pathway Bellows, Inc.)
directions KTX, KTY, KTZ, KRX, and KRY does not
mean that the corresponding stiffness values are small.
As internal pressure and pipe size increase the values of
KTX, KTY, KTZ, KRX, and KRY increase, because the
bellows wall thickness increases to resist increased inter-
nal pressure. The bellows can be a single wall construc-
tion (single ply) or multiple wall construction (multi-ply)
and the stiffness values vary with each manufacturer.
Some people erroneously think that the purpose of us-
ing bellows expansion joints is to make the pipe stress
analysis unnecessary. Such is definitely not the case, be-
cause values of stiffness in each direction must be en-
tered in each computer stress run so that it can be vei-
fied that the displacement and piping loads are not
excessive to the equipment nozzles. As shown in Figure
2-28 a pipe can either be properly guided or anchored,
and such restrictions should be modeled into the com-
puter stress analysis.
The piping engineer is encouraged to refer to the Stan-
dards of the Expansion Joint Manufacturers Association
(EJMA) t4l in accessing piping layouts when using bel-
lows expansion joints. Also, it is desirable to specify the
joint such that the manufacturer is required to meet
EJMA requirements. One should follow EJMA guide-
lines and requirements, and include modeling restraints
and stiffness values in computer stress analysis to verify
that attached equipment is protected. Expansion joints
are not cataloged items to be bought at random but rather
sophisticated pieces of equipment that must be engi-
neered into the piping system. With this approach, the
user should not expedence any problems with bellows
expansion joints.
lA: lnt€rmedlaleAnchor
PG: Planar Guid6
TUEJ: Tied Univorsal Expansion Joint
PRESTRESSED PIPING
Piping systems are sometimes prestressed to reduce
anchor and restraint forces and moments. This prestress-
ing of the pipe is best known as cold springing, but is
also called "cut short," meaning that the pipe is cut short
a percentage of the amount of thermal expansion ex-
pected. The opposite is true in cold systems where the
pipe contracts, so the pipe is fabricated extra long, with
the extra length being a percentage of the amount of ther-
mal conEaction expected. This procedure is best known
as "cut long." Some refer to cut long as "hot springing,"
which may cause confusion because it is not as popular
as the term cold springing and to some it means hot
forming, which hds nothing to do with fabricating the
pipe extra long.
"Credit" may not be taken for prestressing the pipe in
computing the stress in the piping system. Several piping
codes are specific about this and, if the piping is over the
allowable stress range, one cannot cut short or long to
lower the stress. However, credit may be taken for an-
chor and restraint reaction forces and moments.
The procedure of cutting short or long involves a per-
centage of thermal movement. The whole purpose of the
prestressing process is to balance the forces and move-
ments between the down and operating conditions. Thus,
cutting short or long 1007o (i.e., cutting short or long the
exact amount of thermal movement) is normally not
done. Exceeding 100% is not recommended and doesn't
make good sense. Normally, the amount cut is 50% and
should not exceed 66% of the thermal movement' The
reactions, R6 and Rp in the operating and down condi-
 The Engineering Mechanics of Piping 81

tions, respectively, are obtained from the reactions R de- Bellows expansion joints should be avoided if a more
rived from calculalions based on the modulus of elastic- economical and practical method is available for provid-
ity at ambient temperature, 8". The relationships are as ing flexibility oi restraint to the pipe. ln many ipplica-
follows: tions, only the bellows expansionjoint will suffice, e.g.,
movement and vibration in straight runs of pipe at ele-
n":lr-?*l&
- \ 3 lEo
vated temperatures between different pieces of equip-
ment can only be compensated by bellows joints. How-
ever, as the joint becomes more sophisticated and
Ro: XR thereby more expensive, other alternatives should be
considered. Such alternatives lie in either the flexibility
ot or stiffness methods Dreviouslv discussed.
I
R" -t: 11 - ].
whichever is greater, and with the additional condition FLUID FORCES EXERTED ON PIPING
that SYSTEilS
b
When fluids move in a piping system, they import en-
---: < 1.0
ergy to the system when they are forced to change direc-
4
where X: cold (or hot) spring factor ranging from zero tion by the pipe. In other words, it requires energy to
to one, one being 100% cold or hot spring change the direction of a moving f luid . This fundamental
:E computed expansion stress. psi fact is known as the impulse-momentum principle, ex-
Ep : modulus of elasticity in the down condition, nressed as:
psi
Ee : modulus of elasticity in the operating
condition, psi l)l ph : Mv, - Mv, (2-31)
R: maximum reaction for full thermal movement \-]
based on Ep which is the most severe This states that the change in momentum in a system re-
condition. lb- or in.-lb mains constant during the exchange of momentum be-
Rp : maximum reaction in down condition, lb or
tween two or more masses of the system. Applying the
in.lb
Ro : maximum reaction in operating condition, lb equation to that of a pipe elbow shown in Figwe 2-29,
or in.-lb we apply the principle to obtain:

These formulations are not necessary nor desirable Mvxr+DFxxt:MVy, (2-32)

when computerized stress runs are made. All reactions
that result from prestressing the pipe are much more ac- Mvyr+DFyxt=Mvy2 (z-33)
curately made by a computer. However, one is not al-
ways privileged to use a computet especially at remote
where t = 1 for unit time
force in horizontal direction exerted by the
sites, so these formulations will yield conservative ap- bend on the flowing fluid, lb
proximations to feactions. force in vertical direction exerted by the
The biggest legitimate objection to prestressing the bend on the flowing fluid, lb
pipe is that often it is simply not done by the pipe fabrica- horizontal velocity component at bend inlet,
tor or construction workers. The orocess is often diffi- ftlsec
cult, especially in large pipe, and is unpopular with fab- vertical velocity component at bend inlet,
rication personnel. When schedules get tight and people ftlsec
fall behind on the schedule, there is a tendency to over- horizontal velocity component of bend
look prestressing the pipe. To avoid such a problem, oudet, ft/sec
some large engineering companies issue cold spring re- vertical velocity component of bend oudet,
ft/sec
ports that are signed off by inspectors. However, such :
reports get lost fairly easily, unless a rigid system is im-
M= Wgi g" fluid mass
weight of fluid in bend, lb,
plemented to treat them as control documents. There is local acceleration due to grayity,
6-
certainly nothing wrong with prestressing the pipe, ex- approximately 32.2 ftl serz
cept maybe a little extra paperwork. dimensional consiant :
32.17 lb-ft/lb1sec2
 the analysis of chemical rocket engines is suitable for es-
timating reaction forces. These calculations in such an
analysis agree with those reactions comDuted bv other
methods and have been found to be slightly conseivative.
The method presented by Hesse [5] is desirable because
of its simplicity and accuracy, and knowledge of the pro-
cess fluid is limited onty to the specific heat ratio, k, and
the molecular weight, M. The derivation and explanation
of the formulation is given by Hesse [5].
Consider the nozzle shown in Figure 2-30. The reac-
tion force developed by a fluid exiting the nozzle is given
by the following:
[/ \/ \,-,
F= \cac"A,P. I l="'.2 ,l l-i" ,l-
t\K-l/\K+u
Figure 2-29. Pipe reactions induced by change of momentum lo.t
*+tn-P.l
of fluid flowing through elbow.
',[' I (2-34)

where \ nozzle correction factor :

l/2
(1 + cos o) -
1.0 for most relief valves
Ca= nozzle discharge coefficient, which
When applying Equations 2-32 and 2-33 to relief 0.97 < Cd < 1.15, normally Cd > 1.0
valves, the fluid dynamics of nozzles must be consid- :
specific heat ratio CplC"
ered. The dynamics and thermodynamics of fluid motion
through nozzles is a very involved subject and rather
than investigate the various theoretical methods in this
book, we will only investigate the various results and
discuss their merits.
Relief valves can exert enormous forces when fluids
exit the nozzles. Often, the fluid exits the nozzle at
speeds exceeding Mach 1. Numerous private companies,
as well as the ASME and API, have developed proce-
dures to approximate such fluid forces. The ASME
B31.1 gives a method for computing the reaction forces
exerted by relief valves. The main drawback to this
method is that it applies to steam only, because Code c= nozzle inlet section
831.1 governs only power piping. Steam is one of the t = throat-where critical condition exist
e = nozzle exit section
most comprehensively defined substances, with all prop- ef = gffrat;rr exit section-where exhaust
erties well known and published, but such is not the case gas pressure first equals ambient
with many chemical processes. The 831.1 method re- pressure, Po
quires that the properties of the substance be we de-
fined, to the point of being rather cumbersome to use.
The ideal method would require the fewest number of l/r,
physical properties, but still provide the necessary data.
One such method that is very easy to use is the ApI for- /
mulation in API 520 Part II, paragraph 2.4, which is -'.--
used for gases or vapors. This formula loses accuracy as
the flow rate approaches Mach 1, so another method is
7l\-
desired for predicting reactions at all flow rates in pro-
cesses that have poorly defined properties.
The aerospace industry has done much research in the
study of fluid dynamics and thermodynamics of nozzle
flow. Because relief valves operate in a closed system,
t
Figure 2-30. The relief valve mecharusm.
 The Engineering Mechanics of Piping

cv: (rJ05 = 0.95 to 0.98 cause the process is considered adiabatic making the to-
nozzle adiabatic efficiency tal temperature constant. Thus,
nozzle exit pressure, psia
ambient pressure : 14.7 psia t)l
nozzle exit area, in.2 rc = l-l+
r,. oF
nozzle throat area, in.2 \K r,t

and
critical pressure : P, l---- I ' /"_,..-,f 5
\K -f l/
vc=V.=(skRrJo5=|\#',f (2-36)

Reaction forces produced by relief valves can become

quite enormous and should not be overlooked. A struc-
critical pressure ratio, determined trom
Figure 2-31 tural failure of a relief system could well result in a ca-
molecular weight of fluid, lb/mole tastrophe.
G: gas flow rate, lb/sec, where

EXTRANEOUS PIPING LOADS

G= - [r- {_z\:ll
C.A,p"'[Rr.\k
+u I
(2-34a)

Vibration can be a real hazard in piping systems. Usu-

: :
ffir,, 't
T" critical temperaiure ally, vibration problems that occur with piping have two
sources-pulsations generated by reciprocating equip-
ment and wind. Pulsation shock phenomena on rotating
.T, /r.
-
I + l-.--1l
r\
M2 for adiabatic process equipment is briefly discussed in Chapter 6. The phe-
nomenon of wind-induced vibrations on piping along tall
towers is discussed here.
Wind-induced vibration is caused by vortex shedding
on the cylindrical surface of the pipe, and becomes a
Substituting these exDressrons mto Equation 2-34, we problem with piping more than about thirty feet long.
have Vortex shedding usually occurs with piping that runs up
along the height of a vertical tower.
:
[-+ (#= [' - (,:)*]]"'
F 1 028A,P" Analyzing and solving vortex shedding vibration prob-
lems can best be handled by applying certain principles
that include dimensionless parameters and experimental
+ A"(P" - P,) (2-35)
data. Sophisticated digital computer models are possible,
and recently, vortex streets have been simulated with
flow patterns around piping and structures. Such com-
Equation 2-35 assumes that the flow is isentropic and puter simulations are rigorous and expensive, so with
in addition to relief valves, includes turbines, compres- current software they are impractical to use for all piping
sors, jet engines, rockets, injectors, ejectors, and atomi- that may be exposed to wind.
zers. Most nozzles used in current applications are either Several proposals have been made concerning vortex-
convergent or convergent-divergent, also known as De- induced vibrations around cylinders, but perhaps the
Laval or Level nozzles. Convergent-divergent nozzles most straightforward is the work by Belvins [6]. He de-
are used for high pressure ratios and supersonic flow, veloped a dynamic model for vortex-induced vibration
and convergent nozzles for low pressure ratios and sub- using random vibration theory. The theoretical basis is a
sonic flow. Thus, relief valves are Level types that can representative spanwise correlation and cylinder ampli-
handle high pressure flow. tude is presented as a function of the vortex forces.
Critical pressure of gas occurs at the point where the When the state of resonance exists, the amplitude of the
fluid velocity becomes Mach 1. This pressure is ob- correlated lift force on the cylinder is represented as a
tained at the minimum area of the nozzle and this mini- continuous function of cylinder amplitude. Also, at reso-
mum cross section is called the nozzle thrcat in the De- nance, the spanwise correlation of the vortex force is
Laval nozzle. In the convergent nozzle, the cross section presented as a function of the characteristic correlation
of minimum area is the exit section. The critical velocity length. This model is limited to the resonance of a singie
can be expressed in terms of the inlet temperature be- mode with vortex shedding and a Reynolds number in
 84 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

100
90
80
70
60

o"A,

10

8
7

Figure 2-31. Critical pressure ratro

versus area ratio for various fluid spe-
cific heat ratios (k).

80 lOO 2OO /rcO 600 80O loOO

'clPa

the rate of200 ( (

Nn" 200,000, where a well-formed
vortex stre€t exists.
Figtre 2-32 shows flow regimes of fluid flow across
stationary circular cylinders, and illustrates how the vor-
tex streets tend to separate as the flow velocity increases.
Between the range 300 NR" < 300,000 thi region is
called subcritical because as Nx" approaches 300,000,
the boundary layer becomes completely turbulent and
the vortex shedding effect is lost. One parameter used in
analyzing vortex phenomena is the Strouhal number(s),
which is the numeric constant between the resonant fre-
quency of vortex shedding (f) and the cylinder diameter
(D), divided by the free stream velocity (V). This is ana-
lytically written as
^ f.D
Q-37)
For circular cylinders, the Strouhal versus Reynolds
number is shown in Figure 2-33. In a structure, the ob-
 The Engineering Mechanics of Piping 85

ject of design is to avoid resonance. If the inverse of the The response of a right circular cylinder at resonance
Shouhal number < 1, where f is the natural frequency of with vortex shedding is a function of the following:
the structure, then resonances with vortex shedding from
the first, second, and third harmonics are avoided. This Damping : (2zs)2 6.
can be accomplished by adding mass, such as insulation,
and putting pipe support spacing at uneven intervals. If where 6. : reduced damping _ 2m(2rl) (z-38)
pipe supports are spanned evenly, periodic wave motions pW
can form, resulting in resonance.
and

"| _ 4?r(total energy of structure)

energy dissipated per cycle

Mode shape : VW: i for a rigid cylinder)

Etl_g RcGrMa OF urrsEpARArEo FLO{.

Aspect ratio : LlD, L = length between spans

voRTrcas rfi rnE w^(€.

The amplitude Ay/D can be approximated by loading
the pipe with a uniform wind load and using the maxi-
'rwo nEGrMEs lr wHrcH vofiTEr mum deflection as Ay. This can be used in Figure 2-34
PERTOOTCT'IY COVEFI|ED
R. RII{CE BY I/(E
l'r LOW to estimate the damping at resonance for a given aspect
PERIOOICITY GOVERNEO II{ tiIOH ratio. This damping is then compared with the natural
R. RING' VOR'IEI
'Y frequency of the piping. The natural frequency of the
IRAXSIIIOI NINGE
pipe, especially for complex geometries, is computed by
Eg-5-E!-l-3aq TO IUiBU.
modal extraction computer analysis or any other dy-
lOO<i.t 3r|ol voRrEx sritEt rs Frrl'tl namic computer software that computes the natural fre-
quencies of piping systems. For short straight spans, the
natural frequency can be determined by comparing val-
,,4.* 3,'o..' i. <35, o.
ues obtained from Table 2-6 and with the resonance
i

-W
e' IYi?Y,",li,t
L^YE
lt6%i!13i*,,*.*[i'"
voirEx srREtr rs.PP.REnt
BAS UIiOEROOXE

damping frequency in Figure 2-34.

-u/////t
3,5rro'< R. < cO t?l
R€'€SJA8LISITTEIT OF Tt1€ TURAU.
IENI IORIET SIREE' II]AI
EvrD€tT rx 3oo< i.? 3r|o: 'AS
Ih'S IIME TIE SOUNDIRY LAYER
lno
Figure 2-32. Fluid flow regimes across circular cylinder l7l.
In practice, the greatest problem with vortex shedding
occurs on tall vertical towers when pipe four inches and
smaller is uninsulated and left hanging without support.
It has been found that once insulation is applied to the
THE uAr(€
pipe resonance vanishes.
The following simple guidelines will enable you to
avoid the vast majority of wind-reduced vibrations:

l. Increase the flexural stiffness of the pipe so that its

critical velocity is above the range of moderate
winds.
2 . Use damping devices to restdct the amplitude of vi-
bration.
3. Reduce the effective length of the member by using
intermediate struts.
4. Attach spoilers to the pipe to disrupt the flow near
the tower surface; this impedes the formation of
vortices and thereby eliminates the cause of vibra-
tions.
5. Span the piping supports at uneven intervals to pre-
vent a periodic wave function from developing.
REVIIOLDS U E€h! R.

Figure 2-33. Strouhal-Reynolds number function for circular The analysis of wind-induced vibrations on tall verti-
cylinders [7]. cal vessels is discussed in Chapter 4.
 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Table 2-6
Natural Frequency ot vibration ot Beam Elements
Concentraled Load on Relatlvely Uniform Load on Beam Supported Unitorm Load on Cantilever Beam
Light Beam or Spring at Ends

ffi

. / \0.5
r - t l9l f: f : (3.89) (D)
'- t\-Di (3.55XD)-0 5 0.5

f: natural frequency of vibration. cycles per second

D: maximum static deflection of member under its own weight plus any weights that vibrate with it
 The Engineering Mechanics of Piping

or r,rer r.re
= r stn r3l s2/p#
Figure 2-34. Damping, d (dimensionless), versus amplitude, Ay/D (dimensionless).
88 Mechanical Design of Process Systems
EXAilPLE 2.1: APPLYIilc THE STIFFNESS
]UIETHOD TO A IIODULAH SKID.IIOUIITED
GAS LIQUEFAGTION FACILITY
Figure 2-35 depicts the preliminary piping design of a
gas liquifaction plant mounted on a skid module. Space
is severely limited, as the equipment and piping are lim-
ited by the structural steel skid supports, so such devices
as piping loops are unthinkable. Expansion joints are not
allowed by the client, because high-pressure hydrocar-
bon gas is highly combustible and an expansion joint fail-
ure would mean certain gross property damage and pos-
sible loss of human lives. Therefore, the piping engineer
must utilize the stiffness of pipe supports to transfer
loads from the piping to the structural steel rather than to
the equipment nozzles. This transfer of loads is not total,
but enough to guarantee that the equipment nozzles load-
ings will not exceed allowable levels.
For the stiffness method to work, the piping configura-
tion must be flexible enough for the piping itself to be
within allowable stress limits set by the applicable code.
This is the first significant criterion, because if the pip-
ing exceeds the allowable stress range in any part of the
geometry, the system design is faulty. Conversely, the
piping system can be well within the stress range and the
equipment nozzles still be overloaded. Thus, the piping
itself must have a certain amount of flexibility to be
within code allowables. The piprng supports must be
stiff enough to protect equipment nozzles from excessive
loads. Here our case has been stated; adding additional
flexibility is not acceptable.
From computer calculations the original configuration
in Figure 2-35 is found to be overstressed and the expan-
sion stress exceeds the ASME 831.3 allowable stress
range provided in Equation 2-4 for 3O4 SS pipe. There-
fore, the piping must be changed to bring the maximum
stress within the accepted stress range. This analysis in-
cludes the nozzle movements shown in the figure. Each
nozzle is considered as an anchor.
Figure 2-36 shows the final configuration after several
iterations are made to determine what configuration
would best suit the structural limitations set by the mod-
ule skid. This configuration is found to have a maximum
allowable well within the stress range of ASME B3 1 . 3 .
To achieve this acceptable stess, a limited amount of
flexibility must be added to the system. Thus, regardless
which method is used-flexibility or stifftiess-a certain
amount of flexibility is required to make the piping sys-
tem operate properly.
Once we have obtained the minimum flexible configu-
ration required, we now focus our attention to the equip-
ment nozzles. To consider this question, we must distin-
guish between the types of equipment. The heat
exchangers HE-A and B shown in Figures 2-35 and2-36
are aluminum plate exchangers, and the cold separator
and power gas volume tank are made of reasonably
thick-walled stainless steel. Thus, the critical items are
the aluminum heat exchangers. The line between points
l0 and 25 in Figure 2-35 must be cut because the relative
Z-movement between these points overloads the nozzles
at points 5 and 30, creating a very high y-momenr and Z-
moment, because the pipe wants to move in the -Z and
*Y directions. These movements can be accommodated
by using certain structural devices, such as shown in
Figure 2-37. Even though flexibility has been added to
the system to get the piping within the allowable stress
range, the equipment nozzles are still overloaded by ex-
cessive moments above the X, Y, and Z axes-M;q, My,
and Mz.
To counter the movements of the piping at the nozzles
numbered 5 and 30 at HE-B and A, respectively, variable
springs are placed to support the pipe while allowing the
pipe to move at the same time. One spring is placed at
point 20 with a simple Y support added at point 56.
These additional supports help reduce the moments at
nozzles 5 and 30, but not enough. So, we must add MRS
restraints (see Figures 2-9 ard 2-10) in pipe members 5-
l0 and 30-35. Each MRS is designed to allow nozzles 5
and 30 to move upward but to transfer moments M;,
Mv, and Mz from the pipe to the structual steel below.
Also, each MRS allows pipe members 5-10 and 30-35
freedom to nove along the axis so that we have the fol-
lowing restraints at each MRS: KTZ, KRX, KRY, and
KRZ of Figure 2-38 (see Figure 2-10). Thus, we have
one translational and three rotational restraints, each
with a stifftress value K in lb/in. or ft-lb/deg. The pipe
and exchanger are free to translate along the X and Y
axes.
One can readily see that the MRS restraints must allow
nozzles ar points 5 and 30 to move upward, as the ex-
changers are bolted down to structural steel higher up on
the units. Restraining the nozzles from moving upward
would anchor the unit at the nozzles and at the support
point causing the exchangers to rupture. Pipe members
5-10 and 30-35 must be allowed to move along the x-axis
for thermal expansion.
We now have the conceptual model of what the solu-
tion looks like and the next step is to finalize the details.
The MRS restraints are resisting forces and moments
shown in Figure 2-38. It is necessary to design the re-
straints such that each has enough stiffness to transfer the
loads to the steel and protect the nozzles at points 5 and
30. We will now compute the support stifftress values
KTZ, KRX, KRY, and KRZ. Once these values are de-
termined, they can be input back into the computer run
and verified to be sufficient for the nozzles.
 The Engineering Mechanics of Piping 89

\,zr/
\/W
\\
\\\
\\\
\ \\
\ \'"
\
\\--l \p't 'a2
,r^
o
ao

o
'4

z
o_
tsJ -4
7
"3
2:1 7^

, 4e.
t 2l/o
o.,

e-:x $-
90 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

o
o

',',

ao
ct
N
o
.D
IL

9
z
 The Engineering Mechanics of Piping 91

@ GnTNNELL slzE a rYPE D

@ venncr suPPoRT(sEE F|GURE 2-9)

@ GR|NIELL stzE 10 rYPE D SPR|NG

Figure 2-37. Plan view of location of MRS supports.
OHAr{GER suPpoRT

TO ENSURE PFOIEC'IoN
OF CAF8ON STEE L COSPONENTq

OISIRIB(IIION OVER LE GIH

\\ rtrslrL^r
---

--' +

€IIDE DIATES ASSEMELY }IOUSING

STSE SOPMRT PIPE

Flgure 2-38. Two-axial translation-

free multiple moment restraint support
(BIAX-MMRS). Arrows indicate d!
-_4
rections of freedom of movement.
 Mechanical Systems

-tb
)o lb
ioo ft-rb

' ;> [ rr-r-owso

-x ro
TRANSLATE
tt !x otngcrtots

For Torsion

T : 12,800 ft-lb
For Shear
(12,800)ft-rb (r.,J (*,
._ _ 4(R2 + Rr +
3(R + r)
12)
. I"igit'1 :"it jotffi''. ,r:a: Tc
---- 4oJ0 in.o
)

4(10.976 + 9.545 + 8.297)

= 1.975 in.
: 12,563 psi
316.194)
For Tensile Stress
p_ 1.20 t!
"- : A :
A_-
I
= r+t prt
I- 8.40 in.'

T-- $-Q.?
q .'_-* r, Shear Distribution
At Point A-
O : 22.83"
For a circular .thin-walled cross-sectron'
rl4lc, (r,roonb (ry) in.'?(r.e75) in.
Q : 2R'zt cos o
"=+:+i:
: psi-max at neutral axis
(40.49) in.a (0.432) in.
--'\-n 16'
625 + 5.76 I
4
(0.432) cos (22 83") = 7 '635
rs 521-648

For Bending (1,100) (7.635)

(40.49) (0.432)
= 480.143 psi

Mx : -(1,100 lbx3.0) ft - 700 ft-lb : -4,000 ftlb

At Point B-
Mz = -9,500 ft-lb
Q = 2t9.588t (0.432) cos (67.166') = 3.215
Mn : R(Mx, M, : (-4,000)" + (-9'500)tlo 5

1,100) (3.215) _
' _ (40.49)
(
: 10,308 ftib (0.432)
202.182 psl

/.^.rn'l\ c-
10,308 ft-lb lY At Point
M \ln/
o =; = ----r,j/ti.-= = 1o,114Psi A:?)R'lo=r= 480.143 psi
 The Engineering Mechanics of Piping

<- rfi, 6r:1o,jr4+i/tg Shear

.-- ll A ll --+
-;. oi: 1o,2s7 psi
<- {l lt __} :
-r'
l-, = r. + rr = 480,143 + 12,553
Point A, Q :2(\8.59'17) (0.322) cos (22.83) 11.039

(l.100) ( l 1.039)
= 13,043.143 psi
' (12.5) (0.322\
'
* lf--lf o= 7.358 psi + I43 psi = 7.501 psi
{_ lt e __-f o:1oJ14 -143
<--ll - ll ------) O=seflpsi r = rs + z1 : 9,138 psi + 520 psi : 9,658 psi

r = 13,043.143 psi 7.501 [h.sor\'

6 = -|1J! ^ -- .lo'
ll '--'l + {9-658)rl
2 -
[\21 ]
l_ rr----.lr ____+
<-- ll c ll ----+ 6r=uspsi o : l4,lll.\57 psi < 17,000 psi allowable stress
<-rL_-Jr+
Therefore, use 8-in. Sch 40 A-312 TP3G4 SS pipe for the
r=202.182+12,563
3-ft pipe spool piece.
7 = 12,765.182 psi From these calculations, we see that the minimum pipe
size for the MRS is an 8-in. Sch 40, 3.0 feet in height.
The stiffness values for an 8-in. Sch 40 pipe are as fol-
lows:
From Thble 2-1, we have
Stress Elements

Point A is the most critical point. KTx = (1 +l2EI'

O)LJ
.

_ ox -oy - o"'l', 1ot

,-,
2 *-t\[/o* 2 I ",^Yl rov-0 r:
8.625
2
+.JlJln.

lo,2s7+ [h0,257\': lot -:

f (13,043.14311 r 4
?1?
2 -l\ 2 l :L = :=
JI'.U
: 0.120 << | - <D :0
o : -t
19,143.674 psi
12(2s.0 x 109 g (72.5) in.4

For ,4312 GR TP 304SS, 17,000 psi < o"11 : KTX :

(36.0)3 in.3
19,143.614 psi allowable stress, so, try 8-in. d Sch 40.
: 540,766.5 lb/in.
Bending
ro.ms ir-ru ll?:"
4(2s.0 x 106) * (zz.s) in.o
\ft/
)
KRX -_ KRZ :
(36.0) in.
16.81 in.3

o : 7,358 psi : 233,611,1ll.l in.Jb/deg

Torsion
or KRX : KRZ = 19.467 .s92.6
-:*
fr-lh
in qeg
2,800)ft-lb (12)
It^
(| t4.313)in.
' (72.5)in.3
= 9.138 psi 2(29.0 x 106) (72.5) in.4
ln-'
KRY = --1
(36.0) in.
Tensile Stress
: 116,805,55.6 in.Jb/deg
: l,200 lb :
o r+r
870GJ Psr
or KRY : 9,133,196.3 ft-lbldeg
 94 Mechanical Design of process Systems

Entering these stiffness values into the computer run. therefore making such a unit sensitive to external loads.
we see thar lhe nozzle loads fall very sharply it points 5 Always be careful when subjecting rotating equipment or
and 30. Further reduction in loads can be obtained bv vessels made of light material to excessive nozzle loads.
adding springs abo',e the MRS restraints to counter ; In the final analysis the pipe loadings transferred by
negative moment above the Z-axis. Using springs above -
the MRS to the steel must be considered by the structural
these supports is not always necessary, but in this case engineer. who must design the loundation accordingly.
they are required because of the large vertical movement Sometimes it is necessary to model the stiffness of the
of points 5 and 30. A weight run should be made to ver- steel foundation members when nozzle loadines become
ify that the springs do not ovedoad the nozzles durins critical.
shur-down.
The MRS restraints vary in design and are conceptu-
ally shown in Figure 2-10 and Figure 2-39. These iup-
ports are made ol interlocking sliding plates wirh eaih
sliding surface coated with high-strength Teflon. The
precise details of such supports vary and are customized
for each application.
Looking to other parts of the piping system, we notice
that nozzle 75 on the cold separator has a high moment
about the negative x-axis. This moment is attributed to
the aluminum exchangers (HE-A and B) moving upward
and the cold separator shrinking downward. Because
space is premium and we are "locked-in" and can't add
any more flexible piping, we add a spring at elbow 65
pulling downward to counter the exces5ive neqative x-
moment at nozzle 15. The spring is sized ro b6 accept-
able for operating and shut-down modes.
Table 2-7 lists the forces and moments at each equip-
ment nozzle.
Upon reviewing Table 2-7 , you will notice the dispar-
ity in nozzle loadings. The aluminum heat exchangers,
HE-A and B, have lower loads, especially moments,
than does the cold separator or power gas volume tank.
This is because each has acceptable loadings that are dif-
ferent. The cold separator is made of 23la-in. plate stain-
less sreel. which makes rhe loads shown easilv acceot-
able. {The method of determining whether such-loads ire
acceptable on pressure vessels is discussed in Chapter 8.)
Such loads would be very unacceptable lor the aluminum
heat exchangers because aluminum cannol withstand Figure 2-39. The BIAX-MMRS installed and in operation ar
nearly as great a load as steel and is not very elastic, olant facilitv.

Table 2-7
Equipment Nozzle Forces and Moments

Heat Exchanger A t44.7

Heat Exchanger B 279.O
-255.9 0 293.9 0 -210.5 210.5
Process Vessel A 126.2
-624.6
299.2
0
854.4
684. I
914.O
0 -553.4
4501.9
553.4
-6175.0 8217.6
Process Vessel B - 38.5 -2437 .8 94.6 2440.0 877 .1 3163.0 3306.8

EXAIIPLE 2-2: APPLYING THE
FLEXIBILITY IIETHOD TO A STEAiI
TURBINE EXHAUST LINE
A client has added a steam turbine to a chemical plant
and has piped up the turbine with make-shift parts and
existing pipe, plus a newly purchased bellows expansion
joint. When the turbine technicians determine they can-
not cold align the turbine with the exhaust piping, the cli-
ent decides that the piping must be rerouted, but requests
an evaluation of the system, which is shown in Figure
240.
The system is modeled with a computer software pack-
age, and the results indicate that a moment about the y-
axis in the magnitude of 31,000 ft/lbs is exerted on the
turbine exhaust nozzle under operating conditions. Such
a load is well above any turbine allowable. The reactions
Figure 2-40. Original piping configuration of 20-in. 0 steam line for turbine exhaust: temperature
psia.
The Engineering Mechanics of Piping 95
along the other axes are moderate and the problem of
alignment must be solved. The extremely high y-moment
is caused by the thermal expansion of the pipe member
extending along the z-axis from point 95 to point 145 al-
most Ze in. With this expansion along the positive z-axis,
the pipe rotates about the positive y-axis from point 20
through the expansion joint at point 45 to the elbow at
ooint 75. This torsion is transmitted to the turbine nozzle
it point 5. Thus, the adjustable base elbow support at
point 31 is entirely useless in resisting this vertical mo-
ment and the expansion joint at point 45 transmits all of
the torsion motion to the turbine nozzle at point 5.
An earlier section discussed the fact that these joints
are totally rigid in torsion-a moment about the axis is
parallel to the longitudinal axis, which in this example is
the y-axis. In fact, with the vertical moment as great as
31,000 ftlbs the expansion joint at point 45 will either
be destroyed or have a short service life because the bel-
li
lri
ii
i
d-o.^* .u""'"'
: 300"4 pressure : 16 Hg
96 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

lows are not designed to resist such high torsional mo- Turbine nozzle (Point 5)-
ments. Thus, the diagnosis is to avoid the high torsion : : : 343'9 lb, Fr
and stop the .8-in. movement at point 135. To do this- ec-
Fx 46.51bs, Fy -530.8Ib, Fz
: 634.l lb
onomically with minimum alteration to the piping, a bel- Mx : 1,198.4 ftlb, MY :
1,978'2 ft-lb' Mz
lows expansion joint is added at point 123 and.the shoe = 745.3 ft-lb, Mr :
2,430.0 ftlb
on the dummy leg is stopped in the *z direction (i'e''
movement in the 1z direction is stopped, and the vessel Vessel nozzle (Point 85)-
nozzle at point 85 is protected by the joint at point 123 '
An expansion joint is sized based on the manufacturer's F" = -46.4Ib, Fv = -3,311.8 lb' Fz
standard dimensions for a 20-in. pipe and the joint stiff- : -3,348.5 lb, Fr : 4,709 9lb
ness values are as follows: Mx : 5,968.7 ft-lb, MY : 9,742 0 ft-lb Mz
'
: 5,0?6.0 ft-lb, MR = 12,501.9 ft-lb
KTX : KTY - 1,500 lb/in.
KRX = KRY : 200 in.-lb/deg The loadings at the turbine nozzle are acceptable' (The
KTZ : l2O lblin. basis for conaluding this is discussed in Chapter 6') The
reactions at point 85 seem excessive and would be for a
These values are provided by the joint manufacturer' steam turbin;, but considedng the vessel is five feet in
The problem of turbine alignment is directly related to diameter and made of 3-in. plate, these loads are not ex-
the inabilitv of the turbine technicians to adjust the pipe cessive. Pressure vessel nozzle loading analysis is cov-
because of the pipe's inflexibility, which is caused by the ered in Chapter 4, but one can deduce that pressure ves-
suided base elbow at point 3l . The base elbow support is sel nozzles tan withstand much greater loads than most
ieplaced by a spring depicted in Figure 2-41 and mod- tvDes of equipment.
''The
eled into the compuier siress program. This mn is made svstim is implemented and in two days the turbine
with the added ixpansion joint at point 123 and. the will be fired up and operating well. The concluding re-
spring at point 3. ihe following results were obtained marks are that the expansion joint at point 45 is accom-
plishing nothing and the capital expended for its pur-
from the computer run:
riu. wa$;d' ln fact, it would not hurt to move the
"hu."
unit, but this is not necessiuy since the high torsional
moment has been eliminated.
The expansion joint at point 123 was specified and
ourchased for those stiffniss values previously listed'
the final configuration is shown in Figve 2-42

EXAilPLE 2'3: FLEXIBILITY AIIALYSIS

FOR HOT OIL PIPING

A olant in a remote area of Brazil has an emergency

need for a hot oil system. The plant manager has deter-
mined that a 3-inch Schedule 40 pipe is to be u-sed' based
on plant requirements and available pipe trom local
ioui.".. w" it" to design the piping and ensure it will
not be overstressed. There are no electronic computers
SPRIN6 available anywhere near the plant and all calculations
must be made without a stress program'
For a hot oil header extending over some distance the
flexibility approach is the practical method in this appli-
fit" iiit" it to operaG at 550'F at 50 psig For-aj-
I' Y 1':l .7
V
in. Sch. 40 pipe, d :3.50 in. A layout is n-rade o{ the
"ution.
i
system and preliminary loop is shown in Figure 2-43'
The piPe is ASTM A-53B PiPe.
Figure 2-41. Sketch of spring that replaces base elbow^sup-
= 3.73o5 : :!:I:z.so
oon: installed load :713 lb. operatlng load = /uJ rD'
ipring : 300 lb/in.
-": I 8.oo: Rv
La4
 The Engineering Mechanics of Piping 97

*f--ttt t
I

,-tt^\.

,"_'-wJ_\
tN:z Dlf,Ectro{s

Figute 2-42. Final piping configuration of 20-in. 0

steam line for turbine exhaust: temperature :
300"F, pressure = 16 Hg psia.

From Figure 2-12A, Ah = 220 (29.525t (30\

=-njaf =5u.urt
: (4. I l) (_2.9._q x ltr) _ 689.8 "
B
r72,800 The available steel in the plant in the area the hot oil
header is to be run is spanned 4.5 m or 14.76 ft, making
From Table 2-1 and ASME 831.3 the allowable stress is tlre anchor points spaced at 18 m or 59 ft. Thus, L'
=
: : 59.0 ft. We change l< : Ia: 6.0 + Rx = &: 5.0'
oe 1.25(20,000) + 0.25(18,100) 29,525.0psi At:98
The maximum bending stress is
oB : ---10 j-r:-l
(98) (689.8) (3.50)
: 7.886.7 psi < o^

- = A,B [q]
on : tzzol toss.at tr.sol
\L/ 30.0

: 17,7M.9 psi Solving for total length L',

This is based on L = 30 ft between guides. Solving for _ Qe,s25) (30)
1t2.3 ft
L', the distance between anchors. we have 7,886.7

r^ : rr7.704.9\lL-'l
' \L/
112.3 fr
: 7.5 supports
15 ft (between supports)
 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Figure 2-43. (A) Initial piping configuration; (B) final piping configuration installed and operating.

Therefore, place a loop 6 ft x 6 ft (arbitrary dimen- t = corroded pipe wall thickness. rn.
sions) every seven supports. One could increase L' by
making the loop larger (increasing Ia and La'1, but space c
: L :
-'2 0.188 in.; cr l.z) ln.
limitations in this application prevent it. See Figure ,
2-43. The shess intensification factors (SID in the code
were made equal to one because computer stress runs
have verified that the curves are conservative enoush to
n :
ft> t,u [' - i(,! -')rr - r,r] rB,B,ro,
make SIF : 1.0.

EXAMPLE 2.4: LUG DESIGN rrff< r.u =

[' -i(' -u,t),' - nr ] to,o,lo'
Referring to Figure 2-16, a lug is to be designed for a
pipe with the following parameters: wlth ; > L,
tt2

8-in. { Sch. 40, C.S. 5A-1068 : for Nd -* K, :

: -350'F, Pr
Pipe B 0.19 1.48
T = 500 psig p: 0.15 for N; - Kz : 1.20
P : 2,000 lb 0: 0.11 for Md -- K, : 0.88
Let C : 3/s in., L: 2tlz in., and the lug has l/z-in. d
B : 0.16 for M" - Kz : 1.25
hole
R. : mean radius, in.
Nd
From piping properties in App€ndix
P/RM
- Fisu.e 2-17

R5?5+?qRt
R.: ---- ; --'= 4.t52in. Md -. Fisure 2-19
P-
 The Engineering Mechanics of Piping

*' : Eql[I (2,000)

= ,' r, (4.1s2) (o.322) = 2,842.30
_ (500) (7,981)
2(O.322)
t [P/Rml [R,tl
: 6,196.43 psi

-i- :_ lrnrOl
or,ao
t-P l[-i,l
: tu," t:t
lotl _ ,",
A.yzt"
{6) (2,0q0)
= E.*,.5.j2 Total stress : o-t: oO + or : 3g,5g6.Ot O.t

Ci.rcumferential Stress, o{ or : ox + oP : 31,032.62 Psi

Using greatest value of o1,

"t=*"Y*",ry o7 12oa = 2(20,000) : 40,000 psi > 31,033 psi

od : (1.38) (2,842.30) + (1.36) (rs,o4s.72) Thus, a lug with these dimensions is acceptable.
: 24,309.65 lb Bolt shearing stress : 78

Letw : t/+-in. weld,

_ 2,000
Oolt or pin area) r(0.5)2
:' I t l'" =, * I n q.r.r loo5 r.38 4
K" +
ls.uwl lr:rroC = 10,186 < oB Oolt allowable)
[-, I os : 25,000 psi

..
x': t, + [-1l" = t-.lz1o.zzztlo" = r'36 The distance from the lug hole centerline to the lug
lr,+w-l l*rcrr:l edge is to be a minimum of AISC Table 1.16.5.1, p.
t-ril 5-51.

Longitudinal Stress, o; Weld Size

Nx -. -' P
f,:-: -'-"
2.000 : 1.600
Pi R-
Fizure 2-18 ZvL 2(0.25) (2.50)

!1r f*:0.707Eoe:
P- -
Fisure 2-2r
E = Joint efficiency
f* :
*.:llolEl =,r' (2,000)
14,140.0 psi

t [P/R,l [R,tl (4.rs2) (0.322)

Weldsize : *: ft
f*
:3,739.87 : 0.113 + r/c-in. weld is acceptable.

6M-.
-.-^ [ur,-l
r..^r r-. | [rp] ta\t
/n ,....-r'2'000)
tz - tPltt']l - \0.322),
EXAIIPLE 2.5: RELIEF VALVE PIPING
= 14,467.03 SYSTEM
-. NY ..
ox:K"itooti 6M"
Examine Example 1-4 relief valve system for external
loadings induced by valve discharge. The gas properties
qx : are as follows:
(1.38) (3,739.87) + (1.36) (14,467.03)

:24,836.19 k:c1c":1.451
N: 243,755 lb/hr T": 294"F = 754"R
Primary or pressur" ,1r"a, : o. = I
2t Ar = 28.89 in.2 M: 170.9
100 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Experimental data from Blevins[6] support the follow-

ing formulations:

[r"ln'
l__:l
I : 0.15 damping factor for small pipe (4-in. d<)
IMl
I : 0.025 for large pipe (>6-in. d)
I l ^ \2451105
0.1443 (1.15) 't lrr.+srt| ' l* | A o.o7 c
[^ .^ o.7z lo'5 (2-39)
Cc: v.45u I D (6. + 1.9)52 [-'-- (6, + 1.9)Sl

I zs+ \n' L: 30 ft, l-in. { Sch. 40 pipe

\r?ot
For a uniformly loaded member with simple supports,
:0.055
- 5WL3
384EI
From Figure 2-31 or from the following we determine P"
and P" as where I: 0.0874 in.a; W : 1.68 lb/ft (30)ft

p-: G 61 710 =
' ccA,- (0.055) (28.89)
42.6t3 = 50.40 lb

6 : 12.569 in.
D =14
From Table 2-5,
F : (0.99X1.1s)(0.98)(28.89)(42.613)
r- = 3.55
(12'569)u r
: l.trut cvcles/sec
[zrr.+sr,l_r
[ 0.45r v.4stl I
)#[, _ l_ryq)l-,",,1"
\42.613/ I I
. 4mzf (2-38)
+(28.89) (4) 'pD-
F : 2,385.879 lb
For air at 60'F,
Reaction moment at the vessel nozzle is
p: 0.076 lb./ft3
MR : (2,385.879) lb (8.5) ft : 20,279.9'12 ft-lb
0.140 i-th
The reactions at the vessel nozzle are discussed in Chap-
.= tn :0.004&
ter 4, along with external loadings on vessels. ft ll.
'1)
-- )- _:L
sec2

EXAIIPLE 2.6: WIND-INDUGED Air velocity under investigation : 25 milhr : 36.65 ttl
VIBRATIONS OF PIPING sec

A l-in. @ Schedule 40 pipe is to run up a process 6, : 13.037; Nn : 2.54 x 1ff

tower, and it is necessary to determine what span inter-
vals are needed to avoid vibration resonance caused by From Figure 2-33,
vortex shedding induced by wind external to the pipe.
Piping designers have the line supported at 3O-foot even S : 0.18
intervals.
The first problem with the layout are the even intervals rnus,
fi
: o.tzo
for the supports. Piping spans subjected to vibmtion
should be in uneven intervals to prevent sine wave oscil-
lations that would be symmetric and pedodic, and thus Damping =
tul#I" : tr.utt
self-destructive.
 Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment 101

Values from Figure 2-34 indicate we are close to reso- RD : reaction in down (non-operat-
ftrnce, as we are within an L/D ratio of 5 and L/D = 30. ing) condition, lb
Thus, we should experience resonance at 25 mph for the R(x, y, z) : vector resultant operator
l-in. S Sch 40 bare pipe. The line should have more sup- fi inside radius, in.
ports added at uneven intervals closer than 30 ft and the ro outside radius, in.
previous analysis repeated for a range of wind velocities . T torsion, ftlb
Such a problem can be approached with a computer pro- t thickness, in.
gram based on experimental data. U displacement, in.
As is obvious, vortex shedding vibrations is still a sub- w weight of fluid, lb.
_jective phenomenon based on empirical data, but this ex- weld size, in.
ample should assist one in protecting piping surrounded Z section modulus, in.3
by vortices. z^ section modulus of mean sec-
tion radius, in.3
OR bending stress, psi
I{OTATION oc circumferential stress, psi
OL longitudinal stress, psi
A: area, in.2 o" pressure stress, psi
C= compliance, in./lb or deg/ft-lb radial stress, psi
D:
OR
diameter, in. torsional stress, psi
Ep :
OT
modulus of elasticity in down oy yield stress, psi
condition, psi T shear stress, psi
E" : modulus of elasticity in operat- F,M + X, +Y,+Z forces or moments acting only
ing condition, psi in +X, +Y, or *Z direction,
F = force, lbs respectively
G
I
modulus of rigidity, psi
moment of inertia, ft'
4M-X, -Y,-Z : forces or moments acting on.ly
in -X, -l or -Z direction,
J polar moment of inertia, fta respectively
K stiffness, either translational
(lb/in.) or rotational (ft-lb/deg)
K= stress concentration factor for
bending
K: stress concentration factor for
pure tension or compression
REFERENCES

KTX : translational stiffness along X- l. Faires, V. M., Design of Machine Elements, The
axis, lb/in. Macmillan Company, New York, 1965.
KRX : rotational stiffness about X- 2. Przemieniecki, I.5., Theory of Matrix Structural
axis, ft-lb/deg Analysis, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1968.
KTY = translational stiffness along Y- Wichman, K. R., Hopper, A. G., Mershon, J. L.,
axis, lb/in. Welding Research Council Bulletin 107, Local
KRY : rotational stiffness about Y- Stresses in Spherical and Cylindrical Shells Due to
axis, ft-lb/deg External Loadings, Welding Research Council, New
KTZ : translational stiffness along Z- York, 1979.
axis, lb/in. 1
Expansion Joint Manufacturers Association, Inc.,
KRZ : rotational stiffness abovt Z- Standards of the Expansion Joint Manufacturers As-
axis, ft-lb/deg sociation, Inc., New York.
L: length, in. 5. Hesse, W. J., Mumford, Jr., N. V. 5., Jet Propul-
M= moment, ft-lb sion for Aerospace Applications , Second Edition, Pit-
P= force (lb) or moment (ft-lb) in man Publishing Corporation, New York, 1964.
stiffness matrix 6. Blevins, R. D., Flow Induced Vibration, van Nos-
Pi= internal pressure, psig trand Reinhold Company, New York, 1977.
P"= external pressure, psig 7. Lienhard, J. H., "Synopsis of Lift, Drag and Vortex
Pn: internal pressure evaluated at Frequency Data For Rigid Circular Cylinders,"
radius R, psig Washington State University, College of Engineering
R: reaction, lb Research Division Bulletin 300, 1966.
 Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment

Providing thermal energy to process systems and 5,000 centipoises or more. Such high-viscosity fluids are
maintaining desired temperatures are key responsibilities quite common with coating mixes used in manufacturing
of mechanical design. Although they border on chemical roofing tiles. Tracing such viscous mixtures with several
engineering, the concern here is with the mechanical as- tracers has proven to be so inferior to jacketed pipe that
p€cts of process systems, and not with the processes the disadvantages ofjacketed systems are offset. With a
themselves. (Chapters 2 and 4 illustrate how mechanical viscosify of 4,000 centipoises, one should consider jack-
design borders civil engineering in a similar manner.) eted pipe.
Process systems require thermal energy for various Most jacketed pipe is limited in commercially avail-
reasons, and the most common are to accelerate chemi- able sizes. Normally 8-in. by 10-in. is the largest size
cal reactions; to heat products and services so the prod-
ucts remain liquid and do not clog piping or equipment,
such as with asphalt and roofing materials, viscous fuel
oils, and syrups; and to cool products and services, for
example to protect epoxy from polymerizing.
In piping systems there are three ways to transfer heat
to the process service-tubular tracers mounted exter-
nally to the pipe, jacketing the process pipe with a larger
pipe forming an annulus in which the heat transfer fluid
flows, and electrically tracing the pipe. We will discuss
the first two types of transfer systems.

JACKETED PIPE VERSUS TRACED PIPE

The difference between traced pipe and jacketed pipe

is obviously the heat transfer area available on each. The
two types are depicted in Figures 3-1a and b. Jacketed
systems offer more heat transfer area, but are expensive
and can be difficult to maintain. One common nroblem is
cracks that develop from the thermal stresses that are in-
curred. Such cracks, which are difficult to locate and re-
pair, can cause the heat transfer and process fluids to
mix, which can have catastrophic resulis. However. the
disadvantages ofjacketed pipe must be weighed with the front vi6w
economics of adding tracers. A proven guideline is to
use jacketed pipe for process fluids with viscosities of Figure 3-1A. Traced pipe.

103
104 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Figure 3-1B. Jacketed pipe. (Courtesy of Parks-Cramer Co.)

 Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment 105

DIMENSIONS
COMMON TO ALL 150 LB.' 3OO LB:
Holes Holeg
I o T
stzE tPs tPs u NPI .oD No. Dia. BC RF K OD No. Dla, BC RF K

Y2t1Y1 Y2 1r/a 2.56 4.25 0.62 3.12 2.00 0.75 4.88 0.75 3.50 2.OO 0.88
3/tt1Yz 1Y2 2.56 5.00 0.62 3.88 2.84 0.75 6.12 0.E8 4.50 2.88 0.88
,l
1t2 Vq 6.00 0.75 4.75 3.62 0.75 6.50 0.75 5.00 3.62 0.6E
1Yarz '| \/+ 3.44 3.62 0.88
2 % 6.00 0.75 3.62 0.62 6 0.75 5.00
1l2x2l2 1L/2 , L/^ 7.00 0.75 4.12 0.69 7.50 0.8E 5.EE 4.12 1.00

2x3 2 3 4.69 1 7.50 0.75 6.00 s.00 0.75 8.25 I 0.68 6.62 5.00 1.12

3x4 3 4 4.44 1 9.00 0.75 7.50 6.19 0.94 '10.00 8 0.8E 7.88 6.'l9 1.25

4x6 4 4.31 1 11.00 I 0.88 9.50 8.50 1.00 12.50 12 0.88 10.62 8.50 1.44

6xE 6 I 4.31 1 '13.50 0.88 11.75 10.62 1.12 15.00 12 'L00 13.00 10.62 1.62
8x10 8 10 4.88 1Y2 16.00 1.00 14.25 12.75 1.19 17.50 16 '15.25 12.75 1.88
.Flanges of higher pressure class and other facings available.

Figure 3-lB. Continued.

Figure 3-1C. Expansion joints for jacketed pipe. (Courtesy of Parks-Cramer Co.)
106 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

DIMENSIONS
150 LB., DUCTILE IRON. STEEL
FLANGE DIMENSIOIiISi
OD Holea A T
ID
srzE tPs lns. mm. No. Dla- BC RF x lns. mm. U TIPT
1Y1r2 1Y4 6.00 152 4 o.75 4.75 3.62 24.OO 610 3.44 3/t
1t/2f,Y2 1Y2 7.@ 178 0.75 4.12 o.75 25.00 635 3/q

M 2 7.50 190 4 6.00 5.00 0_88 25.38 645 4.69 'I

3x4 9.00 28 8 0.75 7.50 6.19 1.00 26.00 660 4.44 '|

4x6 11.00 279 6 0.88 9.50 8.50 't,12 26.50 673 4.31
,l

6x8 13.50 3/$ 8 0.88 'tl.75 10.62 't.19 27.U 4.31 1

8x10 I 16.00 406 12 1.00 14.25 12.75 1.38 u.25 470 4.8 1Y1
All dimensions in inches (ins.) unless otherwise noted.
'Flanges ol higher pressure class and other facings available.

Figure 3-1C. Continued.

carried in stock, but larger sizes can be specially fabri-
cated. When a jacketed system is selected, a careful
stress analysis should be made to ensure that the system
is not overstressed. (Chapter 2 covers such stress analy-
ses.)
TRACIilG PIPING SYSTEMS
When process fluids have low to moderate values of
viscosity 1g 4,500 cp), it is best to trace them with tubes
containing hot or cold fluids. The tracing can be done
with or without heat transfer cement around the tracer
tubes (Figure 3-2). We will consider two methods for
analyzing both systems.
Usually, steam or hot oil is used to trace systems. Hot
oil is used when the fluid to be traced is hotter than satu-
rated steam at typical operating pressures, which would
be about 350'F and above. Hot oil systems are some-
what simpler than steam-traced systems, because steam
traps and condensate return lines are unnecessary. How-
ever, hot oil can be expensive and if there is ample auxil-
iary steam available for tracing, steam is favorable for
moderate- to low-temperature systems. When there is
much piping to be traced, steam at the available tempera-
ture and pressure may condense into hot water before
tracing the entire system. For these situations, only hot
oil can be used. Thus, hot oil is used in tracing applica-
tions where steam is either not practical or not available.
There are many types of hot oils marketed by various
chemical companies as heat transfer fluids.
It is most desirable and should be mandatory to use
heat transfer cement in tracing tubes on process piping,
because it provides more heat transfer area. Heat trans-
fer cements are available in all major countries and in
some of the larger Third World countries. However
there are times of expediency in which traced systems
must be installed without the cement.
 Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment 1O7

Traced Piping Without Heat Transfer

Cement
The modes of heat transfer in a system without heat
kansfer cement are natural convection through the air
space inside the insulation, and to a much lesser extent,
direct radiation between the tracer and pipe or equip-
ment. Since the tracer tube and pipe surface have very
little surface contact, conduction is minimal. Any effect Tr = aclual insulation
thickness
of film resistance to heat transfer between the air space
outside the insulation and the inside insulation surface is
negligible.
The procedure for tracer design without heat transfer Figure 3-3. Traced pipe with one tracer under bottom without
cement is outlined in the foliowing steps (see Figure 3-3 HTC.
for parameters) :

l. Assume a value of air space temperature equal to

or greater than the minimum temperature of the
process temperature inside the pipe.
2. Estimate the natural convection coefficient, h",
from the tracer to the air space from Figure 3-4.
3. Calculate the equivalent cylindrical insulation
thickness, T", as

: {q'r=l)'" {9': =t) (3- l)

'"'\ 2l\Di I

4. Determine the outside film coefficient of the insu-

lation to atmosphere, h., from Figure 3-5 and cal-
culate Uo from the following:

1 T]
(3-2)
u. kt h.

Di : inside diameter of pipe insulation, ft

ho = outside film coefficient from insulation to
atmosphere, Btu/hr-ft2- "F
ki : thermal conductivity of insulation,
Btu/hr-ftz-'F
T" = equivalent thickness of cylindrical insulation, ft
T, : actual insulation thickness, ft
Uo: overall heat transfer coefficient from the air
space to the atmosphere, Btu/hr-ft'-"F

5. Formulate a heat balance around the air sDace.

solving for the temperature of the air space. q:

- L)
(v,xA")(t" (3-3)
a: (hJ(AJ(n)(tt
Q: ) (r)(Qr)
- t") (34)
(3-5)

Figure 3-2, Various traced pipe configurations: (A) single where Ao : outside insulation surface area, ft2lft
traced pipe, with tracer under pipe, with heat transfer cement A, : outside surface area of tracer tube, ftzlft
(HTC); (B) process pipe with two tracers with HTC; (C) one h, : convection film coefficient from tracer or heat
tracer on top ofprocess pipe with HTC; (D) process pipe with transfer cement (HTC) to air space,
three tracers with HTC; (E) jacketed pipe. Btu/hr-ft -'F
 108 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

b 1.o
.c o.9
o.a
o.7

oo,ouTstDE D|aMETER OF CyL|NDER ltNcHESl

h: NAIURAL CONVECTTON FtLM COEFFICTENT

.^. .o.25 Figure 3-4, Natural convection on
h. o.5lt-l
horizontal cylinders.

9
a:
7

35710 152030 50
OUTSIOE DIAMETER OF INSULATION IINCHESI
Figure 3-5. Heat transfer outside
horizontal pipes. ho=COMBINED OIJTSIDE HEAT TRANSFER FILM COEFFTCIENT

Qr : heat transfer per lineal foot from air space to
atrnosphere. Btu/hr-ft
Qz : heat transfer per lineal foot from tracer to air
space, Btu/hr-ft
L : temperature of outside air, oFoF
ti = temperature of tracer fluid,
"y : safety factor; 1.3 for piping systems without
HTC, 2.0 for piping systems with HTC, 1.5
for vessels without HTC, 2.5 for vessels with
HTC
lf ta > ti, then the system is adequate. The maximum
spacing of tracer tubes for cylindrical vessels is calcu-
lated in the same manner except that a flat plate approxi-
mation (T. = t) is used to compute the heat losses, or Q
values.
Traced Piping Wlth Heat Transfer Cement
One mode of heat transfer in a system with heat trans-
fer cement is conduction from the tracer tube through the
pipe or vessel wall to the point of the wall most distant
from the tracer. The thermal distribution of such a sys-
tem is shown in Figure 3-6. The other mode of heat
transfer is the natural convection from the tracel and the
pipe or vessel wall to the air space. Thus, the air space
temperature is lower than the minimum process pipe or
COLO SURFACE TEMPERAIURE
Figure 3-6. Heat transfer by radiatlon. ',{s-J[(!e"" I-e#9]
Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment 109
vessel wall temperature. The contribution of radiation
from the tracer and pipe or vessel to the inside wall ofthe
insulation is negligible, as is the film resistance to heat
transfer on the inside insulation wall.
The procedure for tracer design with heat transfer ce-
ment is as follows:
1. Determine the scheme of tracers to be applied us-
ing Figure 3-7.
2. Calculate the metal wall area (equals wall thick-
ness) A*; the outside surface area of insulation, Ao,
the outside surface area of pipe, Ao, and the outside
surface area of tracer tube or heat tfansfer cement
(Hrc).
3 .
Assume a value of the minimum pipe wall tempera-
ture, to, equal to or greater than the minimum pro-
cess f luid temp€rature.
4. Assume a value of air space temperature, ta.
5. Estimate the natural convection coefficient, h",
from the HTC to air space.
6. Calculate T" using Equation 3-1.
7. Determine the outside film coefficient of the insu-
lation to the atmosphere, h., from Figure 3-5 and
calculate Uo from Equation 3-2.
8. Calculate the average pipe wall temperature tp and
estimate t}le natural convection coefficient from the
pipe or vessel to air space, ho, from Figure 3-4.
It2I F
110 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Figure 3-7, Temperature distribution of a two tracer system.

(Courtesy of Thermon Manufacturing Co. t

9. Formulate a heat balance around the pipe or vessel temperature of air space, 'F
wall and air space and perform an iteration analysis ambient temperature,'F
solving for t" and te with the following steps: length of heat flow through metal, ft
pipe temperature at point nearest tracer, 'F
Qr: (u.)(,\)(r" - t") (3-6)
pipe temperature at point farthest from tracer.
.F
Qz: (hJ(At)(tt
- t") (3-7)
(hPxApxtp * t") (3-8)
Likewise for traced systems with HTC, for traced ves-
sels, the maximum tracer tube spacing for traced vessels
Qn : (2Xq) (I*)o.u,, * ,,,' (3-e) is calculated by the same procedure, except that the flat
plate approximation (Te : t) is used to compute the heat
Q+) (r)(Q:) (3-10) losses, or Q values.
Qz+ Q:)Qr (3-l l)
: Condensate Return
where Am cross-sectional pipe wall area (equals pipe
thickness), ft,/ft Steam differs from hot oil in that condensate is formed
Ap = outside surface area of pipe, ft /ft
by loss of heat energy. During energy shortages, the use
ho = convection film coefficient from pipe to air
of condensate return lines is normally justified. Consid-
space, Btu/hr-ft2-oF
k : thermal conductivity of vessel shell material, ering the use of 1/2-in. tracers, normally a l-in. conden-
Btu/hr-ft2-'F sate subheader will handle condensate from 2-8 tracers,
n, : number of tracers, dimensionless a ltlz-in. header from 9-20 tracers, and a 2-in. sub-
Q: = heat transf€r per lineal foot from pipe to air header from 21-50 tracers. With a condensate collection
space, Btu/hr-ft and return system the steam supply pressure should be at
Q4 : heat transfer per lineal foot from tracer to least 100 psig. Even though these rules of thumb are well
pipe, Btu/hr-ft tested in field practice, the reader is encouraged to calcu-
 Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment 11 1

late the condensate load for his particular needs. Con- where hr8 : enthalpy of vaporization (also called latent
sider the following analysis: heat of vaporization), Btu/lb

Total heat loss from steam tracer:Qr The steam in the tracer is assumed to transfer energy
For systems with HTC (by adding Equations 3-'7 and 3-9), as heat for a given mass of steam under constant pres-
sure. A typical condensate return system is shown in
Qr: Qq+Qz (3-12) Figure 3-8.
When collecting condensate, care must be taken to
For systems without HTc, prevent water harnmer caused by the mixing of conden-
sate at different temperatures and pressures. To prevent
Qr:Q: (34)
water hammer in condensate systems, spargers and
The steam in the tracer is assumed to enter the system steam separation kegs should be considered.
as saturated steam at an initial temperature or pressure. To size the condensate return lines, as well as the trac-
ers themselves, use the methods presented in Chapter I
Considering the amount ofheat loss over a given temper-
ature range, the condensate load from n tracers on a for line sizing. In systems where a large quantity of con-
given process pipe is densate is formed by steam flashing, a condensate return
pump may be required. Normally, condensate return
,ir : $,
nnfc
rum (3-13)
pumps are the horizontal centrifugal type. Pumps and
their applications are presented in Chapter 6.

STEAM SUB
HOR.
E

COND.
HOR.

SEEDETAIL A(TYP.)

SEE FIGURE 3

COND HOR.

SEE
OETAIL A
(wP.)
OETAIL-

Figure 3-8. Condensate return header in tmcer

system. (Courtesy of Thermon Manufacturing
co.)
112 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Jacketed Plpe for Dy'D" > 0.2

Figure 3-9 illustrates details ofjacketed pipe. Forjack- For an annulus, the hydraulic radius, Rs,
eted systems, it is customary to assume a temperature
drop over a given length of pipe for hot oil. In applica, Dr-i - d.o
Rs (3-18)
tions of hot oil heating a viscous fluid such as asphalt,
100'F drop per 100 ft, or I 'F per foot, is quite common.
If one is not familiar with a given service, then a heat in which
balance must be made, like those done for tracers, How-
ever, using a temperature drop over a given lenglh of D:4Rs (3-19)
pipe simplifies the analysis and has been proven in prac-
tice, because all examples cited are from actual, success- ._ NC"
(3-20)
ful operating systems. The following steps illustrate one
such method of designing jacketed pipe:
l. Compute the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, and thus
by the following relation:
Nru"k
' .D- (3-2r)
u = Er*r+ln(ry'r'* ll-r (3-14)
kzr
[h': h

: 2. After solving for the overail heat transfer coeffi-

where N*" Y% (3-r5) cient, determine the amount of heat transfer from
tt
the relation

hr: : r.86(NrJ"'(N",) "LP) ($ (3- l6) q : UA(LMTD) (3-22)

k$'"
where A: outside area of inner tube. ft2. and the LMTD
Nr" : o.o2o Nr;'Nr (oeJ 0_17\ is based on the assumed rate of heat loss per
unit lengrh of pipe.

,1- rooo o socror.t

9d LR

PE(rcESS IINE

PrJ:1r2, 2r3,3t4,/rt 6linl ptt= t'ga,&1,4,€

Figure 3-9. Standard fabrication details for jacketed piping.

 Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment 113

END OF JACKE'T DETAIL

v2t. ss n BING

PROCESS LINE IPI

JACKETIJI

CUIOE BAi OETAII- BANS PLACEO EVERY rEN FEEi OF

PR@ESS IINE

PrJlinl GLJtoE BAR Srz€linl

z'z z t" i,u
31 4 r4r15 -2 In to€
4t6 rrYi6-r in tong
-le'9r-
-
-t

PFOCESS LITIE
rrNE srzE prJ li.L

ll

Figure 3-9, Continued.

114 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

The LMTD is solved using the following formula: To facilitate manual calculations refer to Figure 3-10 [1].
The concept of the logarithmic mean temperature differ-
_ (GTTp) - (UrTp)
/1-r1r ence is widely explained in most basic engineering text-
, /crro\
]n l-l books, so its explanation will not be presented here. The
\rjrTD / reader is referred to Kern [2] or Ludwig [3] for a formal
description of the significance of the LMTD.
where LMTD : logarithmic mean temperarure difference
GTTD : greater terminal temperature difference 3. Once the amount of heat transferred is determined
LTTD : lesser terminal temDerature difference from Equation 3-22. assuming a given temperature

Chart for Solving tm

90
MTD Formula
80
,\,rn GTTD.LTTD
-"- _ GTTD 70
t-o8e LrrD 60
^o@
.c,*
.rk@' 50

to,4 40

i5

tll E
o F
t
E

Greater Terminal Temperature Difference

Figure 3-10. LMTD chart. (O 1978 by Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association. Repdnted by permission.)

drop, the amount of flow rate ofthe heating fluid is
determined by
q : rirCoAt (3-24)
where rir : hot fluid flow rate, lb/hr
: specific heat of hot fluid, Btu/lb-"F
At : hot fluid temperature drop
From this formulation we determine the flow rate re-
quired.
4. Using Figure 3-11, the amount of pressure drop in
the annulus is determined and added to the Dressure
drop in the whole sysrem (which includes the pip-
ing connecting the annuli). The pressure drop for
the piping other than the annuli is determined by
using the methods presented in Chapter 1. Chapter
6 shows how to select and size the pumps to handle
fluids that usually require jacketed services, such
as hot oil.
Once the flow rate is determined, the hydraulic analy-
sis made, and the pressure drop judged adequate for the
size ofpumps selected, the jacketed system details can be
designed.
Typical jacketed piping components are depicted in
Figure 3-9. In extensively jacketed systems, valves can
be procured that have jacketed spaces built in. These
types of valves are recommended for services where
jacketed pipe is required (p > 5,000 cp). Some of these
valves are shown in Fieure 3-9.
Vessel and Equipment Traced Systems
Systems that require piping to be either traced or jack-
eted likewise require similar components for vessels.
The complexity of traced components depends on the
viscosity of the process fluids being handled. For high-
viscosity, non-Newtonian fluids special items must be
added to vessels, such as agitators that are composed of
blades and usually powered by electric motors. There
are many reasons to use agitators, and one of the most
common is to keep suspended particles in a non-Newto-
nian fluid evenly distributed to prevent particle settle-
ment on the tank bottoms.
There are two basic types of heating and cooling de-
vices used for vessels-internal and external iackets that
fit on the inside and outside of the vessel, respectively.
These jacket types are shown in Figure 3-12. The hot
fluid (normally steam or hot oil) enters one side of the
coil and flows through the baffle (inside the tank) or
Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment 1 15
jacket (outside the tank) and exits through another side
heating the vessel's contents. This can be seen in Figure
)-tz-
Before we analyze in detail these various components,
we must first look at the overall heat reouirements of the
vessel to determine how much heating surface is re-
quired. The controlling criterion in determining the
amount of heating panel surface area of a vessel is the
transient state, i.e., how much surface area is required to
heat a given mass of fluid of specified properties to a
specified temperature within a specified time. Figure
3-13 illustrates a control mass inside a oressure vessel.
Consider two transient boundary conditions in the ves-
sel-the fluid resting at steady state and the fluid moving
through the tank at a given mass flow rate. Thus, the fol-
lowing two criteria must be established before the heat
transfer area required for a process vessel can be deter-
mmeo:
1. A vessel shown in Figure 3-13(a) contains a static
fluid of X gallons at an initial temperature, Y'F.
How many degrees of temperature per hour will
the fluid mass rise for a given surface area of
clamped-on jacketed coils?
2. Using clamped-on jacketed coils shown in Figure
3-13@), how many degrees of temperature per
hour will be transferred to a given mass of fluid of
defined properties flowing through the vessel at a
constant mass flow rate with an initial temoerature
of Y'F
These two criteria are established bv considerins the
following relationships:
Q : mcpat (3-2s)
and
Q : UA(LMTD) (3-26)
Equating Equation 3-25 to 3-26, we obtain
UA(LMTD)
At : (3-27)
mCp
The U value, or overall heat transfer coefficient, is
calculated on the basis of whether the panel of heat trac-
ing tubes are clamped on outside the vessel or located in-
side the vessel. These overall heat transfer U values are
determined through extensive laboratory tests and accu-
mulated field experience. The U value used in calcula-
tions should be that recommended by the heat transfer
panel manufacturer, as various panel designs are avail-
able and the calculation of the U value analvticallv can
116 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

rh" x1" s,ch.40 Jackeled Pipe

curves based on 100 l€et ol jacketod pipe (tiw 2010:
lengrhs) and inclsde live 1" o.D. x.065" wal tubing jump-
overs plus entrancs and exit losses. Warer @ 60'F. (16"C,)

tt;

A P-inchesoluater I

Flgure 3-11A. Engineering data pressure drop through jacket. (Courtesy of Parks-Cramer Co.)
 't

Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment 117

,a" x1Y2" Sch.40 Jacketed Pipe

curues based on 1oo reet or racceled p'pe (rrv;20 o_
lengths, ano Include 3d" O o r 06s' wal lubing iump_
'ive €xit losses. Water @ 60'F O6'C)
overs plus €ntrance and

dl

o
=

Figure 3-118. Engineering data pressure drop through jacket. (Courtesy of Parks-Cramer Co.)
 I
1 18 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

f,

fi

{.
1" x 2" Sch.40 Jackeled Pipe
curyes based on 100 leel ol jack€ied pipe (livs 20{"
rengrhs) and rive t4" o.D. x .065" wall lubrng jump_
'nclude and exii losses. water @ 60'F- {16'c.}
overs plus entrance

J
I

o
=
J

g A P- inches of water

Figure 3-1|C. Engineering data pressure drop through jacket. (Courtesy of Parks-Cramer Co')
 Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment 119

1Y4" x2" Sch.40 Jacketed Pipe

Cutues based on 100 leet ol jacketed ppe (lve 20:0"
lenqths) and include live 74'O.D. x .065'walrlubrnq jump
overs plus entance and exit Losses. Wate. @ 60"F. (16'C.)

d A P-psig <'

ut

o
=

A P - inches ol water 3

Figure 3-11D. Engineering data pressure drop through jacket. (Courtesy of Parks-Cramer Co.)
120 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

1r/a" x 2V" Sch. 4O Jacketed Pipe

Curves based on 100 ot jackered pipe (Uve 2010'
r;'O D. ! .065" wdl tJbrng jump-
lengrl^sl dnd r clude rive'eet
overs pr!s entrance and exl rosses waler @ 60,F. (16.c )

AP-psig

t
'to

=
J

Figure 3-11E. Engineering data pressure drop through jacket. (Courtesy of Parks-Cramer Co.)
 Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment 12'l

1Y2" x2t/2" Sch.40 Jacketed Pipe

Curues bas6d on 100 teei ol jackered pipe (live 20!0"
lenglhs) and incrude nve ya" O O x obs" wrll ruo,rg tuhp-
overs plls enrra.ce a.d ext losses. water @ 60"F. (16'c)

lD
I

Figure 3-11F. Engineering data pressure drop through jacket. (Courtesy of Parks-Cramer Co.)
122 Mechanical Design of Process Svstems

2" x 3" Sch. 40 Jackeled Pipe

Curves based on 100 leel ol iackeldd pipe (iive 2010"
lenolnsl and nclude live 1" O.D. (.065'sall rubnq_Lmp-
overs plus entrance 3nd exit rosses water @ 60.F. 06"c.)

=
J

A P - inches ot water

Figure 3-11G. Engineering data pressure drop through jacket. (Courtesy of Parks-Cramer Co.)
 Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment 123

3" x 4" Sch.40 Jackeled Pipe

curves based on 100 leer ol jackeled pipe (tive 20'0"
l6n9rhsj and Include l,!e I" o.D
^ 064 rali rlbr.g tuhp.
overs plus enl.ance and exil losses. Water @ 60'F. (16'C )

d A P - psig o

Figure 3-11H. Engineering data pressure drop through jacket. (Courtesy of Parks-Cramer Co.)
124 Mechanical Desisn of Process Svstems

3" x 5" Sch. 40 Jackeled Pipe

CLNes based on 100 leel ol iackeled pipe (live 2010"
lengihs) a.d include live 1" O.D. x.065" walllubing jump-
overs plus enirance and exil losses. Waler @ 60'F. (16'C.)

o
=
J

A P - inches ol waler q

Figure 3-1 11. Engineering data pressure drop through jacket. (Courtesy of Parks-Cramer Co.)
 Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment 125

4" x 6" Sch. 40 Jacketed Pipe

Curues based on 100 leei oi jacketed pipe (uve 20'4"
lengrhsl and ,ruluoe lve I' O D
^ 065" $Ell rlbrnq tunp.
overs pius entrance and exn losses. Water @ 60'F. (16'C.)

o
=

A P - inches ol wate. q

Figure 3-11J. Engineering data pressure drop through jacket. (Courtesy of parks-Cramer Co.)
Mechanical Desisn of Process Svstems

6" x 8" Sch. 40 Jackeled Pipe

curues based on 100 ieer oi iackered pipe (nv€ 20a0'
lenglhs) and inclLde nva I O o r 065'war' ruo ng Lmp
overs plus enlrance and exil losses water @ 60"F. {16"c.)

AP-psig

t
-
,LENT 7
)aa:
-:,-: j: o(
7.,
o(

E,
o-
(ra
lo

a
=, =

7 '::
AM tN/ \R

::::l::::l: ::::l::.1:.::1.::t,:
Park :s -l ,fal ne r:
JACKETET NG SYST :l\4S t COMPONENTS

l,ill ' 1 ,'1,,,,1,,

A P - inches ol water q

Figure 3-11K. Engineering data pressure drop through jacket. (Courtesy of Parks-Cramer Co.)
 Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment 127

8" x 10" Sch. 40 Jackeled Pipe

cu.ves based on 100 ieet ol tackeled prpe (rve 2oro,
leng l-sl aro incrLde trr- t" o D. r 06r" do r_b'.q tu-p.
overs pL!s enlrance and exrr tosses. water @ 60.F {16.c )

AP-psig

-/;;
!r:::r'
JT T FTOW i,? ,/..:
i:,1-,:

.1-=: F=
h-0b, t1=

/. / I l::::
F= t.-
t:
lv c
=,
(r. )1
@

o,
= 7/. o
=
/
ul

L AMINAR
A I

:l ':r:i::::l :::l't
Pe k s-l fame I I
,l
i. coMP ONEI {TS
!l :
:;::l ::l :::.[]
.. .t.._
...1..1 . . .1.-.

A P - inches ol water q

Figure 3-1 1 L. Engineering data pressure drop through jacket. (Courtesy of parks_Cramer Co. )
128 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Moderate bracins for

mediurn agitation -coodi-
tions. All 5rac6 are from
vessel wall and no circum-
Iereotial rings are used.

Brrc$ 6ay be weldcd ot

bolted, Hemocd edgc pcr
mounting lug detail, page
,{4. desirable.

Flexible hoses desirable

her€ w-hen possible aod
wnen lorces are Severe.
Also particularlv imoorc
ant, foi altematirig heiting
ano cooltnq conorttons.

Speial bracing.for heavy

aertauon conorarons,

Figure 3-12A. Heat transfer internal plate or panel baffles inside a vessel. (Courtesy of Tranter, Inc.)
 Heat Transt'er in Piping and Equipment 129

,/ w*\ \ \
/ _-.--\r\1
'ffiFt*
,(?,''l
\t\
\-*'/
e
C=2%" MlN.

l[ [ l\ l\

I I

D ----v
3RD. S€T OF CHANNETS
HEADER SIZE
USED WHEN B DIM.
EXCEEDS 7T'

OVER,AI.I WIDTH
I(NO. OF PLATECOTL-|) (CJ.3',]

Figure 3-128. Schematic depicting how heat transfer panel plates heat up or cool down process fluid in tank. (Courtesy of Tran-
ter. Inc.)

L-3S Luqs (typ)

ffi N
Figure 3-12C. Heat transfer panel plates designed to fit on
curved surfaces. (Courtesy of Tranter, Inc.)
 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

lead to erroneous results if the exact details of the Danel

design are not known. Most panel manufacturers hesitate
to reveal such detailed features, so the U values on the
low side are recommended for situations where the panel
manulacturer does not have a recommended U value.
With high-viscosity fluids such as tar and asphalt at tem-
peratures of 300-700'F. a good U value lor lnternal baf-
fle panels is 9.60 and for external clamped-on panels a
value of 4.00 is reaSonable.
After a U value has been selected, Equation 3-26 is
solved, revealing the net temperature change per hour.
L 35 Llgs (typ) The second criterion involves the mass flow rate ofthe
Cuslomer shoutd instatl
same fluid through the vessel. To estabiish this criterion,
al iifre ol instartairon. Equations 3-25 and 3-26 are solved tosether to deter-
mine the temperature rise. The analysis o-f both criteria is
This sketch shows tine
conlact pfovrded by the 1?,,
graphically illustrated later in Example 34.
Once both transient conditions I and 2 are satisfied bv
the selected heat transfer area, the detailed design of the
baffle panels (both external clamp-on and inteinal) can
be designed. This is best shown by example and done so
iq in Example 3-5.
-i- Further applications of Equations 3-25 and 3-26 are
given in Example 3-6. In this example a material han-
dling problem is analyzed in which both steady state and
Figure 3-12C (continued). Heat transfer panel plates designed transient heat transfer conditions are considered. After
to fit on curved surfaces. (Courtesv of Tranter. Inc.) reviewing Examples 3-5 and 3-6, the reader is en-
couraged to always consider transient conditions of heat
transfer in similar situations. Transient criteria, as re-
vealed, usually govern to a large degree.

Figure 3-12D. Vessels with typical external heat transfer plate panels. (Courtesy of Tranter, Inc.)
 Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment 131

Figure 3-12D. Continued.

-'-- -*-i
fluid
x gallons
v'F
oF/min

Figure 3-13. Two schemes in which the heat transferred must be considered: (A) conrol rnass scheme; (B) control volume
scheme.
132 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

HEAT TRANSFER IN RESIDUAL SVSTETyIS
lleat Transfer Through Gylindrical Shells
Heat transfer through pipe supports, vessel skirts, and
empty branch piping connections to hot or cold headers
can cpuse critical stress problems as well as damage to
equipment. Excessive thermal deflections can result in
unacceptable loads on rotating equipment and vessel
nozzles. In cryogenic service, vessel skirts can fail by
brittle fracture if the transition temperature point be-
tween alloy steels and carbon steel is not considered.
This section discusses the analysis procedures for ana-
lyzing heat transfer in such residual components as ves-
sel skirts and pipe supports. The methods used have been
tested with empirical data and have been used for several
years in design practice. For derivations to the following
method on heat transfer through cylinders, the reader is
referred to the author's paper [4].
Vessel skirts are normally insulated on the inside and
and convection are the controlling modes of heat trans-
fer. The convection can either be considered as natural
or free convection, or in the case of wind, forced con-
vection. It has been found that using the free convection
coefficient is the most desirable in many cases, since
vessels are normally surrounded by other equipment and
structures, making free convection more applicable.
Assume that the temperature inside the skirt is the
same as ambient temperature and wind chill factors are
not present. Air seepage under the skirt and open aper-
tures on the shell allow for equilibrium to be established
with the outside temperature.
The first step is to determine the free convection film
coefficient for the outside surface of the oressure vessel
skirt insulation. In normal conditions. the air temoera-
ture inside the vessel skirt. ti. is assumed five degrees
lower than the outside ambient, ts. The free convection
film coefficient is found by iteration using the following
equatrons:
,, - [r, ln(r2lrr) -, qlnG!lt2) ,

outside surfaces as depicted in Figure 3-14. In cryogenic "--[ k- l!-

applications, there are many reasons why a heat transfer
analysis of the skirt is desirable. The primary reason is
r+
*
ln (r+/r:)
-
1 l-'
(3-28)
the one previously cited-to protect carbon steel compo-
k* -h.J
nents from fracture failure. Another reason involves ec- ta = (Ua/ha 5)(! - t5) + t5 (3-29)
onomics-a tall skirt made of alloy steel is much more
expensive than a similar skirt made mostly of carbon
No, = [d3lgB I At | (3,600)2]tp2 (3-30)
steel. Also, we will see how the skirt can actually deflect
as a result of this heat exchange.
Consider the skirt in Figure 3-14. The vessel is at ei- NN" : C(NG.NP.)- (3-31)
ther an elevated temperature or a cold temperature deno-
ted at the shell-skirt juncture as t.. Thermal conduction hl.s : G"i,NN,)/d (3-32)

@l = insulation
flll = metal

.f
Figure 3-14. Vessel skirt insulation detail. Sometimes the in-
side insulation is left off.
 Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment 133

For free convection of cross flow around cvlinders.

the following constants hold [5]:

l0 < Nc.Np. < 10e, C = O.525, m : tlc

Pipe being analyz€d
lOe < Nc,Np, < 10", C = O.129,m : )13
-pip€ slub pi6ce

These relationships are valid for applications for the

refining, petrochemical, and gas processing industries.
Now, for a cylinder with insulation on both sides, we
use the final value of ha-5 after performing iterations
from Equations 3-28 through 3-32 in the following equa-
trons:

^- /2"r,.,\ [ r l I
tltt tr"'rrl -
r 1-3'll
" \U,q,/ l" (t ,ttj
^/ \[
z - ll:+l lroho,ttn . t5) - k2',
l\KmAny' [

[ ,, - (t/'i)lll
,
tl" {r./rr) I"
l]L (3-34)

z : ztQ (3-35)

Substituting these parameters into the foliowing equa-

tion, we obtain the temperature distribution down the
skirt length:
5
.
2(t. - Zt e-oo
= (3-36)
, *
"zrauJ

The difference between the process temperature inside

the vessel and the outside ambient temperature is the
main driving force of heat transfer. It is analogous to
electrical EMF driving force or the potential energy of
height differential from which a fluid is dropped and
turned into kinetic energy.
The degree in significance of convection is inversely
Fragile piece ol equipment U

proportional to the insulation thickness. The air around
the outside insulation surface is in a state of local turbu-
lence and for this reason the variance of the Grashof
number down the outside insulation wall is insignificant.
Experimental measurements confirm this fact. The
reader will see in Examples 3-7 and 3-8 how to apply this
method to vessel skirts.
Piping that is supported by piping sections is treated in
a similar manner to vessel skirts. Such piping supports
are shown in Figure 3-15 in which the pipe supports and
branch lines are subject to thermal gradients from a hot
or cold process header. Figure 3-15a shows a stub piece
used as a piping header support. The temperature gradi-
ent through the stub piece must be analyzed to determine
if the Teflon slide beneath the base plate will be pro-
tected from the elevated temperature inside the process
Figure3-15. (A) Stub piece used as header support: (B) pro-
cess line is connected to a turboexpander. The line is sup-
ported by a short section of pipe welded to a base plate; (C)
branch line from a header (hot or cold) connected through a
shut-off valve to a ftagile piece of process equipment.
header. If the process header is in cryogenic service, the
stub piece must be analyzed to assure the design engineer
that the carbon steel structural members are adequately
protected from temperatures below the transition tem-
perature.
Shown in Figure 3-l5b is a common situation in which
a process line connected to a turboexpander is supported
by a section of pipe welded to a base plate. If the pipe
stub deflects enough (shown by 61), the thermal deflec-
134 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

tion could induce a sufficient bending moment on the where c and m are determined as previously for skirts
turbine to cause serious mechanical damage.
Figure 3-15c shows a branch line running from a hot h,j = (k"r.Nr")/d (3-32)
or cold pipe header to a fragile piece of equipment. Even
though the valve on the branch line is closed, the residual tj : - t.) + t"
(u3/h;) (ti (3-29)
temperature distribution through the branch line may be
enough to cause the pipe to deflect and damage the
Atj : t3 - ti < 2'F (3-39)
equlpment.
Once Atj criterion is met, we can proceed with the fi-
Referring to Figure 3-16, the procedure for determin-
nal iterative value for the film coefficient, h.. With this
ing the temperature distribution through the empty
final value. we solve lor the parameters Q, Z. and Z as
branch pipe or pipe support is similar to the case of a
follows:
vessel skirt. First, solve for the free convection film co-
efficient on the exterior surface of the pipe insulation. To 2nk1
do this, use the equation for the overall heat transfer co- ^ (3-40)
efficient:
;"{$
," (;) ,, ," (,:) t / r- \ r
- kJ,
t't - ---tT
ur: 1,,
- r( -n;/]
,
(3-37) (3-41)

\ k- l--^J lrrtr"tt:
rn lll
\r,
t

t', : l=l (r, - to) + to (3-38) o

Once Q and Z are known, we solve for the tempera-

ture distribution with
No, = [d37,gB( lAt l) (3,600),]/rr, (3-30)
5
2(t. - Zte 'ao
Nr" = C(Nc,NpJ' (3-31) tx =-++L = (3-36)
I + e2"au '
You will notice that the form of the final solution.
Equation 3-36, is the same for the skirt problem with in-
sulation on the inside and outside shell surfaces as the
pipe problem with insulation on only the outside surface.
ts = 900'F; The difference in the solutions is because of the bound-
; 300'F ary conditions, i.e., a cylinder with insulation on both
inside and outside surfaces versus a cylinder with just in-
sulation on the outside surface alone. The solutions to the
basic differential equations are affected by these differ-
ences in boundary conditions. For further information on
dia., this subject, the reader is referred to the author's paper
sch.40, cs
t4l.
3-in. calcium silicate For cases of tapered vessel skirts the cylinder section
can be approximated by using an average diameter. This
approximation is very close to actual results because
skirts should not taper more than 15" (see Chapter 4).
As a consequence of heat transfer along vessel skirts
and pipe connections, thermal deflections will occur.
The deflection equations are the same regardless of whar
case is considered, whether it is a shell with insulation on
the inside and outside surfaces or a shell with only exter-
Figure 3-16. Empty branch pipe with one end uniformly sub- nal insulation. The values of Q and Z are determined
jected to three temperatures. from the appropriate equations of each respective case.
 Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment 135

The thermal deflection equations are dependent on the

+
(2.Oss x ro ,7]L
type of material considered since the coefficient of ther- l0o
mal conductivity is the governing property of the partic-
ular material being considered. Thking a differential ele- (2.055 x l0-3) 1t. * ZY leuoorr - 1;
+ 5)
ment of a shell, we solve for the amount of thermal l06eo5(1 + e2lao
deflection by
(1.06 x l0-6) (_
dL : @(t)t(x) dx (342)
106
- z),
l8(t,
Since the temperature varies over the shell length, we in-
regrate Equation 3-42 to obtain the total deflection, 6, as
'Ir sech (LQo 5) tanh(LQ0 5) + arctan [sinh(LQ0 5)]l

o= jar- = JL crrrr(xr dx (3-41)

The function, c(t), is the coefficient of thermal expan-

sion for the particular material being considered. Values + -
4Zi,- Zt
tr "..] ZrLl
arcran rerq" )l + -
|
l^i.
tv-' )
(3-45)
of the thermal expansion were curve fitted over a large )
range of temperature and a relation in terms of tempera- Like Equation 3-44, Equation 3-45 can be adequately
ture was obtained for various materials. The function for handled using only the first three terms. The use of these
t(x) is obtained from Equation 3-36 and is substituted equations will be demonstrated in the examples.
with d(t) in Equation 3-43. Then, the product of a(t)t(x)
is integrated over a length L and we obtain the thermal Residual Heat Transfer Through Pipe
deflection function for each particular material. For car-
Shoes
bon steel, the expanded thermal deflection equation is as
follows: Heat transfer through plate surfaces is much simpler
5; than more complex surfaces, because they can be han-
2[5.89 + (2.496 x l0 ,22)& - Z) arctan (elo0
dled with one-dimensional equations that are simple to
106e0.5 use. Based on Figure 3-17, we consider the heat balance
down throush the shoe as follows:
+
(2.496 x lo-)(t, - Z)2(e2l-ao5 - 1)
(l09Qo 5(l + e2LQo
5)

(2.496 x ro ,z'L
t0-
(6.536,l0-?)
(109 - zr
{rr,,
't---
..
-------l1
[sech(LQos.; tanh(LQo + arctan [sinhtLQo'y]l

- 2f s
- 87r, / e:Loo i
,a"-- \l + etLao
5i

+ 42t. -2, [;L..,* r.'o"r] * z,r] B-441

-l
For practical applications in the refining, petrochemi-
cal, and gas processing industries, sufficient accuracy
may be obtained by omitting the last term beginning with
(6.536 x 10-?) in the calculations.
Similarly, for stainless steel, the thermal deflection
equation is as follows:

6., , 2& - Z) [8.96 + (4.1 Ix 10 )Z] arctan (eLQ0

5)

5
(106)Qo Figure 3-17. Pipe supported on a shoe.
 136 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

/Heat conducted rhrough\ (Heat loss by convection from'l

\ shoe to base plate /- \ shoe to outside air l
.-t =
go"F
Writing in equation form, we have for one-dimensional,
steady state flow:

k.A, l:l = hJp(ar) (3-46)

sos'r
8o3'F
For the conduction process, At : ti - tp
For the convection process, At : tp - to 8O3"F
Substituting into Equation 346, we have
-
Ue. (D' l=hoAp(tp-r.)
Solving for to, we have '-888'F
8sa"F
. _ k-A.t, + hoApl-to'^.F (3-47)
'n- 1L.a. + trrl"I-r -
Figure 3-18A. Thermal gradient through pipe clamp, clevis,
where A. : (P x length of shoe) x 2, in.2
and supporting rod.
Ao = Base width \ length of shoe. in 'z
h^ = free convection coefficient for shoe to air,
Btu/hr-ft2-'F
k: thermal conductivity of shoe material,
Btu/hr-fc"F
L: shoe height, in.
A' : 0.131 ft'?
Like the analysis for cylinders, the free convection co-
efficient, h., can be substituted with a forced convection From Figure 3-4, ht = 2.5
coefficient. However, most pipe shoes are surrounded by Calculating T",
enough obstructions to prevent a direct wind from blow-
ing on the shoe for any length of time. Figures 3-18a and
h {D'
* 2t)
= o.+rs
3-18b show thermal gradients for various simple pipe \Di /
supports.
/r rr\
r. = l=l 0.41e = 0.256 ft

u.

EXAMPLE 3-l: STEAM TRACING DESIGN kr : (2.0X0.04) : 0.08

i
From Figure 3-5, h" : 4.5 (assuming At : 50'F)
Determine the steam tracing requirements for an S-in.
Schedule 40 gas-vapor line with a minimum process tem- U. = 0.292
perature of 140'F. The piping insulation is 2rlz in. cal-
iium silicate, 9-inch nominal IPS. The system is to be Formulating a heat balance for t}re system we have the
designed for an ambient temperature of 0"F and a 15 following:
mph wind. The tracing medium will be 150 psig steam,
aid tlz-in. copper tubing without HTC will be used for Qr (ah space to atm) : (0.292)(3.63)(140) : 148
tracing. Btu/hr
We first try using two tracers running alongside bot- Q2 (tracer to air space) : (2.5)(0.131)(2)Q26) : 147
tom of process pipe. Calculating the areas we have the Btu/hf
following: :
The assumed number of tracers is inadequate for 1
A" = 3.63 ft 1.3.
 Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment 137

I.=9OO"F= PROCESS FLUID TEMPERATUBE

rr i-1 n-l
t___
I

olo I I
ol I
o
3
H_-
'{"1 ltll!'1-
*---l
'-

Figure 3-188. Thermal gradient through PiPe clamP support.

Trying three tracers, we have D. : 8.00 in. : 0.667 ft;

D" + 2ti :8.0 + 2(2.0) = 12.0in. : 1.0ft
Qr : 148 Btu/hr
Q: = 221 Btu/hr 0.667 + 2(0.167)
,n [o.ooz
+ zro.roull
= 0.203 rt
[ 0.667 I
Since Qz > (f)Qr, the system is adequate using three
tracers. A" = 2.095 ft'?lft; Ap = 0.916 ft2lftl' At : 0.131 ft'?lft

A-^ : o 216
12
: o.ol8 fr: t' - j1
2n,
EXAIIIPLE 3-2: HOT OIL TRACING DESIGN 0'690 ft :
- 2(1.0)
0.345 ft
A 3-in. schedule header contains asphalt which is to be
maintained at least to 445'F. The 3-in. header is to be
traced with hot oil (Ce : 0.50 Btu/lb-'R p = 58.7 lbl hr" = 0.33[ffiu'.*r,,J: r't,
ft3 at 475"F). Determine the size and number of hot oil
tracers required to maintain the asphalt at a minimum tr" : hr" + eh,:3.992 + (0.90)(1.185) : 5.059
temperature of 450'F. For asphalt, Cp : 0.368 Btu/lb-
"F at 500"F. 1-0203+ I = u^:0.449
For most applications, l/z-in. copper tubing is the stan- u" 0.1 5.059
dard size for tracing operations. We select a l/z-in. 18
BWG gauge steel tube, At : 0.131 ftlft, k^ : 27.5 Now performing a heat balance we have
Btu-ft/hr-ft2-'n First we will try one tracer,
t, = 350'F and tn, : 490"F. Using Equations 3-6 through
Di : 3.50 + 0.50 : 4.00 in. : 0.333 ft 3-11 with 70'F ambient,
138 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

qt : (0.449)(2.095)(350 - 70) : 263.383 Btu/hr-ft qt : (o.449)Q.095X345 : 258.680 Btu/hr-ft

- 70)

_ 0., (sso -:sojo" = q2 :Q.25)(O.131X550 - 345) : 60.4248tts/hr-ft

n, z.z:o
0.s
\ I
q3: (1.383X0.916)(497 .50 - 345.00) : 193.191
/ssn - rso\o 25 Btu/hr-ft
hp:0.5(""ffiJ :r.375
tr1 sl :
q4 = (2t l_:i_:- l{0.018X550 - 445) 301.304 Bruihr_ft
9z - t2.236t(0.t31x550 - 350) = 58.583 Btu/hr-ft \u.J+)/

qr = ( 1.375X0.916)(520 - 350) = 214.1l5 Btu/hr-ft

q4 < 2q3 - No balance

t)1 sl : Since we have reached the minimum desirable tempera-

qa = Qt (ffi/ ro ott'tsso - +ro' 172.174 Btu'lhr-ft
tures for q and to, it is clear that the system will not bal-
ance using one Uz-in. tracer. Therefore, we will use two
jt < 2qt - No balance t/z-inch tracers. Referring to Figure 3-2b we consider the
following:
Consider t" = 300"F and te2 : 450oF.
D; : : in. ft
' : 0.5
h, '- l))u - ruul : 2.364
-'--
4.645 0.387

\ 0.5 I D" = 8.645 in. : 0.720 ft

hp : 0.5 (::L roo)"' : r.+s+ ti:2in. :0.167ft

_ Di * 2tr , iDr + 2t,l
qt : (0.449)(2.095X300
- 70) : 216.351 Btu/hr-ft ' = _-_2 lnl\D, l|:0.224
'1"

qz : Q.364)(0.131X550 - 300) : 77.421 Bttlhr-ft A" : 2r(0.360) : 2.262 ft'?lft

q3 : 1.454)(0.916Xs50 - 300) : 266.373 Bttlhr-ft
(

t)1 \\
h,":033[sffiffi,,t:,,,,
q^ = t2) l-::-:l (0.018)(550 - 450) = 286.957 Btu/hr-ft
\u.J4)/ h- : hr. + eh, : 1.996 + (0.90X1.185) : 3.063

qq129t = No balance | * -l = U^ = 0.390

consider t" : 350'F and to, : 456"p
u" -0'224
0.1 3.063
qt = : t^ : 2tr(2.323) - 2(0.886)(2.323) : 10.479 in.
-
(0.449)(2.09s)(350 70) 263.383 Btu/hr-ft : 0.873 ft
q2 = Q.236)(0.131)(550 - 350) : 58.583 Btu/hr-ft
r, : t' = 0 873
= o.ztsft
q3 = (1.375X0.916)(500 - 350) : 188.925 Btu/hr-ft 2n, 2(2)

I 'tt s\ A, = 0.13t fP/fl:A. = 0.018 ft: Ap = 0.916 ft?/ft

9" = Qt 1:::--: -1(0.018X550 - 450) = 286.957 Btu/hr-ft
\u.J+),/
consider t" : 350'F and to, : 490'F h, : 2.236i
jq < hp : 1'375
2q3 = No balance

Consider t" = 345'F and te2 : 445'F

q : (0.390)(2.262)(350 -'t0) : 247.010 Btu/hr-ft
q2 : Q.236)(0.131X550 - 350) : 58.583 Btu/hr-ft
+10"
r,, = os(try#, = 2.25
q3 - 1.175 )(0.916X520 - 350) : 214.ll5 Btuihr-ft
(

/rt.\
r,": o.s({q::g)'" = 1.383 9a = t2\Qt l '1j". | (0.018X550
1d/
- 490) : 544.954 Btu,/h.:
\u.z
 Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment 139

Consider L : 350'F and tp2 : 500'F p=938.08 Co at 500'F; k:0.1

#h
9r (0.390X2.262X350 - 70) : 247.010 Btu/hr-ft

(2.236X0.131)(550 - 3s0) : 58.583 Btu/hr-ft V= I 5o

-,"tut
(+,J F*r'J (,-r',J Hg)
9: (1.375)(0.916)(525 - 3s0) : 220.4r3 Bt'tlhr-ft V= 3.781 ft/sec

t1'7 al
q. - (2x2) l^'-:j" l(0.018)(550 - 500) = 454.128 Btu/hr-ft
^, _
VDP
\u.l r6/
qr>2qandq2+q3>qr (j.781) I t4.026)in. Ull,n.7 '- lb 160h,secl
Nn"
sec 1,, '" ""ttr \ /
Therefore, the system is balanced.
For 100 ft of pipe, b'rL\
9r : (100)f(454.128) Btu/hr-ft = 45,412.8 Btu/hr
{e38 08)ce l\ ill
*p i
or, Nn" = 3.242 << 2,100 + Laminar flow

q : 22,706.422 Btu/hr for each tracer For laminar flow, we have [2]

m _ 22,706.422 Btulhr : 908.257 lb/hr hrz : 1.86(NnJr"(N,)'' (P)'i3 (3-16)

(0.5) Btu/lb-'F (50)'F H [:)."
t ,r, .i, \
(c08.2s7) I--nr lz.+s
\ 4l lll .
rr / \ou mln/
In most instances, the ratio plpw = 1.0. Thus, we have
-
Q = -, _-- '
= t.ezy gpm
(58.D* N".:f
Thus, we see that two l/2-in. tracers containing hot oil /, , -,lo \
flowing at I .929 gpm is adequate to maintain the asphalt
at a minimum temperature of 450'F. The next step in the
design is to do a hydraulic analysis using the principles
(e38.08)ce
l+l
[o/
to.:+r,oB-tu,

ofChapter 1 and size pumps to handle the hot oil. (Chap- nr Btu
ter 6 discusses how to select the pumps required to dis- -^ hr-fr-'F
tribute the oil in the system.) : 7 ,654.733

/ rr'\
EXAMPLE 3-3: JACKETED PIPE DESIGN D - 4 026 = 0 336: L= loo rt
'" t,-rJ
A jacketed pipe shown in Figure 3-1b is to be ana- '
r (7.654.733)r
lyzed. The process fluid to be heated is a film coating hr., = 1.86(3.242)r ' (H)
mixture used in the manufacture of roofins tiles.

1.0
'(#)(10)#.F
ra ln (ry'rr)
f',, = 2.415-T-
ra , 1 nr-rt'- - f
ht z kz,: h: +
For hot oil in annulus, Di/D. : 0.664 > 0.2, and Perry
For film coating in inner tube, [6] recommends

o= 95.909 lb/ftr: C- : 0.34

Btu
- NN" : 0.020
lb-'F ^9,'*"1,,(*]'
 140 Mechanical Design of Process Sysrems

For the annulus, Now,

. 3 033 2 250 .- q : UA(LMTD)

Rs hydraulic 1361r, = -- 0.392 in.

: : q : 0.75t Rr''
"* ( 7.80)ftr(72.135).F
D 4Rn 1.566 in. = 0.131 ft "ts
It-nr-

For hot oil flowing at 0.5 gpm

q-hr
-- 6,381.625 lI ,, ,n" heat transfer required

''
Nr" : (4o.ro7r ]9:99:
(0.1s)( L566)
- ),0n.24r q : ricpat

For hot oil, At = toH - toc : 100'F and,

/rCo
^, -
"p, k
.' - ..r. Btu
' th-'F
,0.,r,a"
rorR-r,'l
'\|i2.+ co / ,0.r, lb-'F
Iu Rtrl
_ 6,381.625
.nr
m:-: =
Btu 127.$21!
" n7r
n
"' ' hr-fC'F/fr 0.5
Btu
ooo).F
hr
lb-'F'
Now,

Nr" = 0.020(5,01 r.24D0.8(z.s3s)'t3 (0.*U*)*' : ze.r2r

Err'
(29.121){0.071) ntu th
1^ _ NN,k hr-ft'/-"F/ft
D 0.131 ft ftr

Btu = 0.271 gpm required

rs.rs:hr-fC-"F
For t/z gpm,

: 1 l-'
-, 15r$l
(3.033) ln (2.2so/2.0r3)
rr
- |13.033) + lh Rr"
L 2.4rs I- = (235.428) _: (0.5) _= (t00)oF
hr lb-'F '

Ri,r or
ft']-hr-'F q: I1,771.400 Btu/hr
A: heat transfer area : outside surface area of inner Thus, 0.5 gpm is a sufficient flow rate to transfer the re-
tube quired heat to the film coating mixture.
A- 1.178 fPlft : 117.800 ft, for 100 ft ofpipe

In hot oil applications it is common to assume that the hot

oil decreases in temperature 100'F per 10 feet in jack- EXAMPLE 3.4: THERMAL EVALUATION OF
eted and traced systems. For the film coating mixture,
A PROCESS TAilK
tcn : 500'F and t. : 459'P
A coating surge tank contains 6,000 gal of fill coating
For hot oil, mix (see Figure 3-19). Two problems musr be solved: (a)
how many degrees per hour can be obtained from a
ton : 550'F and to. : 459'P clamped-on jacketed system, when the fill coating mix-
ture is static; (b) how many degrees per hour can be ob-
LMTD : 72.135"F tained from a clamped-on jacketed system, when the fill
 Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment 141

Flanged and dished head = (92X0.8)

= 73.60 ftz
@0O gal shell = (379.347X0.8)
= 303.478 ft'?
f.1.537
ol 4-internal heat transfer panels : 4(107)(12)/1,14
12.82 lb/gal
: 35.667 ft2

cP= o'g+ The overall heat transfer coefficient, U-value, sup-

plied by the panel manufacturer for applications to the
fill coating mix is as follows:
Process Conditions (as determined by process engineers
or client for desired capability of tank):
COATING MIXTURE Initial temperature of coating mixture = 360'F
Final temperature of coating mixture = 400'F
For internal panels, U : 9.52 Btu/hr-ft2-'F
For external clamp-on jacketing, U : 4.00 Btu/hr-ft2-
"F

Substituting into the previous equation for At we have

(9.52x35.667)(LMTD) + (4.0X377.078XLMTD)
-'^, _
- (?6,110 ooxo 34l

at:7.410'F/hr
Referring to Figure 3-19 we can now determine how
COATING MIXTUR€ AT
TEMPERATURE t
many degrees per hour the fill coating mix will rise using
external clamp-on jacketing on surfaces of the flanged
Figure 3-19. Coating surge tank. and dished head, the vessel shell, and four internal pan-
els just considered:

min oal lb
Q
- : (60) :hr" (150)'min
":' (12.82)'gal
-
coating mixture is flowing through the tank at 150 gpm x 0.34 Btu (t - 360)'F
ar 360"F.
lb-'F'
From Figure 3-10, we have Q : 39,229.20(t - 360) Btu/hr

Now,
LMTD : (550-360)-(450-4oo) :104.869'F
, [sso - :ool UA(LMTD) : 39,229.20(t - 360)
'" t4so - 4ool
with Q: mceAt (9.s2)(35.667)(LMrD) + (4.0)(377 .U 8)(LMrD)
: 39,229.20(t' - 360)
and Q : UA(LMTD)
1,847.862(LMTD) = 39,229.2O(t' - 360)
, UA(LMTD)
LMTD :
DLp
2L.230(t' - 360)

Now,
th
m - {6.000)gal(12.82) : 76.920.00 lb
gal
= (550-360)-(450-r') 21.23(t' - 360)
Using heat transfer panels shown in Figure 3-12 we 1550 -
|'"t450-tl 3601

compute the toial available heat transfer area as follows:

-
142 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Solving for t,
wP: wetted Perimeter : (--.Jo*t*
(21.23r' - 1 ,642.80)
ln (450 - r')
(110.394t', - 39,841.956)
WP:
* ,642.80)
Letting y _
(21.23t' "t

(l 10.394t'
- 39,841.956) A : cross-sectional f low area : 0,68 I in.'? : 4a(W)

we have 1.0 : ln (450 - t'y where W: a:0.4125 in.

W : effective heat transfer length (see page 145)
Or el.0 : eln
(450-r')Y
A:2Yr+2wY
in which 2.718 = (450 - t')Y
A = 2(O.4125)'? + 2(O.412r'1 : 0.681 in.2
After several iterations, t' : 366.12'F ^'' A 0.681 in.'l
WP -1.158 in.
Thus, the temperature rise is
D : 4RH : 0.862 in.
at : 366.12'F - 360"F : 6.12'F
The equivalent circular cross-sectional area = r(0.431)'?
The amount of heat required for the system is
: 0.584 in.'?

Q: UA(LMTD) The hot oil properties are as follows:

Q: (9.52)(3s.667)(LMrD) + (4.0X377.078)(LMrD) , _ 550"F - 450'F 500'F {since we anticipale

OI in the plates)

Q = 1,847.862(LMTD) Velocity of hot oil through baffles : 7.913 ft/sec

Now, p: 58.7 lb/fc

1550 - 390) (450 - _366,12) = k: 0.071 Btu/hr-ftl"F/ft

LMTD = 1t9.789.F
. lsso -:oo
ln |
I Cp : o.5o Btu/lb-'F
[4s0 - 366.12l
-l ," . \
/^ +. ..rD/rl-nrl
in which Q :
1,847 .862(129.7 89) 239,832. 162 Btul : 'a = 0.15 c- lz
'\ 1Co I -
0.3b0 tb/lr-hr

hr is the heat transferred to the coating mix.

The maximum pressure drop permitted through the in-
ternal baffles, which are connected in parallel, is nor-
mally 10 psi, thus
EXAMPLE 3.5: THERMAL DESIGN OF
PROCESS TANK *l\Re -- VDp
The coating surge tank of Example 3-4 is now ana- l-
lyzed for detailed heat transfer requirements. The flow
-
(7.e*) r-t
(0.862) in. {-.1. l'
l,rr.r, g (lql..'*)
rates through the various types of heat transfer jacket
sec \ll ln./ rr- \ I nr /
plates are desired. Ib
0.360
ft-hr
Nr" = 333'661
lntelna! Baffle Plates Film Goefficient
(0.360) ,j:lh (0.501
Rr
:j:
Some of the plates used are shown in Figure 3-12.
Looking at Figures 3-20, 3-21, and 3-22 we determine
N"': f lu.v/lr-
Btu
't <l<

the hydraulic radius as follows:

 Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment 143

K23: 29 BTU/hr-t12-"F/fl
From Kern [],
ri :0.44in =O.O37 tt thn
- : = ro.o27r ([) ,t-.,., ,N,,,' ' (uJ"'" r. =0.545 in = O.O45 tt

Btu
I /tl-
'hr-ft2-'F/f
r. = {0.027)
ro.aozrin. llrt
\l2 in.i
I

x (333,661f 8 (2.535)1/r (1.0)

1. . = qsl R? Btu is the film coefficient

hr_fd_.F inside the jacket baffles
located inside the tank
Actual Internal Baftle Hot Oil Plate

Film Coefficient Exte?nal to

Baff les-Forced Convection

The coating mixture inside the tank is in a state offlow

across the baffle plates made possible by agitator blades
powered by an electric motor. From Perry [61.

rtt = -
U.U9
i r\ir-:r.r.o\."
l-ll "I /c-J''
l!l Approximated as Circular Tubes
\DJ \ p / \k/ Figure 3-20. Cross section of panel plate tube approximated
as a cylinder whose surface area is equivalent to the heat trans-

'h9'^ ("il'kl' (3-48) fer of contact area.

ni = number of internal baffle plates : 4

For coating mix, 10r < NR" < 2 x 106

The properties of the mix are as follows:

p: 95.909 lb/ft3

A = 6,000 Co : 14,400 lb/ft-hr

k= 0.1 Btu/hr-ft-'F

Other properties related to the internal baffle plate ap-

proximated as a string of cylinders with diameters equal
to four times the hydraulic radius of the trapezoid plate
sections shown in Figures 3-20 and 3-21.

\6 = angular velocity of agitator, revolutions/hr

/-^ \
\. - 56 11 lgel'nl : 3360 revrhr
min \ lhr /

Lp : diameter of agitator plate : 65 in. : 5.42 ft

HEATING AREA: A.
Dj = 10.0 ft t= STRAIGHT SECTION BETWEEN CHANNELS

D" = 0.862 in. Figure 3-21. String of tubes.

 144 Mechanical Design of Process Systens

k: 0.071 Btu/hr-ft2-.F/ft or

r-) +:r't:'log.o
h,q - 0 0e (oo
['s
'qs
eoqJ'^'
lT -

[i^] o^- * E'l I u * r" rn tr,rr,r - _r l

r4){ r4.4oo)1,
, , t\2/ 2ur I k,
lr;h1 , h, , J
^[ [(o
(0.I) l {lJ2l l]),' (1.0)
110.0/ \41 for these baffle plates, n= 7, for which
:
h:.+ 18.334 Btu/hr-ft2-.F for all four baffle plates
,,
" -it\
7o
Now, to solve for the overall heat transfer coefficient, --l
U, we must develop the appropriate equation. to:' . i:]
[(jJto
Let Ao = the overall area of plate : LW

L= length of plate, W: width of plate

I| o- art"' +
(0.045t ln (0.431 /0.32b) I
[(0.326X949.883) 18.334
Referring to Figures 3-20 and 3-21 we have

e : UAa (tr - ta) for baffle plate

u = 29.492 Btu
Ar : LW : wetted area : 2oD rL hr-ftr-'F

where W : werred perimeter (WP) The baffle plate area for all four baffles is determined
from the baffle plate manufacturer's dimensions, as fol-
sr lows:
LJ | = '2 D" + r' . n = number of flow circuits
Length of channel per baffle = 51.'123 ft
To account for the residual heat transferred through the
plate connecting the hexagon tubes we consider to be r' A= surface area - 2210.431)i" {.:-tf) rsl.72t rr)
the equivalent radius of a cylinder that is the total surface \rzln./
area of the baffle plate separating the hexagon tubes.
Now,
A: lt.672 fe
For all four baffle plates,
D, : ,o,u, distance between channels (Frgure 3-21)
A= 4(tr.672) ft2 : 46.690 ft2
Zor' = Dt
It Heat Duty of lnternal Baffle Plates
2tr
For hot oil the anticipated temperature through each
From above, plate is 100'R as stated earlier, thus
\.r q:
q= UA. {f I - t1) - 2trlJ lzr 1t, - ta1 UAAT

2T(tr Rr',
- ta) n q - (29.492J, "-1:1, (46.690)ft, (100).F
r" r" ln (r./r) I nr-It'- -f
"-T-
finl-2 Kt I L
--f
q : 137,698,1a8 f.!
nr
in which

Outside Heat Transfel Jaeket Plates

U:
D,Iq*r"lntr./r't * hrII
[r,hr-z
k: :
In the case of external jacket plates, the heat transfer
J parameters are based on the dimension, shown in I
 Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment 145

-tgure 3-22, because it is this surface that is in contact

rth the vessel wall. Consequently we can analyze the
^
: xfiguration in Figure 3-22 as a tube with circumfer-
At = tube cross flow area
::re'e of W. Hence, we have the following: where
At = r(0.219)1 : 0.151 in.':
i;r1 = : Y7 1.375 in.

.rhere rr : tube inside radius, in.

Velocity of hot oil through outside plates : V2
:iom above,
Yz : 3.134 ftlsec (determined from process data)
| 175
: = = 0.21C in. or D, : 9.433 in. internal cross flow area of baffle plate :
; plate manufacturer's data)
0.62 ln.2 (from

The tube equivalent flow rate for the length W mapped I

(3.134) (0.62) in.,
:nto a circle or radius rr is by the continuity condition of
iluid mechanics,
vr- sec
= 6.448 :-
o.Lsrin: sec
-
vDp
I'r
a lll'l
sect0.438r I 7, 'g i{rylecl
(6.448) in. ,s8
\12 in.i in.1 \ | hr /

(0.360) lL
tt-hr

Nn" = 138,150.85

Solving for the over-all heat transfer coefficient, U, we

have

w= 1.375 in
1.,1o. : PCo
= 2.535
k
w = eflective heat transfer area
For approximalion, analyze the ligure as a tube with a
h,, : (0.027)
(H1.ol ,rrr,rro r5)0s (2.535),/, (1.0)
circumference = w
2Tr j = 'l.375
in which, Btu
rz = O.219 in., or D2 = 0.438 in. h',,- = 77.260
hr-ft2-'F
Equivalent llow,
Perry [6] gives the correlation for heat transfer for jack-
13 1341/|) 111
= 6.448 fusec eted walls to the agitated liquid as follows:

Thus for the equivalent tube, : "(;)t')1'(9^k)'

rz = 0.219 in.
rs = 0.219 + 0.109 = 0.328 in.
r+ = 0.328 + 0.375 = 0.703 in.
c,
h
'' (3-49)

where, tq 5 film coefficient at vessel wall (see Figure 3-22)

Dj inside diameter of the vessel, ft = 10.0 ft
k 0.1 Btu/hr-ft-'F
Equivalent Cylinder LP diameter of agitator = 5.42 ft
N, angular velocity, or rotation of agitator
Figure 3-22. Panel total flow cross section. Contact length w
is mapped into an equivalent circular tube whose circuinfer- 3,360 rev/hr
ence equals w. 95,909 lb./fC
146 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

14,400 lb/fi-hr
speciflc heat of coating mix
.-
u=l t
(0.703 )
+
(0.73) ln (0.328/0.219)

viscosity at bulk temperature, lb/ft-hr l(0.2t9)(71 .26)

viscosity at wall temperature, lb/ft-hr
see Table 3-l
(0.703 ) ln r0.703/0.328) II
I lr
Laboratory tests were made on the coating mix and the 14.06-l
results showed that p6lp* : 0.65. Since the coating mix : 8.141 Btu
is a non-Newtonian fluid, it is strongly recommended U
hr-ftr-'F
that the physical properties be deterrnined by a qualified
Iaboratorl,. the ratio p5lp* should reyer be assumed to be From manufacturer's drawings, the shell jacket plare
I .0 for a non-Newtonian fluid without laboratory tests of heat transfer area, A, is
fluid samples.
For a disk. flarblade turbine agitator we find values A: 37,043.82 in.'?
for a. b, and M from Thble 3-1 as follows:
Now,
a:0.54,b = 2A,M:0.14
A' : area of channels in all nine jacket shell plates
since40 ( l38,l5l < 3 x 105 clamped-on to outside of shell

substituting above values into Equation 3-49 we have the A' : 257 .249 ftl
following:
Ar = 100"F for hot oil-coaring mix servicc

Rr'
(s.42t(3,360.0X9s.909 q - {8.14lr .nr-It'- '
:i-_r25t.24o1ft (100)'F
,*,(,*)[ t -

(14,400) l- or
, :ltr+,+ool]"'
,o.ur',o,o
lto Rr,'
q= 209 .414.44 --:
Btu nr
h,,.
' = 14.060
hr-fC-'F

Thus,

II _
Heat Duty of Jacket Plates Clamped to
Bottom Vessel Head
The bottom head panel sections are depicted in Figure
l-17. In Chapter 1, Example 1-2 we analyzed the hy-
draulics for the hot oil flow through the panels mounted
on the tank. From this analysis we determined the fol-
lowing velocities required to obtain l0 psi pressure drop
Table 3-1 through the panels:
Values of Constants for Equation 3-49
innerpanel : V: 7.315 fi/sec
Agitator
Feynolds Number
Range
outerpanel : V: 5.237 ft/sec
Disk, flat-blade
turbine 0.54 2lz 0.14 40<NR.<3x105 Heat Duty for Bottom Head Inner Panels
Pitched-blade
turblne 0.53 2lt 0.24 80<NR"<200 Similar to the shell panel plates above, we must com-
Propeller 0.54 ,/3 0.14 Nn" = 2000 pute the equivalent tube diameter and equivalent veloc-
Paddle 0.36 2h 0.21 3oo<NR"<3 ity. As determined above the equivalent radius is
x 105
Helical ribbon 0.633 Vz 0. l8 8<NR.<105 rr : 0.219 in.
 Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment 147

S.lce the bottom baffles have the same flow area as the
.rell plates, the cross flow area of the equivalent tube is
q' - uA at = (8.s90). lr)--
hr-ftr-'F
1r.+r+)n, lroo;"r

i = n(0.219) in.2 : 0.151 in.2 in which

Btu
I re cross flow area inside the plate channel is found for both two inner plates
h,
::om the manufacturer's catalog to be 0.31 in.2. Since
:e equivalent tube circumference is equal to the contact
::mension, w, as above we must compute the equivalent
..locity. Thus Heat Duty for Bottom Outer Panels

(7.315) -:'
sec
(0.31)in.2
(5.237rt0.31
-quivalent velocity = Y. =
0.151
tcutvatent \ etoclt\ - r
lu. /f I lt/sec
in.'z 0. 151
/r\ r58.7 rr3.600
{ 10.75l,(0.438r l-l )

Nn.
0.160

\- 322,453.78
/^ ^--\
h,2
'- - {0.027) lfffl rz.lo..lss.:41)0b r2.s35) '(1.01
\0.438/
-.. .: (0.027) l9J11l r:zz.+s:.28)0" {2.535,r 'r { 1.0)
\u.4J6/ h,, = 1t6.303 ,nr-lt'-'f
:tu^=
Btu
:..:152.2ll Similarly as for inner panels,
hr-fP-"F

The vessel-side film coefficient is the same as for the f'n, : .l.l+,SlO
--!$-
panels, nr-rI'--t
'hell
Thus,
-. : t+.gt+hr-ftr-'F
Btu
i.r.

Thus, r (t.trr:, rn lo
34'l
,,
" | 0.703 _ \0.219/

(0.703) (0.73) ln {0.70Ji0.J281 tO) 9,( t 16:0l, 29

,' - |
t(02lrr(15, rr1- -
/^ -^^\
m- ro.703 r ln lu
/urI
(0.703) ln (0.703/0.328) I -, \0.328/, I I'
* 29 * I
14.914) 2s ' r+.st+)
Eli,
r, :8.590. :i^= ' u : o.lg+ Bt'
nr-tt'-'t hr-ftr- "F

Let A: heat transfer area of bottom head plates from

A: heat transfer area
rhe manufacturer's data the flow path length is 388.231
in. for one half of the head, hence,
A= 4(1,014.389) in. (1.375) in. = 5,579.140 in.2

OI
1 = (18$.231) in. (1.375) in. (2) : 1,067.635 in.2
OI A= 38.'144 ft2 for all four outer panels

A: '1.414 ft2 : area of the two inner head plates

q : UA At = (6.394)(38.7 44)( 100) = 24,772.333 ry
q: heat duty hr
 148 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Total Heat Duty of Tank Thus, the minimum hot oil flow rate in pipe header sup-
plying the total hot oil to surge tank is 10 gpm, the actual
At maximum flow rates the total heat duty is as fol- flow rate is 16 gpm.
lows:

q= Btu Btu
137,698.148
hr
,
209,414.44
hr
EXAIIPLE 3.6: TRANSIENT AND STATIC
HEAT TRANSFER DESIGN
internal shell side
panels panels Roofing shingles are made by adding asphalt, filler
material, granules, talc and adhesives to a plastic-glass
Btu
+ 6,368.11 + 24,772.333
Btu sheet, which is the basic component of the roof shingle.
hr hr The process is shown schematically in Figure 3-23.
Granules are added last, after adhesives and talc. The
two nner four outer sheet must be cooled so that workers can handle it with
panels on panels on
gloves. Cooling is accomplished by water sprays, circu-
bottom head bottom head
lating water through the rollers, and using radiant heat
transfer to the surroundings. The sheet, once cooled to
q= 378,253.631 P!! the desired temperature, is cut into specified dimensions
hr
by mechanical cutters and then packaged into boxes for
From Example 3-4 the total heat duty required is shipment.
There are two aspects to this problem-static heat
transfer and transient heat transfer. First, we solve the
q-t = 23g,832.rc28:
nr static conditions and then the transient case to determine
how fast the sheet can be cooled with the coolins svstem
Now, designed in the static case.

q: rh cp At Static Heat Transfer Analysis

Elr"
373.253.631 "- The static criteria to be determined are as follows:
7,s65.073 l!
Rrrl nt
{0.50) :t: ( l00toF 1. Specific heat of the composite sheet (Table 3-2).
tb-'F
2. Mean temperature of the sheet leaving the granule
section flhble 3-3).
Elr'r
239 ,832.162 ::: th
nt
flnln 4.796.64
(0.50) Btu { 100).F
nr
tb-'F

7,s65.073 P
4.", : nr /r.+a gur\ Table 3-2

5s.7 !ftr \ri/ Specitic Heat of Composite Sheet Leaving Granule

Component
Component wt., lb 0/o by wt. Cp o/o ol Cp
: 16.067 gpm Glass mat 6.30 L9785 0.2 o.395'7
Asphalt 87.32 2',7.4220 o.4 10.9688
Filler 120.58 3"t.8682 0.217 8.217 4
th Granules 96.08 30.1740 0.20 6.0348
4.796.640 :nr 7.48 gall Thlc I
6. I 1.9200 o.2 4.0128
2.03
\- r/
f
Adhesives 0.6375 0.50 0.3188
58.7.]9' 318,42 10000 29.9483
n'
)q q4R I
C, = t;0- : 0.299 Btuilb-'F
= 10.187 gpm
 Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment 149

Table 3-3 3. Heat to be removed from sheet and amount of wa-

Mean Temperature ol Sheet ter required.
Leaving Granule Section
a. t- : 313.63'F (from Table 3-3)
Q = mcp At for each component At:313.63 -212 = 101.63"F
Temp. of component Specific heat of sheet : 0.299 Btu/lb-'F
Component prior to mixing Cp Eo by wt. weight of sheet : 0.9375lb/ft2
Glass 80'F 0.2 1.9785
.A.sphalt 400'F 0.4 2'7.422 Thus, the amount of heat to be removed per
Filler 400'F 0.22 37 .8682 square foot is
Granules 80"F 0.2 30.17398
Talc 80'F o.2 r.92
mCpAt = (0.9375X0.299)(101.63) = 29.49 .t 2t
Adhesives 400'F 0.5 0.63"75
Btu/ft'?
(1.978s)(0.2X80 - t^) + (27.422)(0.4)(400 - t,) :
+ (37 .8682)(0.22)(400 - t.) b. Sensible heat loss through rollers 3.0 x 106
Btu/hr
= (30.17398X0.2)(t. - 80) + (1.92)(0.2Xt- -+ 80) +
(0.6375X0.5)(r. - 80) 31.656 - 0.396 t, 4387.520 c. Heat loss through forced convection and radia-
- 10.969 t^ + 3332.402 - 8.331 t. tion of heat passing through air medium is deter-
: 6.035 t. - 482.',784 + 0.384 t. - 30.720 + 0.319 t. mined as follows:
- 25.50
At : 313.63 :
90 223.63"F = temperature
-
where t. : 313.633'F
difference between sheet and ambient air

]
|I

FINAL
COMPONENT

Figure 3-23. Process of manufacturing roof shingles.

'150 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

For convection, For 600 shingles/hr (or 144,000 Btu/hr) the heat removal
would be : (144,000X0.9375)(O.299)(313.63 - 125)
Q: hAAt
: 7.614 mm Btu/hr
For flowing air, h,in = 2 Btu/hrlft2/.F
h."^ : 50 Btu/hr/ftrl.F
removal>
Thus. Total heat Heat removal
requtled
Use h. = 23 Btu/hrtfP l"F
and the cooling system is adequate.
/6R {r
";:-'(l)
A = s.708 fr2 For vaporization, q: 29 Btu/ft,
t2

For radiation, Qv : 104,400.00 Btu/min

| ,l For water, h1, : 1,000 Btu/bb

h, = F.Fo lo(tr" - t':")l
t - tz)
(tr J At 600 fpm, we have,
Fe:1.01 F": e = 0.90; o : 0.173 x 10-8 1r)4 400
;*; - 104.40 lbi min - amounl of water required
h. : (0.90)(1.0)
Thus,

104.40 g
mtn
h, : 1.857 Btu/hr/ft,/"F
gpm =
th
= 12.518 gpm
8.34:
gal
Thus, the water pump to be used is to be sized for 13
gpm at a terminal exit pressure of 200 psi.
Total Heat Removal
hr : :
h" + h. + Transient Heat Transfer Analysas
23.000 1.857 = 24.857 Btuthttfet"F

Q = h1A(At) : (24.8s7X5.708) (223.63) = 3r,729.464 This method is based on the Fourier analysis of un-
Btu/hr steady-state heat conduction. The following assumptions
are made:

l. The composite sheet is approximated by a material

of average conductivity.
Water Required for Cooling 2. The sheet is infinitely long and is an isotropic rigid
solid.
Let Qv : heat removed by vaporization
Figure 3-23 shows a view of the roofing slab. Assum-
The heat removed for a sheet 6 feet wide moving at 100 ing that the material is a composite sheet approximated
ftlmin is by an integral sheet of average properties, the tempera-
ture distribution is at all times symmetric about the mid-
Qv : (100)(6) frrlmin (29) Btu/ft2 : 17,400 Btu/min plane of the slab, thus x = 0 at the center of the sheet.
For a sheet velocity of 600 ftlmin,
From Fourier's law of conduction,

AI
Qv = 104,400.00 Btu/min Q = -k-dX
Qv : 6,264,000.00 Btu/hr
The heat transfer across x = 0 is zero and at the mid-
Total heat removal : 6,264,000 + 31,'729.464 plane of x : 0 the sheet behaves as a perfect insulator-
+ 3,000,000 an adiabatic surface. Consequently, the solution to this
Q= 9,295 ,729 .464 Btulhr problem applies to a slab that is perfectly insulated at one
 Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment 151

Iace, initially at a known temperature, to, and then ex- k 0.30

: 1.070 ft'?lhr
posed on one face to a fluid at a constant temperature, tr. p Cp (0.9375)(0.299)

Temperature of the sheet = 314'F : t"

r = 0.90(0.094), - U.UO/ hr = 0.2146 min
Gmperature of the spray water : 90'F : ti
.070 1

Here we are spraying water on the sheet and we wish

or r = 26.'756 = 2'7 sec for 90'water
to determine the time required for the sheet to reach -
Approximate length of sheet exposed to nozzle
125'F. splay : 150 ft
Velocity of sheet : V,
0.:314-9O=224"F
For V, : 600 ft/min,
0,L=o = 125 -90:35"F
150 ft
l 35
=-=0.156 600 ftlmin
= 0.25 min = 15 sec
c. | ,=r 224

: For V. : 400 ftlrnin,

Thickness of sheet 3/ro in. in which L: :/:z
rn. : 0.094 in.
150 ft :
For water, 400 frlmin
0.375 min = 22.5 sec

Surface coefficient (worst condition) = 300 Btu/hr-ftl"F

The length of the cooling section and the velocity of the
k o'30 :
hL= (300X0.094)
sheet are both fixe.d. The only parameter not fixed is the
o.ott
temperature of the water.

Np. : Fourier number Thus,

From Figure 3-24, NF" : 0.90 : d7

r: NroL2 : o.oo417
L- ct

m/L2
Figure 3-24. Heisler's main chart for the infinite slab [7].
152 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

(o oo4l7j( | o7o' lyzed, -200"F, - 100'F, and -50'F. The skirt is made
(Nr o),"o
'a (0.094)'
0.505
of Type 3(X stainless steel and is insulated on the inside
and outside as shown in Figure 3-28. The insulation is
For a Fourier number of 0.505, sized for the most extreme process temperature that the
vessel will be exposed to, -200"F. Data used in the ex-
(*).,,-,, : oo,o ample are given in Figure 3-25.
First, determine the natural convection film coeffi-
cient for the skirt. The temperature inside the skirt, ti, is
Let t" : lequirad water temperature assumed to be five degrees lower than the ambient tem-
peratute, t5.
l)5 - r
Jl+ - t,\
uo : .,. O*4, * u'i,r:.',n) *
[', 'L(no,r iJ-'
in which t* = -11.86"F and is well below the freezing
temperature of water.
=
I +
r l-,
[7.r1s -hJ
Thus, for a cooling section of 150 feet long, the sheet
moving at 600 ftlmin cannot be cooled to 125'F since Assume h4,5 = 0.275
the theoretical value of t* is below freezing.
u4:0.093
At V, = 499 Lr-tn,
r= O.3"75 min : 0.0063 hr

(0.0063X 1.070)
{Nro),.u.r = .: ^: --j--- = 0.7568
(u.u94r

ln\
l;l = 0.180

lts - r

314 - t*

and

t* : 83.51'F for a sheet velocity of 400 ftlmin

Thus, the sheet can be reasonably cooled while mov-

ing at 400 ftlmin. If a velocity of 600 ftlmin is desired,
additional water sprays must be added. However, one
must balance the sheet velocity against the cutting ma-
chines and workers' capability to handle the additional
material. It is found in most roof shingle plants that 400 4 = 55'F
ftlmin is an optimum velocity. As demonstrated, the = 60"F
G
transient heat transfer analysis is mandatory in evaluat- = 3048-in. :2.573lt
t1
/, = 367,b-in. = 3.073 ft
ing a system. f3 = 37%-in. - 3.135 ft
/4 = 435//6-in. : 3.635 ft
A^ = (tt - r,2) = l.z0glt,
F - 1(460+ 60) = 0.00'1923
EXAMPLE 3-7: HEAT TRANSFER 1 = 0.07633 lb/tt3
THROUGH VESSEL SKIRTS p = 0.04339 lbfit h
k*, = 0.01466 Btu/h ft "F
kyz 8.0 Blu/h ft.F
Calculate the temperature distribution down the length ka t = kg-'q = 0.14 Btu/h ft'F
of a vessel skirt. The vessel contains a cold process fluid NP' = 0'712
that varies in temperature because of cyclic process con- Figure 3-25. Cryogenic pressure vessel with internal and ex-
ditions. Three operating temperatures are to be ana- ternal insulation on the skirt.
 Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment 153

,. =
[*J
(tr - ts) + ts #[",('[4 - 'f5)
- -, - t, ll

:l /o.osl\l{-))+bU
- . ['-h '(;-.,Jll
\0.275i

: ra-1nl.2gsr
63sx0 27sx-1 69) - 0 14
s8.31'F l'3
t
L-t5:58.31 - 60 = -1.69"F
I sa.: r 55.00
\o, = [d37,gB( Atl)(3,6o0)2]/p,
| ,,1. Iturr\-
|ln t-t ln t-l
l(7 .27)3(0.07 6T)' Q2.2)(0.00r923)(r.69)(3,6tJ0)21 [ \3.13s/ \3.073/
(0.04339f
Z:65.1O2"F1ft2
Na,:1,613,'720,723

where d : 2te : 213.6tt) = 7.27 ft z:? =6s'1o2 - 57.781'F

Q 1.126'7
Nc,Np, = (1,613,720,723)(0.7 12) : 1,14g,9tt,ttt
> loe For t. : -299'P
5
C= 0.129 andm : r/: 2(t. - Zle*oo
+z
I + e2*qo 5

N", : C(Nq,Np,)-
(-515.56)(2.89)-+
= 0.129(l,148,969,155)r/3 : t. _ 57.78.1
135. 11 1 + (2.89y'
(fqi, (0.014661(l35.ll)
n.1 I.") :
' = d - 7.27
0.2125 Similarly for:

IOOqII
t, : - 100'F,
ti - l#l (-s) -60: s8.29"F
t." _
(
-515.56X2.89)- + 57.781
r + (2.89)"
: 58.31 - 58.29 = 0.02 and for t, : -50"F
:4.275 r _ (-215.56x2.89).
+ 5? ?Rl
l + (2.89t^
Figure 3-26 shows these distribution curves.
The axial deflection of the skirt will now be calculated
For a cylinder with insulation on both sides,
using the first three terms of the stainless steel deflection
equation (Equation 3-45). The hyperbolic terms in the
equation are not necessary when the steel temperature is
.:[ffH][dil.*-.19] greater than -300'F or less than 1000'F,

*.__ 2(t. - Z)ls.sa + (4.i1 x 10-3)Zl arctan ielo0 5;

^
I
= t_t"ro.
z I t_ r+r I r ! rl (2.055 x
[(8Xl.2oe, li . /z.sz:\ t -f
100
l0-3\z2L

[l '" \'otr-/ | ';T#"'J (2.055 x l0-rxr" - Z)2(e2oto' - l)

Q: r.1267 ft'? 106 eo 5(1 * e2lao )
154 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

EXAMPLE 3.8: RESIDUAL HEAT TRANSFER

A section of carbon steel process pipe is shown in Fig-

ure 3-15c. Three conditions will be analyzed for process
fluids at 900"F.600'F and 300"F. the basic analysis is
the same as used in Example 3-7 beginning with the
iteration procedure to find the natural convection film
coefficient. Note that it is assumed that the temperature
inside the empty pipe header, t1, is 130'F and that the
ambient temperature. t.. is 60'F

U: : [(r: ln (r1r')/k.) + 13 ln (r3lrr)/ki + '/h"]

: (0.s26 In (0.26710.2527)t25) + 0.526 ln
(0.526/0.276)10.027 + r/h.l r

U3: [12.565 +'/h"] '

Let h": 1.0 Btu/hr-ft2-'F

Ut : 0 '0137

-200 -160 120 _80 _40 0 m 40 60 t: = (U:/h")ftr - to) + t,,

Temperatur€, .F
= (0.07371 1.0)(130 - 60) + 60 : 65.16.F
Figure 3-26. Temperature distribution for the three shell-skirt
Junctron temperatures.
At=t:-L=5.16'F
}'16, : [d3e,gB( lAt l)(3,600t]/r.,
: (1.052t(0.0763r2(O.O01923)(32.2)
x (3,600F(s. l6)l/(0.0433eF
: 14,920,198.65
Nc,N", : (14,920, 198.65X0.7 12) : 10,623,181.44
(1.06 \ to o) [0,, _ 2,, NNu : C(Nc.NPr).
106 t","
where,

, [sech rLQ05) tanh (LQ05) t

rElt arcran [.,inh rLeOstfll
0.525andm:r/+
0.525 (10,623,181.44)\ra = 29.97
(k"i,/d)NN" : (o.ot466n.052) 29.57
.,82rt, - 2f / ezroo: 1
0.4t77
,a'- \l + ela t (U3/h;)(ti -t.)+to = (0.073110.4177)(130 - 60)
+60
- - -Zt tr
- 4zlt. l;'".
--l
arcran reLo"'tl .I L'L '72.35"F
tQ"' ) t3 t3' = 65.16 - 72.35 : -7.19'F
t. : : too large, try another tdal valve for hn.
: 6.5 -200"F. Q =
For 1.1267,2 57.781 and L
Let h" : 0.49 Btu/hr-ft-'F
: V: rt(.r2.565 + r/0.49): 0.0687
6,, 0.00701 + 0.00004 + 0.00013 Btu/hr-ft -'F
: (.0.0684'710.49) 70 + 60 :
6., :
69.781'F
0.00718 fr : 0.08616 in.
t3
At :9.781"F
Nc, :28,279,559.99
From Figure 3-26 we see that for the worst case ofts = Nc.Np, : 20 ,r35 ,046 .7 |
-200'F that -20"F is obtained at x : 1.75 ft. At about Nr,
2.0 ft and below, the skirt could be of carbon steel con- h"' = 0.4901 Btu/hr-ft-"F
struction and considerable material savinss could be ob- \, = (0.0684710.490r) 70 + 60 = 69.779"F
tained. At:' : 69.'781 69.779 =
- 0.002'F < 0.1
 Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment 155

h = 0.49 Btu/hr-ft-'F (r4 .233)(3s4 .3s2)(1 .497)

a = 2?rki/[kMAM ln (ry'ra)] (0.521 x ltr)
a = 2r (0.027 )I [25 (0.0387 ) In
(0.52610.27 6)l : O.272 fr 2 (2.496 x 10-3)(125 ,565 .623Xr82.902)
z = | [2rl(k.A.)][r3h.(t3 - t") - kit3/ln (0.521 x 109(184.902)
(ry'rJl x 10-')
I

: I l21rt[25 (0.0387) [0.s26(0.49)(69.78 + 0.0008 - (6.s36 [558,494,713.0

+ 2706.95 + 2000884.26
: -| -2.607
60) -0.027 (69.78)/ln (0.52610.276)1
| : 2.60'1"F1ft'?
1

4 +'74,115,250.451
Z : zlQ : 9.587'F
tx = t2 (i. - Zt.'oo1lt 1-.:roo51; + Z ^- 6". : 0.0155 ft : 0.1860 in. axial deflection
: iZ t,, - 9.587)e''0 "'7'o 5/11 + e2r'02?210s)l
+ 9.587
This example shows that residual heat through a closed
For t, : 900'F, branch line can be significant enough to cause thermal
movements, which can result in high stresses. These
|'' : I.780.83 (1.313)'r q^ \87
-. thermal deflections are particularly important when
tl + 1.313)'?1
( space is limited and the piping system has little flexibil-
Ity.
For t. : 699'P
-
r,' = 1.180.83 0.313)-
. + 9.587
lr + (l.3l3y'l
For t, : 399'P

580.83 (l.3l3l
+ 9.587
ll+ (1.313),.1 -'
Curves depicting t, are shown in Figure 3-27. Unlike
Example 3-7, the slopes of the curves change much less,
almost approaching straight lines.
Axial temperature gradients along a section of piping
produce thermal deflections. The pipe support will now
be analyzed for thermal deflections.
-
E
The surface temperature, ts, of the branch pipe at the E
point of the contact with the header is 600'F. The aver-
E
age temperature inside the pipe may be calculated from
the 600"F curve in Figure 3-27 which shows a tempera-
ture at a distance x of five feet to be 294'F.

t; = (600 +294)t2:447"F
Through the process of iteration, h. : 0.68 Btuihr-
ft-'F at the average internal temperature of 447"F. This
was obtained using the natural convection iteration tech-
nique described in Example 3-7.
Using the same techniques, Q = 0.2719 ft 2, Z :
66.7916'Flftz, and Z : 245.6476"F.
To calcuiate the axial deflection, substitute these val-
ues into the expanded thermal deflection equation for
X distanc€, ll
carbon steel, Equation 3-39. Note: Values for the arctan
used in the equation must be calculated in radians. Cal- Figure 3-27. Temperature of a branch pipe connected to a
culate the arctan m degrees and convert to radians in header through a closed valve plotted from the pipe to valve
which the relationship is 2zr radians : 360 degrees. connection every six inches for a distance of five feet in Figure
Using equation 3-39, 3-15C.
 156 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

EXAMPLE 3.9: HEAT TRANSFER Rtrr /< rs ;- z\

TIIROUGH PIPE SHOE 126.0), ": r.-l irr r750) "F . (3.0)
nr-rr--r \ t++ In. /
A l2-in process header shown in Figure 3-28 is sup-
ported by a shoe 14-in. long. The process fluid is at
ffi [126
0)
hr-r''c (1ffi] rP + (3 0]

750"F and it is desired to determine the temperature of

the bottom of the shoe base plate where Teflon is
mounted to accommodate pipe movement. The Teflon
cannot withstand a temperature in excess of 400'F.
#" (,-,-ttt{,"J r,'(,i)r, rm,'-
Bru /nz in.,\ tt.
Referring to Figure 3-28 and using Equarion 3-47 we _ t_t "^ . /ro.o\
t_t ^l
ttl
have
hr-ft'z-'F \144 in.J \ / 'J
t2

,'r' k.A.r, + hoAplto .D h= 306.303'F

(k,A. + h""AI)
Thus, the Teflon on the base is adequately protecte.
: The amount of heat loss through the shoe base plate :.
h" 3.0 Btu/hr-ftl'F for carbon steel in still air

k,,, : 26.0 Btu/hr-fr-'F

q = h"Ap (tp - t")

L: 10.0 in. (r.0) , in

l:u - frrz in.J:) ",,' {rob.J'3
'- -'hr-ftr-"F '- - e').F
\r++
A. = (0.375X14) : 5.25 in.2
= 504.706 Btu/hr
Ap : (8.0)(14) : ll2 in.,

L:90'F
NOTATION

A- = area of metal in pressure vessel shell or pi5

ft2
Ao : outside surface area of insulation, ftzlft
Ao : outside surface area of pipe, ft'?/ft
t y'lgscu ao At = outside surface area of tracer tube or HTC
5"cAlcruM srLrCATE
INSULATION ft2lfr
specific heat, Btu/lb-'F
/- to =9oo F A_ outside diameter of a pressure vessel, ft
D: diameter, ft, in.
D;: inside diameter of pipe insulation, ft, in.
outside diameter, in.
inside of outer ring of annulus, in.
outside diameter of inner ring of annulus. ::
D,- inside diameter of tracer tube, in.
acceleration of gravity, 32.2 ftlsec2
h- natural convection coefficient at OD of :::
L= I oin
P=0.375in piping insulation, Btu/hr-ft2-'F
ho' : corrected value for h", Btu/hr-ft'?-'F
ho = convection coefficient, pipe to air space, B:-
hr-ftr- o F
ht : convection coefficient, tracer or HTC to
"..:
BASE }IIDTH space, Btui hr-ft2-'F
h4-s : convection coefficient between the outsj.:
=8in
vessel insulation and ambient air, Btu/hr-::-
Figure 3-28. Heat transfer through pipe shoe.
 Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment 157

\5' = corrected convection coefficient, Btu/hr-ft2- X: distance of plotted temperature points along
the vessel skirt or piping, ft
ki = insulation conductivity, Btu/hr-ft-'F Z: heat transfer factor, 'F/ft2
ki = thermal conductivity ofair inside empty pipe, Z= heat transfer factor, ZiQ, 'F
Btu/hr-ft-"F
k, : thermal conductivity of vessel skirt or pipe,
Btu/hr-ft-'F Greek Symbols
L= length of branch pipe, ft
:
N6. Grashof number, dimensionless 0: volumeric coefficient of thermal expansion,
N51. : Nusselt number, dimensionless ,IK
Np. : Prandl number, dimensionless 6.,, 6,, : axial deflection of carbon or stainless steel
Np" : Reynolds number, dimensionless skirt or pipe, in.
Q: heat transfer factor, ft 2 ?: safety factor for traced pipe
Qr : heat transfer from air space to atmosphere, p: absolute viscosity, lbift-hr
Btuihr p: densiry, lb/ft3
Qz : heat transfer from tracer to air space, Btu/hr
Q: : heat transfer from pipe to air space, Btu/hr
Q+ : heat transfer from tracer to pipe, Btu/hr REFERENCES
t" : air space temperature, oF
t; : process fluid temperature, 'F 1. Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, Stan-
tj : air temperature inside the vessel skirt, pipe dards of the Tubular Manufacturers Association
support or branch pipe, 'F QEMA), sixth edition, New York, N.Y, 1978.
t, : surface temperature of the branch pipe at con- 2. Kern, Donald, Process Heat Tiansfer, McGraw-Hill
tact point with the header, or operating tem- Book Company, 1950.
perature in a pressure vessel, "F 3. Ludwig, Ernest E., Applied Process Design for
tj( : temperalure at distance x along the vessel Chemical and Petochemical Plazls, volume 3, sec-
skirt, pipe support or branch pipe, 'F ond edition, Gulf Publishing Company, Houston,
to, t5 = ambient temperature, oF Texas, 1983.
t3, t3' : temperature and corrected temperature at OD 4. Escoe, A. Keith, "Heat Transfer in Vessels and Pip-
of the pressure vessel insulation, 'F ing," Hydrocarbon Processing," January, 1983, vol.
t4, t4' : temperature and corrected temperature at OD 62, no. l, Gulf Publishing Company, Houston,
of the pressure vessel insulation, 'F Texas.
:
At tr - t in piping example, ta - t5 in vessel 5. Chapman, Allen 8., Heat Transfer, third edition,
skirt exarnple, 'F Macmillan Publishing Company, New York, 1974.
At' : t4 - ta' in vessel skirt example, "F 6. Perry, Robert H. and Don Green, Perry's Chemical
Atj' : t3 - t3' in piping example, "F Engineers' Handbook, sixth edition, McGraw-Hill
U3 : overall heat transfer coefficient at OD of pipe Book Company, New York, 1984.
insulation, Btu/hr-ft'?-'F 7. Heisler, M. P., "Temperature Charts for Induction
U+ = overall heat transfer coefficient at 14. Btu/hr- and Constant Temperature Heating," Transactions of
ftr-'F the A.S.M.E., vol. 69 (1947), pp.227-236.
 The Engineering Mechanics of
The specifuing, design, and construction of pressure
containing vessels varies all over the globe. Each
adopted code that has been used for any significant
length of time has proven to be workable because its use
has resulted in safe, economic designs. The main differ-
ences in codes are the theories of yield that are used for
determining maximum allowable stresses, material spec-
ifications. and basic procedures.
With increasing international competition and cyclic
economic conditions, there is a growing need to empha-
size economics and familiarity of foreign codes, and
avoid unnecessary overdesign that relies on only one set
of codes and standards. This chapter emphasizes the op-
timization of economics and safety. If you choose to be
conservative in your design, you can be; however, if you
are bidding in a highly competitive market, you can use
these methods to produce a safe, economical design.
International competition and economic condltions
have caused engineers to restructure their thinking that a
good design uses only enough material that produces a
safe and economical product. Thus, this chapter's philos-
ophy is to optimize engineering design within code rules,
whatever the code. Overly conservative design that re-
sults in excessive material use becomes unproductive
and expensive when one is competing in the world mar-
ket today.
A thorough treatment of vessel engineering and its
concomitant aspects of static and dynamic phenomena
would fill several volumes. To present this broad subject
with clarity. various physical phenomena are briefly dis-
cussed and references are made to sources that give de-
tailed theoretical explanations. lt is not this boo-k's pur-
pose to give a trearise of static and dynamic problems.
but rather descriptions of proven practices. The theory
of these problems is always available, but proven solu-
tlons are not-hence, the reason for this book.
159
Pressure Vessels
The first problem you face in designing a vessel con-
taining pressure is how to physically make the compo-
nents and assemble them. In the petroleum refining in-
dustry (CPl-Chemical Process Industry) and allied
industries, the most practical and economical method is
welding. We will refer to welding later in more detail,
but first we will look at the vessel from a pure engineer-
ing viewpoint assuming perfect welds with given effi-
ciencies. Some have proposed bonding pressure vessels
together with glue, as is done with aircraft components.
The main disadvantages to bonding are
1. Clean surfaces are required for assembly.
2. Glues that exhibit high tensile and compressive
strengths are very expensive.
3. Chemical bonding, especially in thick-walled ves-
sels, takes much longer than any welding process.
Another form of assembly that has been even more se-
riously considered than bonding is threading components
and screwing them in place. Even though this may ap-
pear to be simple, the process becomes enormously ex-
pensive with large diameters. Thus, welding is the most
practical and economical means of assembling pressure
vessels for the foreseeable future.
DESIGNING FOR INTERNAL PRESSURE
The two factors that must be considered in the desisn
for internaf pressure are crr??ponent thickness and quatiry
of weds. Before either of these two factors can be ad-
dressed, you must know what the vessel is to contain.
This chapter only considers gases and liquids. Vessels,
160 Mechanical Design of Process Systems
silos and bins containing solids are discussed in Chapter
In the design for liquids under pressure, the most se-
vere condition of coincident pressure and temperature
expected in operation must be considered in computing
shell thickness. This is fairly universal in codes through-
out the world. The intent ofthe statement is that the most
frequently occurring liquid level should be considered.
For example, if a vessel is filled to a certain level "A'
75% of the time and a higher level *8" 25% of the time,
level "A' should be used for design purposes. The nor-
mal liquid level to be used for vessel design and its quan-
titative value should be determined by the process engi-
neer. For upset conditions each code allows an increase
in allowable stresses under temporary conditions, and
you should consult whichever code is to be used for exact
amounts allowed. It is recommended that a value of 30
psig or 10% be added to the operating pressure for de-
sign pressure. This practice varies with each company
throughout the industry.
Once the internal pressure is determined it must be de-
cided how the vessel is to be welded. The factors affect-
ing this decision are as follows:
l. Size of vessel-whether rolled plate or seamless
pipe is used.
2. The toxic nature of the fluid to be contained.
3. The economics of fabrication as to whether a full
joint efficiency is necessary.
One can appreciate the degree of types of welds re-
quired for a vessel. A slug catchel which acts as a scrub-
ber handling a non-toxic substance, does not require the
same caution as a vessel containing cyanide gas.
The quality of a weld joint is determined by a radio-
graphic inspection. Full radiography includes a complete
X-ray inspection (1OO% for butt weld and 907o for sin-
gle-welded butt joint) and spot radiography implies 85 %
for buttjoints. See Thble 4-1 for maximum allowable ef-
ficiencies for arc and gas welded joints. The reader is
strongly urged to consult whatever code happens to gov-
ern. Listed in Thble 4-2 are the joint efficiencies for the
various welded combinations for pressure vessels under
ASME Section VIII, Division I[1].
Any discussion on designing for internal pressure
must include maximum allowable working pressure,
which is the maximum gauge pressure permissibie at the
top of the completed vessel in its operating position for a
designated temperature. This pressure, MAVr'P, is nor-
mally specified on two conditions*new and cold (ambi-
ent) (NAC), and design. "New and cold" implies the
MAWP for a new vessel (non-corroded) at atmospheric
condition, and "design" implies the vessel corroded at
design temperature and pressure. The value of the
MAWP at the two conditions gives the exact range of
temperature and pressure that the vessel can withstand if
the owner decides to use it in another application. The
reader is cautioned to consult his respective code on the
practice of using a vessel for another application. The
following example illustrates how the MAVr'P is applied:
An ASME Section VIII Division I vessel is made of
SA 240-304 SS, design pressure : 500 psig, design
temperature : 150'F. The vessel has a shell thickness
of 1.00 in. and a ioint efficiencv of 1.0.
MAWP (NAC) =
(18,800) x (1.00) x (1.00.)
(21.00)+(0.6)x(1.00)
870.4 psig
MAWP (Design) : (18,300) x (1.00) x (1.00)
(21.00)+(0.6)x(1.00)
847.2 psig
The 18,300 psi is obtained by linear interpolation of
the allowable stress values in Table UHA-23 of the
ASME Code.
The vessel owner knows the maximum allowable pres-
sure for the shell at the new and cold condition as well as
the design condition. It is a common practice to limit the
MAWP by the head or shell and not by the flanges or
openings, only the MAVr'P is determined by the flanges
or openings when the vessel is to be reapplied in another
application or a design oversight is made.
Finally, in computing the minimum thickness of the
shell or head, mechanical allowances must be consid-
ered. In the manufacture of heads, the metal is thinned
on forming the section (a forgery process). This forming
allowance must be considered when the nominal thick-
ness is specified. When a minimum thickness is specified
to the head manufacturer, the forming allowance is not
considered because it is the manufacturer's responsibility
to ensure the minimum thickness.
DESIGNING FOR EXTERNAL PRESSURE
The design for external pressure of vessels is fairly
standard in the ASME and codes of other nations. The
procedures for determining minimum shell thickness,
spacing, and section properties of stiffening rings are
straightforward and simple. Because there is much pub-
lished material on external pressure design, the subject is
not discussed here. The reader is ursed to consult the
oressure vessel code to be used.

Maximum Allowable Joint Efficiencies for Arc and Gas Welded Joints [11
Type ol Joinl
No. Description
(l) Butt joints as attained by dou-
ble-welding or by other means
which will obtain the same
quality of deposited weld metal
on the inside and outside weld
surfaces to agree with the re-
quirements of UW-35. Welds
using metal backing strips
which remain in place are ex-
cluded.
(2) Single-welded butt joint with
backing strip other than those
included under (l).
(3) Single-welded butt joint without
use of backing strip.
(4) Double tull fillet lap joint
(s) Single firll fillet lap joins with
plug welds conforming to UW-
t7
(6) Single tull fillet lap joints with-
out plug welds
The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 161
Table 4-1
Degree ot Examination
(a)
Fully (b) (c)
Radio" Spot Not Spot
Limitations graphed Examined Examined
None 1.00 0.85 0.70
(a) None except as in (b) below 0.90 0.80 0.65
(b) Butt weld with one plate off-
set-for circumferential joints only,
Circumferential joints only, not 0.60
over 5/a in. thick and not over 24
in. outside diameter
l-ongitudinal joints not over 3/8 in. 0.55
thick. Circumferential joints not
over s/r in. thick
(a) Circumferential joints for at- 0.50
tachment of heads not over 24 in.
outside diameter to shells not over
t/2 in. thick
(b) Circumferential joints for the at-
tachment to shells ofjackets not
over s/a in. in nominal thickness
where the distance from the center
of the plug weld to the edge of the
plate is not less than 1r/2 times the
diameter of the hole for the plug.
(a) For the attachment of heads 0.45
convex to pressure to shells not
over s/e in. required thickness. only
with use of fillet weld on inside of
shell; or (b) for attachment of heads
having pressure on either side, to
shells not oyer 24 in. inside diame-
ter and not over t/+ in. required
thickness with fillet weld on outside
of head flange only.
162 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Table 4-2
Joint Elficiencies for Arc and Gas Welded Joints per ASME
Joint Types H, C, and L
T1 = Type 1 Joinl (ASME UW-12)
T2 = Type 2 Joint (ASME UW-12)

Asterisk (+) denotes which joint type governs. Illustration of weld joint locations Typical of Categories A, B,
C. and D-see ASME Section VIII Division I.

Welded Head (Non-Hemispherical)-Welded Shell

Head Thk. Calcu. Shell Thickness Calculations
Radiograph E. Cir. Stress E. Long Stress
Type
L- C- H' T1 T1 T2
I .00
Spot 0.85 1.00 0.90

L00
Spot
None
Spot
Spot Spot 0.85
Spot None
None Full I
I
None Spot I
I
None None I

Spot Full Full 1.00

I
I

I
Spot Spot 0.85 I
I
None I
1.00 I
I

Spot Spot 100 0.85 0.80 0.80 100

I
Spot I

Spot Spot I
I
Spot Spot Spot 0.85 I

spot Spot I
I

Spot None Full I

Spot None Spot I

None None I

None Full Full 1.00

I

None Full Spot 0.85

I
I

None Full I
I
None Part 1.00 V
*L Weld soverns in circumferential stress calculations.
 rrI E-^r-^^-r-^
'FL^ LrrSrrr!!rur6 i'[echanics of Pressure
rr. Vessels 163

Table 4-2 continued

Welded Head (Non.Hemispherical)-Welded Shell
Head Thk. Calcu. Shell Thickness Calculations
Fadiograph E. Cir. Stress E. Long Slress
Type
L' C' H. Tl f2
None Part Spot
None Part None
None Spot Full
None Spot 0.85 0.85
iii!
Spot 0.80 0.80
None Spot None
None None Full II
None
None
None Spot
None None
rl
YI
O.70 0.70 0.6s
ii
0.70 0.65
*L Weld governs in circumferential stress calculations.

Welded Head (Hemispherical)-Welded Shell

Radiograph Head Thickness Calculations
TYPE Shell Thickness Calculations
JointH=Tl H=Tl H=T2 H=T2 E. Cir. Stress E. Long Stress
L- C' H' C=Tl C=T2 C=Tl C=T2 Vo Tt f2 T1 T2
Full Full Full 1.0 0.90 0.90 0.90
FUU Full Spot t {
FullFullNoneiiii
Frrll sn^IFrrll
' "" _____i!::_____i_ !ll!
Full Spot Spot O.ps 0 p0 0.90 0.p0
Full Spot None
Full None Full

Spot Full Full 1.00 0.90

Spot Full SDot { I
t|
Spot Full None i I

:------------- _--------=--:- |
r

spot Spot tu i
Spot Spot Spot 0..85 0.80 100 0.85 0.80 100 0.85 0.80 100
Spot Spot None
Spot None Full
Spot None Spot
None Full Full
None Full Spot
None Full None
None Spot Full
None Spot Spot 0.85 0.80 0.80
None Spot None
None None Full
None None
None None None 0.70
164 Mechanical Design of Process Svsterrrs

Table 4-2 continued

Shell Thickness Calculations

Radiograph
Type H=T1 H=T1 H=T2 H=T2 E. Cif. Stress E. Long Stress
C=Tl C=r2 Tl C=T2
C= o/o o^n T1 T1 12
Full Full l 00 0.90 0.90 0.90 1.00 0.90
Full Spot
Full None 0.85 0.80
Spot Full I .00 0.90
Spot Spot
Spot None 0.85 0.80
None Full 1.00 0.90
None Spot
0.70

Seamless Head-Welded Shell

Head Thick. Calcu. Shell Thickness Calculations
Radiograph E. Cir. Stress E. Long Stress
TYPE
T1 T2
Full Full 1.00 0.90 1.00 0.90
Full Spot 0.85 0.80 1.00 0.90 0.85 0.80
Full None +
I
Spot Full L00 0.90 I 1.00 0.90
Spot Spot 0.85 0.80 0.80 0.85 0.80
Spot None i
I
None Full 1.00 0.90 I
I .00 0.90
i
I

None Spot 0.85 0.80 0.85 0.80

None None 0.70 0.65 0.65 0.70 0.65
* C weld governs on head and longitudinal stress calculations.
*L Weld governs on shell circumferencial stress calculations.

Seamless Head-Seamless Shell

Head Thickness Calculations Shell Thickness Calculations
E. Long Stress

0.80 0.85 0.80

! C Weld go\ern5 ior head dnd longnudinal slre,s calculalion\.

 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 165

Table 4-2 continued

Seamless (Non-Hemispherical) Head-Seamless Shell
Head Thick. Calcu. Shell Thickness Calculations
E. Cir. E. Long Stress
Stress
Full 1.00 0.90
Fart 1.0 0.85 0.80
Spot
\one 0.70 0.65

Seamless (Non-Hemispherical) Head-Welded Shell

Shell Thickness Calculations
Radiograph Head Thlck.
TYPC Calculatlons E. Cir. Stress E. Long Stress
c'
Full Full 1.00 0.90
100 1.00 0.90
Full Part I
Full Spot
85
Full None I

Spot Full
I

I
r00
Spot Part 0.80
Spot Spot
I
I
85 i
Spot None
I
I
I
None Full
None Part
I

None Spot I t
None None 0.65 0. 70 0. 65

Welded (Non-Hemispherical)-Seamless Shell

Head Thick. Calculations Shell Thickness Calculations
Radiograph
Type E E. Cir.
-Tl 12- Stress
Full Full 1.00 0.90 1.00 0.90
100
Full Part
Full Spot I
I -)
6 0.85 0.80
Full None I

Spot Full I 1.00 0.90

Spot Part
I
I 100
Spot Spot 0. 80 0.85 0.80
Spot None I
I 85
None Full 100 1.00 0.90
None Part
----:-
None Spot v 6) 0.85 0.80
None None 0.70 -U. 65 0.70 0.65
*H Weld governs in head calculations.
+ C Weld governs in loogitudinal sfress calculations.
166 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL PRESSURE

VESSELS

The analysis of horizontal pressure vessels converges

on the design for internal pressure and vessel supports.
This chapter only considers metal, cylindrical vessels,
and focuses on the supports of horizontal pressure ves-
sels.
L. P. Zick [2] of the Chicago Bridge and Iron Com-
pany developed the method of analyzing supports for
horizontal cylindrical shells in 1951. We will not derive
the method, but rather summarize it in a seneral discus-
-- - '\
sion along with guidelines and useful praciices thar make /'\-
the design of such items more straightforward.
Horizontal vessels should be desisned to withstand
,\l
---,..T.,- .
internal and external pressures. and support reactions >\.----r<"
produced by the vessel weight and additional loads from ]''..- 9--7
ladders, platforms, piping, etc. Zick [2] showed that
Figure 4-1. Horizontal vessels are
supporting horizontal vessels by more than two saddles supported on saddles. The saddles
is not only inefficient, but incurs additional undesirable can be supported on concrete piers
problems. Figures 4-1 and 4-2 illustrate a horizontal ves- r = mean radius, ft shown in Figure 4-2.
sel supported by two saddles.

LONGITUDINAL BEITIDING STRESSES

A horizontal vessel supported on two beams is the ts
same as a beam overhanging two supports. The maxi-
mum longitudinal bending stresses occur at the supports
themselves and at the center of the vessel, as shown in
Figure 4-3. Zick [2) and Brownell and Young [3] give a
detailed derivation of the equations for longitudinal
bending stresses at the saddle and at mid-span. This anal-
ysis is summarized in the following:

At Saddle

qr = longitudinal bending stress at saddle

oa1 allowable stress in tension. psi
o"r = B = allowable stress in compression. psi
Figure 4-2. Horizontal vessel with saddles on concrete piers.
For tension,

01 : Eoan + op

where E: welding joint efficiency

op = pressure stress, psi or the allowable stress in compression is

The allowable stress for compression is based on the ac- o1 < Bl2
cepted formula for buckling of short cylindrical col-
umns, which is
where r = radius of cylindrical shell, in.
thickness of cylindrical shell, in.
/"\i,\[, - (,1,'*,(i)]
\-rt \;i f
modulus of elasticity of shell, psi
D B factor in the ASME vessel code, psi
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels

Referring to Figure 4-3, oy occurs at either lBl6 + 0l2l 2A : arc, in radians, of unstiffened shell in plane saddle
degrees or zero degrees at the shell acting in the longitu- effective against bending
dinal direction. This only applies to unstiffened shells.
The vessel must meet the allowable with or without ores-
sure. At Mid-span

l- *'-
":-t*-[..(, I *ll,AL
+
"41ll o: longitudinal bending stress at midspan

3L
I +
IJ
The longitudinal bending stress at midspan has the same

(4-3)
(4-r)

Thneential Shear Stress

where A, H, L, Q, r, and t. are defined in Figure 4-3.
CA = corrosion allowance, in. l. For shell stiffened by ring in the plane of the saddle,
0: angle of contact of saddle with shell, degrees
(Figure 4-1) _ _ (0.r8)Q
/r- -
"r"- - rrr-tAr\ L-H
- ze u\
(4-4)
* l<a \ /
4 = _al1 +:Ol lA-) |
180 \r2 l o3 < 0.08ou1

n \
--il \
.-11--T-
- I
N l-/

|| zT\-[ll
ll/r\rr.,
tt/ | \lll
ffi-["
'Y V-t-+
Figure 4-3. Bending moment diagram for a horizontal vessel developed by Zick
l2l.
168 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

;&p

Figure 4-3. Continued.

 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 169

Figure 4-3. Continued.

17O Mechanical Design of Process Systems

z
z

6 o.os-
=
=
o
z
z
UJ

)
t-
zgJ
,'u o'o2-
=
E

1.O
RATIO A/r
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 171

L Unstiffened shell with saddles awav from head (A If A/r>1, then K6: O.42Z2e-a ot710 (4-11)
>R) where d : deg
If A/r < 0.5,then K6 : K3/4
''v- - 11-ctr \ L+H a /L-H -2A'l Otherwise, use Figure 4-3.
/

:in," I
'(\7r-@+slnqcosd/ ,o-r,

.. 1 0sin0 sin 6 , sin 0

',r'here
1t 2
-[ cos P
R

1= r,# (; . rq],
g & B in degrees (4-6)

r! :

,j.
tangential shear stress, located at an angle of B/20

Shell stiffened by head,

.ltu\
\-/
15 = shear stress in head

This stress occurs only when t}re shell is stiffened by the . - r(#)'+ 2cos2B
head and when the head is located less than one shell ra- (4-12)
dius from the saddle. The rnaximum shear is located at ^/^\:i
srnpcosp, .lslnpl
an angle of (l9l2O)P as shown. a \B I

Q lsin o[ "- sinocoso \l (4-7) o, : circumferential comDressive stress

r(rr-C{)1" \"-" + tin
""oso/l
This stress is located at the horn of the saddle If o; (
-1. Shear stress in shell, outr, it is not necessary to take credit for the wear plate.

q [.in rI o- rino.oro \l (4-S) o7 < l'50 ou1

"6 - r(t5-CA)tn \" - " +.sindcose/ I
06 is the same as 05 and also is located at (19/20)0. With Additional Stress in Head When Used as a Stiffener
rhe shell stiffened by the head, then

o6 3 0.8o"1
-
3Q I sin']" I (4- 13)
"s 3'-1u - 6e,1 Lr .o, + sin " cos
"l
Circumferential Stress at Horn of Saddle
08 S oall

For shell stiffened by head the maximum circumferential

stress at horn of saddle is,
Wear Plates-Ring Compression in Shell Over Saddle
IfL>8R,o7: 4( -a
- CA) (b + 1.56(r(r - CA))u)

-,'QIu
2(r - = CA)'?
p.s) (t - CAXb + 1.56(r(t - Ca;101

If L < 8R, o : -a {\7r-q+slnacosq/

'1':'" }o"(0.5o, (4-14)

@ oe : ring compressive stress in shell over the saddle

_ 12&QR _ (4_lo)
:
L(t - CAf This stress is located at O 7r
 172 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

This stress is compressive and acts in a radial direction Table 4-3

between the saddle and shell. The limitation of this stress Allowable Stress Values
IS
Longitudinal Bending Stress
0.5ori"ra ot T op : o' i,DP a o4 E. where E = joint efficiency
where oyi"rd : the yield strength of the saddle material

'o'' r
02 +op =
(metal or concrete) 02
ff
Tangential Shear Stress
Location ot Saddle Supports
03' q4 < 0.8 oall
For thin wall vessels with large diameters, it is desir- o5' 06 < 0.8
able to locate the saddles close to the head, where A = Circumferential Stress at Horn Saddle
ID/4, using the stiffness of the head. Although arbitrary o7 < 1.5 o"1
on what a thin shell is, and Zick [2] does not define the
term, a shell is generally regarded as ',thin" when D/t Circumferential Stress at Bottom of Shetl
:
> 100, where D shell diameter and t shell thick- : oe q 0.5 (or1-i") * Compressive Yield
ness. For shells where D/t < 100 and the distance from
the head tangent to head tangent is rather large (approxi-
mately L/r > 10), the saddles are best spaced when the
longitudinal bending stress at rhe saddle, or, equals the
longitudinal bending stress at midspan. o2. Undei no cir- Zick Stlffenang Rings
cumstances should the distance from the saddle center
line to the head tangent, A, exceed 0.25L. When the Zick stresses in a vessel become excessive
and the location of the saddles no longer is a factor be-
A listing of allowable stress criteria is siven in Thble
cause the stresses are below the allowable stress, then
4-3. Each of the previously menlioned stress values
two options are available-increase the vessel wall thick-
should be evaluated with this table and the appropriate
ir code.
ness or add stiffening rings. Almost always it is more de-
sirable to add stiffening rings because it is cheaper to add
a few rings than go to a larger size shell thickness, par-
Wear Plate Deslgn ticularly with expensive alloys. Also, if the vessel is sub-
jected to external pressure , the Zick rings can act as ex-
One of the first things to consider when designing a ternal pressure stiffening rings as well as Zick rings.
horizontal vessel is the need for wear plates. Too often Referring to Figure 4-3, if two Zick stiffening rings
these plates are "auromatically" included with no are located on each side of the saddle, then
lhought given to their necessity in each application. Wear
plates involve material and labor expense and are a waste Ln,n : l.Jb Vfl, It
if not needed.
Wear plates are not required if two criteria are met: Lr* : r, ft
The circumferential stress at the horn of the saddle must
be less than 1.5 times the allowable stress, and the ring The stress in the ring is
compression stress in the shell over the saddle musr bi
less than one half the minimum yield strength. These cri- _- _ -KuQ KuQr ,
teria can be written as follows: nA- n7,

o1 1 7.5 o^x Where = l-/c for ring in the plane of the saddle,
Z
oe ( 0.5 o, 6n tn.'
Table 4-4 shows minimum allowable shell thicknesses z : I,-,/d at saddle horn at tip or flange of
required for horizontal vessels without wear plates. The stiffener ring, in.3
I*- : moment of inertia of stiffening ring about
values are based on using a fluid 1.75 times the weight "
axis x-x, in.a (includes wear plate
of watet and the metal has a minimum yield of 30,000 thickness if one is used)
psi and an allowable stress of 17,500 psi. For vessels in : cross-sectional area of stiffening ring, in.2
seismic regions wear plates should always be used to n : number of stiffener rings per saddle
minimize stress concentrations at saddle plate-shell junc- r : mean vessel radius, in.
ture. K6 : previously defined
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 175

Table 4-4
Minimum Shell Thickness Required lor Horizontal vessels Without Wear Plates

lD (in.)
78 84 90 96 102 108 114 120 132 144 156
8
r/s in.
r/r in.
l0 I

t2
t4
l6
_r- I

5/r in.
lllro in.

l8 ?ro in. 9/ro in. rYrt in. ?/x in. I in.

20
30 ll/rc in. r/+ in.
t2 tn,
40 Is/r6 in.
50
60 78 in. I in.
65 lYro in.

Not€s
1. The above table is based on the following:
a. vessel is tully loaded with a fluid of specific gmvity of 1.5.
'72.
b. The ratio of the shell outside radius, R., to shell thickness, t, is R-lt >
c. vessel weight is computed with not€ (a.) and hemispherical heads.
d. Vessel material has the following properties:
d,i" y,.rd = 30,000 psi and o.rr* = 17,500 psi
2- In seismic zones 3 and 4 wear Dlates should be used.
 174 Mechanical Design of process Systems

In compression, oro is negative, strengthened with stiffener or web plates. but often too
many are used. which increases laboi and material costs.
oleAB(0.5o., In the past, saddle plates have been purposely over-de-
signed to guard against uncertainty. This is no longer re-
In tension, o,6 is positive,
quired, since literature on flat plate theory has increased
o'e * oo ( o.1 [tension]
with mounting experimental data. One such organization
that has engaged in extensive research is U.S. Steel [4].
where B = ASME compressive stress (see ASME Section Figure 4-4 shows a typical saddle configuration for a
8 Division l) horizontal vessel. Section A-A shows that only an effec-
o", : compressive yield stress (see ASME Section g tive portion of the member will resist compression.
Division 2) shear. and bending loads because when rhe member is
op : internal pressure stress (includes wear plate loaded, the outside fibers ofthe web plates and the center
thickness if one is used) of the saddle plate -shown by rhe sh;ded areas in Figure
4-4-go into the plastic range. The rest of the plate area
In defining the parameter K7, it must be noted that the is still in the elasric range because of residual stresses
Zick stiffening rings can fit on either the inside or out- that were created by non-uniform heating during rolling
side of the vessel shell. Many clients object ro the rings or welding. Presently, this "effective" area can be deter-
being external to the vessel surface because of aesthetici. mined only by experiment. Equations 4-9,4-10, and 4-
However, after insulation is applied, the rings are no 14 are used in saddle design as follows:
longer visible. We will consider rhe rings in both ways.
The constant K7 is defined as follows: b":KL (4-15 )

For a ring in the plane of the saddle- where b" = effective width, in.
K; = plate buckling coefficienr for either
+ 1.0 compression, shear, bending, or a
0.340, 0 : 120" combination of these loads (see Figures 4-5,
Kr: 0.303, 0 : 150' 4-6, 4-7, 4-8,4-9, and 4-10).
0.250,0 : 180. i : c, b, s, or a combination of these characters,
where K. : plate buckling coefficient for compression,
dimensionless
For rings adjacent to saddle- Kb : plate buckling coefficient for bending,
For internal rings, dimensionless
Ks : plate buckling coefficient for sheaq
\: -1.0 dimensionless

(o.271, 0 : 120" We now have

Kr: l.0.2r9, 0 : 150'
:
[0.140, 0 180'
-a
For external rings, 4(t - CA)[b" + 1.56{rrr - CA))o']
1.)K.
X = -1.0 _ ;:--. rf L > 8R (.4-9)

(0.27 | , 0 : 120.
Kz: 10.2t9, 0 :150' o
{0. r+0, o = 180' 4(t - CA) tb" + 1.56(r(t - CA) fI

-.lt*'gl.,rrL
L(r - LA)'
< 8R (4-10)
STEEL SADDLE PLATE DESIGN

Once the shell conditions have been met. the saddle

plates must be analyzed. The main phenomenon encoun-
4ft - cA) tb. + 1.56G(t - CA)f 5l

tered with saddle plates is local buckling with the plates

undergoing bending, compression, shear, or any combi- I1 cos ol
-l (4-r4)
nation of these loadings. Normally, saddle plates are '( 7t- (\ sln a cos
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 175

d"
t/ll
lffl
b
- b"-:l
fI t---------1 I
\r .,-.-lN I

'.-lF 1l"'l*" -
|

'-ff I
*lJL.._"1
-.T----
sections A-A and B-8,
shaded areas are in the
plastic range.

elevation view

Figure 4-4. Horizontal vessel saddle support detail.

Figures 4-5 to 4-10 are courtesy of United States Steel Corporation. --'t------------- - --'l-----------_-
USSC makes no warranties, express or implied, and no warranty as
to the merchantability, fitness fot any particular purpose, or accuracy I --r
--i cAS€ 3
r- --
F ---l CISE 4
F-
I
of the information contained in any material reproduced herein from
l _.1-...---------.1= 5
its Steel Design Manual. In the event of any liability arising out ofthe
publication of such material herein, consequential damages arc ex- -l casE 5 F
cluded. ri\
loaoEo FtXE0

E
\\' ---- EDGES

LOADED EDGES
z.

E \ SIMPLY SUPPORTEO

j i\ I

\\.
ta.'a

Figure 4-5. Buckling coefficients for flat plates under uni-

form compression. (Courtesy of U.S. Steel [4].)
 176 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

aaTro oF
EENDING STBESS
-TOU\IFOR\,I MJNII\,4UI\,IBUCTI.NGCOLfFICITNI.'I,
COVPBLSSION
ST-8ESS, UNLOAOED EDGES UNLOADED
LOAD ING Sll\,4PLY SUPPonTED EDGES FtxED

\l
T-- .]
t7/
tl -t!ft.
{PU8E BENOING)
3H.

jr:=-2l3r,r 5.00
,.1 \

\-V {, = 1/3r, Y 2.OO

-tK
F----E y
H "=o 't.00

Fry]=
!l r, = r/3f I E/ 0.50
\t_-_____tr/
Ir r-r____-_r_: I,
F= f: = f, t= rp,,..
. -... "^iiil.*
--.....,--jtoN) 4.0
.VALUES Figure 4-6. Buckling coefficients for flat
GIVEN AAE BASED ON PLATES HAVING LOADED EDGES
S{I\4PLY SUPPORTED AND ARE CONSERVATIVE FOR PLATES plates under compression and bending. (Cour_
HAVING LOADED EDGES FIXED. tesy of U.S. Steel [4].)

n
i LONC EDGES FIXED,SHONT
ED6ES SIMPLY STIPPOfi TEO

Figure 4-7. Buckling coefficients for flat plates in shear.

(Courtesy of U.S. Steel [4].)
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 177

Figure 4-8. Buckling. coefficients for stiffened plates under 0.6 0.8 1.0
t
uiform compression (one longitudinal stiffener at mid-point). 2.O

,Courtesy of U.S. Steel [4].) 2.2

14 I

13

12

tl
i
z I

tr
U
o
o
z
=
f

1.O 1.2 1.4

34

2.8
30
4 6 810 12 14 16 18
3.0
NONDIMENSIONAL PABAMETER, O

2A I

26

j 24

22

: 20
o
(, 18

=
t6
-
12

Figure 4-9. Buclding coefficients for stiffened plates under

5 35 40 45 50 55 uniform compression (two longitudinal stiffeners at third
NONDIIUENSIONAL PAsAMETER. d points). (Courtesy of U.S. Steel [4].)
 178 Mechanical Design of process Systems

0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1_4 1.6 1.8 2.O

2.8

3.0
F
z I
q
n
o

j Figure 4-10. Buckling coefficients for stiffened plates under

uniform c_ompression (three Iongitudinal stiffeneis at quarter
points). (Courtesy of U.S. Steel [4].)
F

NONDII\,4ENSIONAL PARA]\IETER, d

no web plates are used then b" : t,. It is very com-

If compression for the fixed-free case, when multiplied by
mon_ for engineers and designers to use the we6 plate t., yields approximately the effective width, b", that is
width, b, instead of b". This is wrong. The only time b" used for residual stress. In other words, if a member is
: b is when t, = b, as is true for a solid concrete sad- known or suspected to have residual stress and is sub-
dle. With steel this never happens, as values of b can be jected to compression, bending, shear, or a combination.
as great as 24 in. and obraining plate that thick is impos_ the plate buckling coefficienr is equal [o rhe effecr:ve
sible (ar least on this Dlanet). width that is determined by the residual stress crirerion,
Values ofb" depend upon K, and t,. Since the value of t. which is as follows:
is known, the real independent variable in Equation 4-15
is K,. Once again referring to Figure 4-4. we analyze the
ti- d,t,
saddle configuration for end (boundary) conditions. Sec- (4-16)
tion B-C is considered fixed-fixed in Fisure 4-5. since it ldit.+2r*(b-l)l
js stiffened by sections A-B and C-D.
S=ections A-B and
The general equation in which the saddle plate stress dis-
C-D are considered fixed-free since the outer web Dlate
tribution is defined is as follows:
is not stiffened by another section. The fixed-free condi-
tion is the most critical because it is more susceDtible to
K, zr2 E
buckling. and rhus ha: a lower value oi the plaie buck- o{: \, (4-17 a)
ling coefficient than the fixed-fixed case. [t is interestins
rztr--l- 4ld'1"
to note that the plate buckJing coefficient for uniforri \\/
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 179

shere di : saddle plate length normal to vertical axis of thickness of saddle plate, in.
stiffener (web) plate, shown in Figure 4-4. effective width of saddle plate that is
modulus of elasticity, psi perpendicular to the web plate, in.
Poisson's ratio
effective saddle width, in. with
saddle plate thickness, in.
d.=d,(0.25+0.91\)

Substituting the elastic buckling stress

-1-17a into
in Equation \:lll \dJ

o, : maximum unit load the stiffener can carry as

,
or:6y-7
o*2 a column, psi
1o.,

/, \2 Horizontal Reaction on Saddle

J(r ,. oy'l-l
Jol
- /")
As shown in Figure 4-i 1, the load Q has a horizontal
= or- ;; ;; "' ,l[ o,, 2 o.l2 (4-17b)
component exerted on the horns of the saddle. The sad-
\7-D
dle must be designed to p{event the horns of the saddle
gives the relationship of the plate buckling stress in the from separating. To accomplish this make sure that the
inelastic range. This equation is based on the conserva- minimum cross-sectional area at the lowest point on the
rive assumption that a plate will always buckle before the saddle can resist the horizontal force component. This
yield stress is reached. However, U.S. Steel [4] states force is as follows:
that plates will deform plastically without buckling be-
cause of strain hardening. This process is similar to the - ^h * cos 0 - 0.5 sin'z0l (4- l9)
"elastic shakedown" described in Chapter 2. l't-lJ+sInPcosP.l
In most applications, as already cited, saddle plates are
reinforced with stiffener plates. A simplified analysis The effective cross section to resist the horizontal force
can be made to design saddles by using
is As, shown in Figure 4-11 and calculated as follows:
Fs: n(A, + 2b"t.)o. (4-18)
Ae : iRl
l;l t,
where Fs : buckling load for compressive loading, LBq
A, : section area of stiffener, in.2
n : number of stiffeners where R : outside vessel radius

t R/3

Figure 4-11. The load distribution on a saddle.

180 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

SADDLE BEARING PLATE THICKNESS Table 4-5

Bearing Plate Thickness Values tor Various Saddle
.Designing bearing plates for saddles requires knowing Loads
what type of foundation the vessel will rest on. For con- L1 L, Q.ax (tbs) t (in.) Bp (psi) o,(psi)
crete the following analysis applies.
17 4 2,858 0.165 42.029 108.852.563
Consider a bearing plate with the dimensions shown in 26 4 5,043 0.178 48.490 162.100.694
Figure 4-12. From ACI Standard 318-77 par. 10.16.1. 30 4 8.103 0.2t0 67.525 t85.744.857
the allowable bearing strength on concrete is 33 4.25 .13l 0.241 79.365 213,447.893
36 4.25 16,007 0.277 1U.62r 232,042.324
/,r \o s 39 5.'75 20,418 0.350 91.050 320.269.t3r
o= @10.85
'J e,r (3 (4-20) 42 5.75 25,387 0.3?6 lo5.t22 344.024.233
45 5.75 33,523 0.4t7 129.557 367.1-1.7.375
48 5.75 40,154 0.442 145.486 39t.528.914
For bearing on concrete (ACI 9.3.2.e)
s4 5.75 s9,549 0.508 r9r.784 439,028.224
0 :0.70 s7 5.75 68,777 0.531 209.846 462,776382
a; : 3000 psi 60 s.75 84,203 0.573 244.067 486.523.,736
63 5.75 101.759 0.6t4 280.908 5t0,270.399
in which
66 5.7s 114,664 0.637 302.145 534.016.463
69 6.75 t28.417 0.715 275.721 637,918..163
72 6.15 143,003 0.738 294.245 665.0.1s.973
o : (0.70)(0.85)(3,000)41 76 6.75 174,748 0.794 340.639 701,285.2,75
84 6.75 210,035 0.828 370.432 773.70r.873
95 6.75 2s0,290 0.850 390.316 873.271.364
, :1:-3,L,,:
(,A L-1,1" r4-1rl
\Ar l-"
Using a factor of safety of 1.6, Equation 4-21 becomes
Thus, the maximum stress in the bearing plate is
,' : rs.63 A, (eir2Mtl!)"'
*=r, r
riq\/bj
Using a minimum yield strength of 30,000 psi we have op =;
M= ,\2r"1\tl (4-))\
the allowable stress for bending, per AISC recommenda-
tron,
" -,
lil
\6i
o.n : 0.66 o, : 0.66(30,000) : 19,800 psi

Qt" lo'.,n.
,: I\24.600 A-) 7l
Lrl

where b : Lz
Q: load on saddle, lbs

BP: bearing pressure Q ao'

= LrLz

Table 4-5 depicts values of bearing plate thickness for

various saddle loads.

DESIGN OF SELF.SUPPORTED VERTICAL

VESSELS
Ar=LrLz
Az=LoL+ Today's tall, cylindrical process towers are self-sup-
porting, i.e., they are supported by a cylindrical or coni-
Figure 4-12. Bearing plate dimensions. cal shell (skirt) with a large base ring attached to a con-
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 181

,'rete foundation or steel structure with anchor bolts the internal stress in the circumferentiai direction is com-
embedded in the concrete or steel. Normally, a vertical bined with the bending and tensile (or compressive)
\'essel must be at least thirty feet tall to be classified as a stresses. Writing this expression we obtain,
"tower." This height is used because thirty feet is the old

"= -(.*J'H-(x)
first wind-zone demarcation in code use. However, (4-27)
smaller vertical vessels are governed by the same design
criteria, but are not usually referred to as towers.
The various phenomena that affect towers in normal where Z: section modulus of the shell cross section, in.l
operation make their design complex and worthy of ex- A: area of the shell cross section, in.2
perienced engineering personnel. Therefore, towers
should never be taken lightly by any design office, be- Substituting Equations 4-24, 4-25, and 4-26 into Equa-
cause a failure could result in massive loss of material
tior 4-27 produces
and possibly lives.
, : * (ryf - (":zlur..
_ , h- iLr,
_ @-zB)
MINIMUM SHELL THICKNESS REOUIRED
FOR COIIBINED LOADS ipo\ /
"io^lra
to \
"J
- - \4,/= -t DitrDr D,:t/
\nrtO"
High-speed electronic computers now provide de-
tailed, exact solutions to complex mathematical prob-
Iems, and so have replaced the "strong arm" approxima- ,( 2w \ (4-29)
tions of yesterday. An example is solving the equations = \",tnt * Ot1
of the moments of inertia and section modulus. Before or
the advance of computers, the following expressions
were used to quicken computations on a slide rule or a /po\ / to o"t'.1 \
small electronic calculator: ' - \+r/- \norD,-r D,rrD"r - D,2r/
I = nR3t; exact: I: #,o"" D'a) (4-24) ,( 2w \ (4-30)
= \""fr5 * t1
.I Referring again to Figure 4-13, we summarize the fol-
Z : rRztt exact = z = ,a (gd ar'"'D | 4-15 | lowing:

A= exact: A:
l,o" - 1. For the tension or windward side,
?Irt; D,) (.4-26)

Using R as the mean radius minimizes the error and ' /po\ / ro o"v \
using R as the outside radius results in considerable er- \ +t / \rrr D" - D,tt D"2 - D,2t /

ror. Solving for the thickness or stress with the exact for-
mulations involves iterative analysis, which is a key at-
- lzwl+ DJ/ (4-31)
\"(D"
tribute of today's computers. or
The minimum shell thickness required for internal or
external pressure alone is often not sufficient for addi . - /.o\ I 16 D.M \
tional stresses induced by bending moments and weight ' \+, /- \ro{D" --J,DJ + D-l-,/
loads. Bending stress is a result of static wind, dynamic
wind gusts, vibration or seismic response spectra. In de-
sign the engineer takes the largest bending moments in-
- /zw\
\"r(DJ-D)/
t4-1)\

duced by one of the following: wind, vibration or seis- 2. For the compression or leeward side,
mlc.
Referring to Figure 4-13, we analyze the stress ele- /po\ i ro o.r,a )
ment depicted. The maximum stress resulting from inter-
\4tl \Tt(D" + D,XD.r I D,r)/
nal pressure occurs along the x-axis, i.e., the hoop stress
is twice the longitudinal stress. Wind, vibration, and/or - lzwi /4-11)
seismic forces cause the shell to bend about the z-axis, so \"(D" + D)/
182 Mechanical Design of Process Sysrems

l--lo l- clF
o
u, 3lt ll, =ll
stN ll'
U' ld"d
l^'l l= x 'E'

o ' ,. f---l /
1t--l /
-3
- -\'l II< l<-l --r'l tr l<1_ -
ttGt
q)
o
l I

^i^
L-
s-^ > E-
tt,
lo o-l I ci o i.;
Nls
" lci r o tk
th

at
\ | lr
--41ll < lr>- -
o"
*
irlol<r-
rl
/
I
I
q)
o

tt f x
to 3 ielo ^r
EO
C'
Rl+--i- ",*
,ll ;l*lll
^"-'l= i' Ii.- - l''
' oo- +
bp - !l < l<L ' {i ll I'
-rdo[<r-
!'<f flti lt ti
r.u 3
o)
-t'- --l-
o. i1
" Rlr x !:J t€
I

a,l
E"
O,o
3
5x
^, i rine*
o
rl)
o i -t-
u
r r N

E(/,
il= "-1
- ' f---------1r
)
Fl_"_12 ^lil+
-\1il <lK- .Jt ql I/
- +;l
o
lr it I:+ ..-t-''_ Ir
o-
t-l
I
Y\
x ol
o- td . pl*
o
q)

a9
or l:
!: (1, IL
U'|,,l
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 183

OT
the cost-plus contractors seek to standardize designs and
use lower pressure vessel code allowables. As with wear

'- /ro\
._ / ro o.rra \ plates on horizontal vessels, most lump-sum contractors
\4"/- \""(DJDJ(DJ +-3/ would elect to omit them whenever possible to save ma-

- lr*\ (4-34)
terial and labor costs. This phiiosophy is becoming in-
creasingly popular with recent economic upheavals and
\"r(D" + DJ/
increasing international competition.
3. For vacuum vessels the maximum stress occurs on Types of skirt supports are shown in Figure 4-14. Fig-
the compressive side, such that Equations 4-29 and 4- ure 4-14b shows the most common and desirable skirt,
30 become since the shear is eliminated by the type of attachment.
This type is used primarily on short vertical vessels.
The skirt is designed to resist loadings caused by bend-
ing and the tower weight. Writing the expression that de-

- l2wl
scribes this we obtain
(4-35)
\"(D. + DJ/
and

.' - /po \ / ro o"r',r \

Substituting Equations 4-25 and 4-26, as before, we ob-
\4")-F',D.+ qnD"' i-DI/ tain
_l 2wl (4-36)
16MD. 2W
\"t(DJ DJ/ (4-37)
7r't(D" + Dr(D"2 + Di) irr(Do + D,)

l6MD" , 2W
(4-38)
SUPPORT SKIRT DESIGN no(D" + 5tD"'+ D-5 "'@. + D)
The design ofvessel skirts is one area in which design- Once again, Equations 4-37 and 4-38 must be solved by
ers disagree philosophically. Lump-sum contractors seek iteration. Normally, these equations do not govern the
to use higher allowables and thus less material, whereas skirt thickness, as the reaction of external bolting and

IAINIGHf CIRCULAF CYLINDBICAL SKIBT

t,/
l\l l
Jt tE, i

16I EXTEiNAL LAPPING SKIRI

Figure 4-14. Skirt designs.

 184 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

compression rings is not considered. The stresses in the Fi : see below

skirt shell that result in compressive loading on the com- W: yessel weight, lb
pression ring and bolting chair can be quite high in appli- W. : operating weight, lb
cations where external chairs shown in Fisure 4-15 ire WE = empty weight, lb
used. See Brownell and Young [3], for a derivarion ofthe N= number of anchor bolts
reaction expression. The skirt thickness required to re_
sist the reaction of external chairs or comp;ession ring The minimum initial bolt load required to maintain com-
for a chair of the type in Figure 4-15 is determined ai pression between the base plate and compression ring ex-
follows: :
ist when o" 0. Thus, using Equation 4-40 and substi-
:
tuting o. 0 we have

,=176[#r]",,, (4-3e) -'

f,:
8M D.- W,
____: (4-41)
N(D", + D,1- N
where t : skirt thickness, in.
r : radius of skirt, in. The required bolt area is
m : bolt spacing, in. or 28 in Figure 4-15
F. = uplift bolt load, lb *'
B : radial distance from outside of skirt to bolt
circle, in., Figure 4-15
[*")- (4-42)
G11 : gusset height, in. No,

Equation 4-39 is normaily the controlling criteria for a

where BC : bolt circle diameter, rn.
ou : allowable anchor bolt stress, psi
skirt with external chairs. Howeveq for a skirt with or M : in.lb
without external chairs, Equation 4-38 must be satisfied.

Equation 4-42 is one of the major differences in design-

ANCHOR BOLTS ing a tower under a lump-sum contract versus cost-plus.
Most cost-plus designers use vessel code allowable stress
Anchor bolts are one of the most important aspects of
values that are based on a factor of safety of 4:1. This
tower design, and, unfortunately, are often not taken se-
large a factor of safety is intended for components con-
riously enough. Consequently, many problems related to
taining pressure. Thus, using vessel code allowable
towers during construction or operation can be linked to
stresses for bolts leads to large anchor bolts, which is un-
anchor bolts.
desirable because more concrete is required and larger
Wind and seismic loads are dynamic and result in cy-
_ bolts are much harder to torque, requiring bigger
clic loading of the anchor bolts. For this reason, I will
wrenches and being more susceptible to galling. To keep
only present the method for analyzing preloaded anchor
anchor bolt sizes down follow AISC euidelines for bolt-
bolts. Initial preload is significant since pre-torquing the
ing- since anchor bolts are purely stirctural in nature.
bolts reduces the variable stress range the bolts experi-
Table 4-6 provides the allowable stresses for boltins
ence during cyclic loading. The tower weight and bolt
per AISC l5l. Type 4325 bols and ASTM Al93-87
load allow firm contact between the compression ring
high-strength bolts are used in most applications. A307
and concrete or steel such that the support base rotates
bolts are used where bolt loadings are not large and the
about the neutral axis of the contact area, as shown in
bolt size need not be massive. When bolt sizes get large
Figure 4-16. Referring to this figure we see that under a
(231a to 3 in.) or it is desirable to reduce the bolt size.
moment M at the base plate-concrete juncture the maxi-
then Al93-B7 or A325 bolts are used. One can see from
mum and minimum stress is
Table 4-6 that A325 has more than twice the allowable
stress value as A307 bolts. The extra cost of the hieh-
- (**J
" = H). [oJ
(4-40) strength material will still be less than rhe addirional c6n-
crete and labor costs associated with a larger bolt. Cer-
tainly. if one pays more for high-strength stleel, he should
be permitted to use the larger allowable, as given by
where A" : - o,r; AISC. Normally, 40,000 psi is used with A325 and 193-
f,to"t 87 bolts.
I,=#(D"4-D,4) The spacing of anchor bolts is another critical parame-
ter. Spacing the anchor bolts too close to one another
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 185

f*- "---|

r?
lzA,l
1I
IT

t[
liill Iil
J IIL
F-r:-'-_i r-*-l
k----il--+l

NOTES:
all dimenslons in inches BTHK to be evaluated by
eouations 4-57 or 4-60 all welds to be size "t"

BOLT
SIZEABCBH GH CHLLJMNP
'I
31lz 'l4a 14q 1112 2 4e 31lt 6 9e 51lz 5 31la 3 31lz 74s3
'l tl' 3{+ 148 17k '1518 21k 9e 33/e 6 Ye 53lq 51lc 31lz 3 3{+ 731rc3
'l1la 4221s1c2112 4e 33lq 6 4t 6 5112 33t+ 3qo 4 1'tlq th 3
1q8 41lq 21la 2118 148 2sla llz 41le 7 4q 61lq 53lq 4 33lq 4318 7112 1lq 3
1112 4tlz 21lc 21la 2 2sl+ 112 41lt 8 3lq 6112 6 41lq 41la 4112 81|q4
11la 5 2112 21lz 2th 31lq 5lB 5 9 1 7 6tlz 4eh 4alc 43lq 9 5h6 5
2 51lz 24c 23lc 21h 31lz 3lc 51lz 10 1 7112 7 Stlq 51lz 6 '12 {e 6
2tl+ Sslc 3 24c 23lt 34a 3l+ 53lc 12 1 Telc 7112 53lq 5718 6112 13 {e 7
21h 61lc31l+334118 4e 64a 13 11/e 81lc 74c 64a 6 7 144rc8
23lq 61lz 3rlz 3 Srla 4112 1 71lz '14 11lq 8112 I 61+ 6{e 71lz 16 1lz 9
7 3glc 31lc 31lz 4gla 11k 8 16'l1la98r/+777slq 18 llz 10

Figure 4-15. Typical designs and dimensions of chair and base plates
186 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

ANCHOB BOLT

MAXIMUM TENSILE
FOUNDATATION UPLIFT FORCE- q

MAXIMUM
JI E.
COMPBESSIVE <l
FORCE = nFc I
I
zt<

I
COMPRESSIVE +-
FOBCE
TENSILE FORCE DISTRIBUTION
DISTRIBUTION CENTROID
CENTROID

Figure 4-16. Anchor bolt loading force distribution.

prevents the strength of the bolting in the concrete from factor. The modulus of elasticity of steel is approxi-
becoming fully developed. It is advisable to set the bolts mately 30 x 106 psi and that of concrete approximately
at least 18 inches apart. To accommodate this minimum 2.O to 4.O x 106 psi. Defining the ratio of the two as n.
spacing a wider base ring with gusset plates can be used we wnte
or the skirt can be tapered with a conical skirt. As shown
in Figure 4-14, with a tapered skirt the apex angle should F
(4-43)
not exceed 15 ". F

BASE PLATE THICKNESS DESIGN since E. :o"

Base plate design involves the loadings passed on from

the tower to the foundation. The base plate is a circular and E. : os

€s
ring plate used to distribute these load-s around the cir-
cumference of the bolt circle. Anchor bolts normally and e, = e. because of the base plate-concrete bond we have
vary in diameter from one to three inches-bolts smaller os(induced) = noc(induced) (4-44)
than one inch are more likely to strip or shear off; bolts
larger than three inches require large wrenches and cre- Listed in ?ble 4-7 are values of the moduli ratio n and
ate excessive problems for construction personnel. For the various concrete mixes from Brownell and Young
these reasons it is desirable to attemDt to adhere to the [3]. Figure 4-16 shows a detail ofthe compressive force
one to three inch size range. of the concrete, F", multiplied by the value of n shown
In the case of a concrete foundation, the relative opposite the maximum tensile stress, Fr of the base plate
strength of the concrete to steel becomes a significant steel.
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 187

Table 4-6
Bolis, Threaded Parts, and Rivets
Tension [51
Allowable loads in kips
Bolts and Rivets
Tension on gross (nominal) area
Nominal Diameter. d. in.
ASTM Fi 3la 4s 'l1la 11la 13ls 11lz
Designation Ksi Area (Based on Nominal Oiameter), in.'?
0.3068 0.4418 0.6013 0.7854 0.9940 1.227 1.485 1.767
A307 bolts 20.0 6.1 8.8 \2.O 15.'7 19.9 29.7 35.3
A325 bolts 44.0 13.5 19.4 26.5 34.6 43.'7 54.0 65.3 77 .7
A490 bolts 54.0 16.6 23.9 32.5 42.4 53.',1 66.3 80.2 95.4
.\502-l rivets 23.0 '7.1 to.2 13.8 18. I 22.9 ?8.2 34.2 40.6
A502-2,3 rivets 29.0 8.9 12.8 r7 .4 22.8 28.8 35.6 43.1 51.2
The above table lists ASTM specified materials that are generally intended for use as structural fasleners.
For dynamic and fatigue loading, only A325 or A490 high-strength bolts should be specified. See AISC Specification. Appendix B. Sect. 83.
For allowable combined shear and tension loads. see AISC SDecification Secl. l 6.3.

Threaded Fasteners [51

Tension on gross (nominal) area
Nominal Diameter. d. in.
ASTM F, F, Ft 1 11ls 11la 13/8 'l1lz
Designaiion Ksi Ksi Ksi
0.3058 0.4418 0.6013 0.7854 0.9940 1.227 1.485 1.767
A.r6 58 19. I 5.9 8.4 l l.5 r5.0 19.0 23.4 28.4 33.1
4572. Cr. 50 65 2t .5 6.6 9.5 t2.9 16.9 2t.4 26.4 31.9 38.0
A588 23. I 7.1 10.2 r 3.9 18. r 23.0 28.3 34.3 40.8
A,149
d<l 92 120 39.6 12. i I 7.5 23.8 3l.l
I <d < lr/: 8l 105 31.7 3.1.5 12.6
Thc abole lable lists ASTM specified nulc.iul\ !!ailirblc in round blr sr(xk rhat lrc genrr!lly intcnded lirr u\c in rhreaded appljcaoons such rs rie rods. cross
bracing and similar uscs
The rensile capacir! ol thc lh.cadcd porlion ol an upsrl r(xl shall bc largrr lhan lh! b( ) lrca rrnrs 0.6F..
F, = specified minimunr tensilc strcngth oflhc lasrener nutcrill.
t. = 0.llF, = allowable tensile srress in rhrcldcd iasrener.

Table 4-7
Design of Supports lor Vertical Vessels [31
Values of Constants q,
C", Z, andJasa
Function of k Average Values ot Properties ot Three
C" Cr ZJ Concrete Mixes
0.050 0.600 3.008 0.490 0.760 Water Content oi n
0. 100 0.852 2.881 0.480 o.'766 U.S. Gallons 28-day Ultimate 30 x 106 Allowable
0. 150 1.049 2.772 0.469 o.7'7 | Sack
per 94Jb Compressive Compressive
0.200 1.218 2.66r 0.459 0.776 ot Cement Streigth, psi Ec
Strength, psi
0.250 1.370 2.551 o.418 0.7'79 7tlz 2000 l5 800
0.300 1.510 a Ana 0.438 0.781 63/c 2500 t2 1000
0.350 1.&0 2.333 o.427 0.783 6 3000 10 1200
0.400 1.765 2.224 0.416 0.784 5 3750 8 1400
0.450 1.884 2.t t3 0.404 0.785
0.500 2.000 2.000 0.393 0.786
0.550 2.113 1.884 0.381 0.785
0.600 2.224 r.765 0.369 o.784
'188 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Equation 4-44 is shown as a linear proportion by the

straight line shown in Figure 4-16. Even though the ten- (4-53)
sile strength of the bolt is, by Equation 4-44, equal f
(ER)(SFC)
to the ratio n times the concrete allowable comDressive
strength. it is not necessarily evenly distributed about the
neutral axis as shown in Figure 4-16. This "offset fac- After computing an initial value of k, this process should
tor," known as the "k Factor," is determined from be repeated five times in order to converge on a value for
k.
os : noc Once a value for k is determined, we now solve for the
(d - kd) kd maximum induced stress at the outer periphery in the
concrete,

ork = I
(4-4s) oq.*, : (sFC)t*X**] (4-s4)

tro"
D" - (skirt OD)
using L = , ln. (4-s5)
Equation 4-45 is solved by iteration using the following
steps: Thke values for C", C,, Z, and j in Thble 4-7 for a
given value of Z. Normally, k = 0.333, C" : 1.588, we solve for the base plate thickness, BTHK,
C. = 2.376, Z = 0.431, and j : 0.782 to start the pro-
cess. Then the following equations are solved: BrHK = L (4-s6)
/^^\
M _ (W,r(z)l!!l
[tf,]"'
" lt)l :
rt--/\ where ou1 allowable working stress for base plate metal,
(4-46)
psi
.. lBcl
rJrl;l
\'.1
(Ah)N
'' r(BC)
(4-47) By using Equation 4-56 one assumes no gusset plates on
the base plate-skirt connection. To reduce the required
F base plate thickness in Equation 4-56 the additional
Ir = / -\ (4-48) strength of gusset plates can be used, because with the
rt,r l!91c, gusset plate stiffening the base plate at the skirtjuncture.
\2/ the base plate between the gusset plates can be consid-
fc: fi +wE ered as a rectangular, uniformly loaded plate with two
edges simply supported (at gusset plates), a third edged
BPW : base plate width, in. fixed (skirt side), and the fourth edge free. The deflec-
tions and bending moments are tabulated by Timoshenko
Bpw:(D.)-(Di) (4-4e) [6] and are shown in Thble 4-8. The process of using gus-
2
set plates to stiffen the base plate is begun by making the
number of gusset plates equal to the number of anchor
tz = BPW - t; (4-s0)
bolts. Doing this we write

- (4-51) NG : number of gusset plates

(c.)(1,000) let NG: N bolts
F = modulus of elasticity of base plate metal, psi
-/IIat
: compressive strength of concrete, psi, denoted in 5U= (4-57)
NG + N bolts
Thble 4-7 as o"

J|L = --
f,
(4-s2)
RAT:!SG
/^l
(h - (Enxt ))
(]Jrc.r M- : 1E,1o"1.""(SG)'? (4-58)
where SFC : compressive stress on concrete at the bolt
circle and M,' : lE,1o"1."-(L)2 (4-59 |
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 189

Table 4-8 COMPRESSION RING AND GUSSET PLATE

Maximum Bending Moments in a Bearing DESIGN
Plate with Gussets [61
Typical designs and dimensions of chair and base plate
bt2
M, {' = b/2\ designs are shown in Figure 4-15. The compression plate
\v =r /
I
thickness is determined by
0
0.0078f"b,
o.0293f"bl
-0.500f"1,
-o.428f"t,
*0.319tP f^^ :
I rr,rc I
t _____________ ::- l (4-63)
0.0558f"b, -o.22'7 f:r2
l4('.rr(A - BSI
0.w72f.b, -0.119f"F where A and C are dimensions in Figure 4-15
0.123fJ2
BS :
-o.124f"t2 x
0. 131f"b, nominal bolt size 1.25
-0.125f"t2
0.133f"b, -0.125t"t2 Fi : bolt uplift force, determined by Equation 4-61
0.133f"b, -0.125f"1, o.11 : allowable stress of compression ring metal, psi
:= gusset spacing (x direction) inches.
:= bearing-plate outside radius minus skirt outside radius (y direction) The gusset plate thickness is determined by the follow-
lnches. ing:
a],,2/F \
18,000 Gw ta - (F,)ta - l"'i='
I,J|.ru
=0 \4-@l
where tc: gusset plate thickness, m.
Gw: gusset plate width, in. (A in Figure 4-15)
GH: gusset plate height, in. (see Figure 4-15)

Where o"1*n,; is determined by Equation 4-55, using the The minimum skirt-to-base plate weld size is determined
greater of M, and M, we have by

ornN : lortalo ' (4-60) .

*: [+r'a ] - [w. I
[_oJ ["o*l [.o"j
where M : M, or Mr in.-lb/in. Fw = (1.33Xo"r)(0.55)

and
This iteration can be repeated as many times as desired to
reduce the base plate thickness. In normal practice, it is € :
w = 2F* weld size (4-65)
unusual to use more gusset plates than anchor bolts.
The bearing pressure on the base plate must be :
where o"1 smaller of the allowable stress values for the
checked to prevent exceeding the allowable compressive
base plate and skirt metals
stress of the concrete. Computing the uplift force on
M: moment at base plate induced by wind or
each anchor bolt we have, seismic forces, in.-lb
D.r : outside diameter of skirt, in.
--' 96MD" WF ,, (4-61)
N1D"z a P:; N'''
ANCHOR BOLT TORQUE
N" WF 12MD"
.
o^ -_ ----:: + -----: +
A" A. 21,
DSI (4-62) There have been many recipes proposed for the com-
putation of bolt torque over the years. The mystery of
bolt loads is unveiled by such authorities as Bickford [7]
o" ( 1,200 psi for-.weight and wind
where, M : ftJbs
and Faires [8]. Their extensive research into bolt loading
produced the following recommended formulation:

r[(D")'?
T: CDFi, in.lb (4-66)
where A" = - (D)'?]
4 where C: 0.20 bare steel
C: 0.15 for lubricated bolt
t- r[(D")a - (DJa] D= nominal bolt diameter, in.
64 F1 : anchor bolt uplift force, lbs
190 Mechanrcal Design ol Procg55 g151snlt

2.3<+<2.6
groutl-i
-f-- Boltom of sleeve
concrete or top of concrete

L = 17Du

Figure 4-17. "J" and "L" type anchor bolts are used for small vessel..

In most tower applications, Fel-Pro C5A is a very

common bolt lubricant. The field of bolt desisn and bolt
lubricants is almost as involved as tower desien and the
interested reader is relerred to the excelleni work of
Bickford [7].
Figure 4-17 shows the two most common types of an-
chor bolts, "J" and "L." For large towers where large
loads are anticipated, the bolt in Figure 4-18 is used. orout
-,L -
T_
WIND ANALYSIS OF TOWERS

Analyzing wind loading on towers requires combining concrele

loads induced by wind, internal or external pressure, and
weight. Such an analysis must be made to ensure that the
tower shell thickness is sufficient to withstand the com-
bined loads.
Wind and seismic analyses are completed separately,
with their respective bending moments being used to de-
termine the tower shell thickness values at each section.
Before examining the design criteria, let's consider the
following terms:
ow = stress due to wind or earthquake
op = stress due to internal or external pressure Figure 4-18. Straight type bolt-used for large vessels, espe-
o" : stress due to weisht cially towers.
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 191

Referring to Figure 4-13, we see that the stress ele- such that the leeward side governs, then
:lent in the shell is affected by the combined loads more
::r the longitudinal direction than the circumferential di- loo-o*-o*l < Bfactor
:ection. However, for the longitudinal axis the internal
rr external pressure stress is governed by the relation If Equations 4-70 and 4-71 hold,

PD lo* -f - o*,1 ) o"1E

oo
-4t (4-67)
where ou1 : allowable stress in tenslo, for a given
material at a given temperature and pressure
,rhere D : mean diameter of vessel, in.
E : weld efficiency
P : internal or external pressure, psi
op : Iongitudinal stress, psi
T : shell thickness less corrosion allowance, in.
Another form of Equation 4-71 may be determined by
There are two conditions where Equation 4-67 is used rewriting the equation as
to combine stress values:
op ) o*,
L. Combination of wind (or earthquake) Ioad, intemal
pressure, and weight of vessel. or
For windward side,
P(R, - 0.40 _
-;Rl W
\'s:qw+op-o*r (4-68) E -TI
r [: w - t.zo
For leeward side pn,tl
Inwhrchfi{ (4-73)
: L fSp" I
,rLs op - ow - owr W69)
Equation 4-73 is another form of Equation 4-71, in
Comparing Equation 4-68 with Equation 4-69 we have terms of the vessel dimensions, where W is the total
weight of the tower above the section being analyzed.
ow + op- o*,1 ) 1oo-o*-o*,1 (4-70)

:f and only if l oo l> l o*,1 (4-7 t)

2. Combination of wind (or earthquake) load, external
which is true for most applications, when the internal pressure and the weight of the tower-
pressure stress is greater than that induced by the weight On windward side
of the tower above the section. However, for a few
cases, the stress induced by the weight is greater than OWS = O*-Op-O"n
Ihat induced by internal pressure for low-pressure thick-
ivalled applications. The thick walls at low pressure On leeward side
could be for controlling tower deflections due to wind.
For these limited cases the allowable stress is that deter-
OLs: -O* op - O*,
mined by UG-23 (b) of the ASME vessel code, which is
For most applications with external pressure we have
known as the B factor. The B factor is commonly associ-
ated with external pressure, because the case of the ols > ows
weight stress exceeding the internal pressure stress is
rare, but it must be emphasized that the B factor is the | - o* -op-o*, ) rw-op-owt
allowable value of stress for longitudinal compressive
loading like that encountered in towers. Thus, the B fac- oo*0
tor is more comprehensive than its external pressure ap-
plication would indicate. Therefore, if Equation 4-71 is Since the value of oo is for external pressure, we must
reversed and apply the B factor in Equation 4-67 . After these criteria
are satisfied, we turn our attention to the determination
o., |> lool (4-72) of wind loads that induce o".
192 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

WIND DESIGN SPEEDS ing hit by one is extremely small; however, nuclear
sites are designed to withstand tornado winds.
The procedures for determining wind design speeds 2. Using site and structure factors calculate the design
for structures, towers, and stacks varv from Counirv to wind speed. The factors on rhe ANSI l98Z tesr
country, depending on how well records have been kept. used are as follows:
The wind velocity is a function of the temperature gradi- (a) Importance Coefficient, I, a hospital or nu-
ent and terrain roughness. The first representation of a clear plant would be designed moie conserva-
mean wind velocity profile in horizontaily homogeneous tively than a barn on a farm.
terrain is the power law, first proposed in 1916. This law (b) Variation of wind speed with building height
states and surrounding terrain.
(c) Gust response factor.
,t: r.\r:)" (4-74)
(d) Velocity pressure coefficient, K2.
3. Test a model of the tower and its surroundings in a
wind runnel. Even though rhe 1972 ANSI stindard
where Vo : mean wind speed at a reference height Z does not mention this, the 1982 version sDecifies
Z. = reference height (normally 33 fr orl0 m)
certain requirements lor wind tunnels.
Q: a constant dependent upon roughness of
terrain
Z= height above ground These three options are new to both the ANSI-ASg. I
standard and to the three building codes-the Uniform.
Other proposals have been made to determine wind Basic. and the Standard. The larrei three codes do not au-
speeds. Simiu [9] states that the logarithmic law is a su- tomatically adopt newly revised ANSI standards, thus
penor representation of strong wind profiles in the lower making for inconsistency in wind code provisions in the
atmosphere. What is relevant to the reader is to be famil- United States.
iar with whatever standard is used. The discussions and The basic wind pressure in the ANSI-A5S .l-19j2 rs
examples presented in this text are slanted toward those
standards in the United States. However, the technioues q3a= pv2l2 : (0.5X0.00238)(5,280/3,600fV30
and base principles of engineering are applicable to all : 0.00256 v3o @-'75,
countnes.
In the United States there are four basic codes sovern- where q.s : basic wind pressure at 30 ft, above grade
ing wind- ANSI A58. | 1982. the Uniform, thi Basic, lb/ft,
V36 : basic wind speed, mph
and the Standard Building Codes [10]. The ANSI-
A58.1- 1982 differs from the ANSI-A58. I - 1972 in that
The effective velocity pressures of winds for buildings
three optional methods of determining wind design loads
and structures, qF, is
on a structure are given [11]. These options are as fol-
lows:
9r : KzGrQ:o (4-76 t

l. Choose a design wind speed (50-year mean recur- where K2 = velocity pressure coefficient that depends
rence interval) off the U.S. map provided on the upon the type of exposure and height Z above
document. The national map is a graphic display of the ground
isopleths (lines of equal wind speed) of the maxi- Ge : dynamic gust response factor
mum values of the mean speed for which records
have been kept. i.e.. basic wind speeds rhat can be In the 1982 ANSI-A58.1 Code the effective velocin
expected to occur within a particular period. This pressure for wind is partially a combination ol Equarion.
"particular period" is called the return period. The 4-7 5 and 4-76,
problem with a nalional map consisting bf isopleths
is that localized wind speeds can vary as much as
qz : 0.00256 KzGV)2 \417)
30 mph over the speed shown on the isopleth (par-
V= basic wind speed, mph
ticularly in mountainous regions).
I: importance factor I :
Hurricanes are fairly well accounted for on these A value of V can be approximated for the United States
maps. Tornadoes are considered to be nonexistent, from the isopleths shown in Figure 4-19.
because it is not economically feasible to design an One of the major differences between the ANSI
entire building for tornado wind speeds. The rea- A58.1-1972 and 1982 is how the velocitv Dressure coef-
son for this is that the probability of a structure be- ficient, K2, is determined. In the 1972 Cod'e the value ot
 J

- The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 193

o;
-;
\-\ .E e. b
oot;9
\\ ;] b9;.0
*-t!cb
\ ; !b69
\\ 3. iaEg
o-i=H9
a'*-w*
ird\* ii:# .s i
\px /\,r\ *i *tid
"E
i4' 9\i ^;it
!ii.s
-
\F 9!.o
) '-+!-€ : R: P

2 : \8. E i a; :
f : ]{ ;
I" .: IEE:
i-'q
s -i Hf;n*
:,'' s 18 ;:
;

g;ni:
I-* l(U*963 :

$ " !;i;
o-!o
8

let o -:
6 6 r. E'=-
i" f i:.E
4:' ig ?i
>iif o
z
-6 r No
6 O
o
5 J
z

.9
TL

.l
!L
:
rl' I jll\
 194 Vechanical Design of Process Syslem,

Table 4-9
Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient, Kz [1 1l
Height above
Ground Level, Z

0- l5 o.t2 o.37 0.80 1.20

20 0. 15 0.42 0.87 1.27
25 0.1'7 o.46 0.93 r.32
30 0.19 0.50 0.98 r.37
40 0.23 0.57 1.06 1.46
50 o.27 0.63 1.13 1.52
60 0.30 0.68 l. 19 1.58
70 0.33 o.73 | .24 1 .63
80 o.37 o.77 1.29 1.67
90 0.40 0.82 | .34 | .'7 |
100 0.42 0.86 1.38 1.7 5
120 0.48 0.93 1.45 1.81
140 0.53 0.99 1.52 1.87
160 0.58 1.05 1.58 1.92
180 0.63 1.1 1 I .63 1.97
200 0.67 1.16 1 .68 2.01
250 0.78 1.28 1.',79 2.10
300 0.88 1.39 1.88 2.18
350 0.98 1.49 1.97 2.25
400 r.07 1.58 2.O5 2.31
450 1. 16 1.67 2.12 2.36
500 t.24 1.75 2. l8 2.4r

K7 is a linear function of the height Z from heights of where a = velocity of sound = 0 in our case, because winci
thirty to nine hundred feet. This results in a triangular speeds are extremely low compared to sonic speeds
wind distribution on the tower. In the 1982 Code the
value of K2 is a parabolic function (can be approximated This equation shows that there is a relationship dic-
with a step function) for wind loading depicted in Table tated by the dimensions of the parameters involved. Ap-
4-9 and for dynamic gust response, K7 is governed by plying dimensional analysis makes the equation
lhe power law, Equation 4-74.

,r*
lz\2'
\r,)
forz > ls feet -t;
-tpvt,
P(Y2!2 ,}:.
Kz= @-78) where each of the two components is a dimensionless pa-
rameter. The equation can be solved for the first dimen-
forZ < 15 feet sionless combination by

where values of Z" and d are given in Thble 4-10. The

parabolic function is a reflection of the old classical ap-
proach used in the ASA 58.1-1955, but is a more refined
distribution. The treatment of K2 in the dynamic gust re-
sponse analysis is a new development in U.S. codes.
The force exerted on a tower immersed in a movins
fluid is a function of the properties ol the tower shapi
and properties of the fluid. The fluid properties of im-
portance are the viscosity, density, and elasticity. Writing
this relationship in functional form we have
F = f(p, Y, I, p, a)
r _ - /pvi\ (4-19
pv+-'\r/
Equation 4-79 implies that the parameters F/(pVri:
and (pYllp) have certain definite values that will be equa.
if a geometrically similar body with the same orientatio:
is moved through the same fluid or another fluid fo:
which pVflp has the same value as the first body. Tsi
such bodies are said to be dynamically similar and dr -
namic similarity is the key to wind tunnel tests. Assumins
that p has no influence on the force F, we can deduce fror
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 195

Equation 4-79 (see any basic fluid mechanics text) and ob- Table 4-10
tain Exposure Category Constanls [111
Exposure Category 4 Do
3.0 1500 0.025
B 4.5 1200 0.010
2 c 7.0 900 0.00s
D 10.0 700 0.003

Cp pYz12
orF: (4-80)

where Cp is a dimensionless empirical constant. Equation

4-80 states that, for a body of given orientation and shape
r/h = O.O21
that is immersed in a moving fluid, the force experienced
is proportional to the kinetic energy per unit volume of the 1.8

motion of the fluid (p/2)V2 and a characteristic area f2. Cp

is a dimensionless quantity that characterizes the force and
is called the /orce coefficient. Two bodies that are im-
mersed in moving fluids are said to be similar (geometric
similarity) if their Reynolds numbers are equal. Then the
flows are dynamically similar and have equal force coef-
---j ''--!1,
ficients. The Reynolds number pVl y. is called a similairy r/h = 0.167
parameter. Figure 4-20 shows the influence of the Rey-
nolds number, corner radius, and surface roughness on
lz'
the force coefficient on various bodies. The values of Cp 0-4
(b)
are determined empirically and are shown in the figure.
Sometimes this coefficient is referred to as the drag or
pressure coefficient. 1.2
Kuethe and Schetzer [12], use the Kutta-Joukowski
theorem to show that the force per unit length acting on a
right cylinder of any cross section whatever is equal to
I
I
,-"-01 t/h= 0.333
pVf and acts perpendicular to V. The symbol f is circu- I
Iation flow about the cylinder and | = r'DV. The Kutta- o.4
Joukowski principle is exemplified in Figure 4-211131.
Here the pressure distribution around the cylinder is
maximum ninety degrees to the air flow. Depending
upon the relative stiffness of the tower sections and mass
distribution. this perpendicular lorce vector can cause a 1.2
phenomenon known as ovaling, which will be discussed
later.
In computing the wind forces on a tower, Equation 4- t/h= O.5
80 takes the following form in using ANSI A58. 1- 1982:

F: q2GCpAg (4-81)
tO. 2 4 8105 2 4 ato6 2 4 8tO7
whele qz : wind pressure at height Z, EgrJation 4-77, Ae
_ lb/fc $rface
(d)
G:
sanded
gust response factor for main wind-force
srrface
resisting systems of flexible structures ---Smooth
Cp = force coefficient -
Ar = cross-sectional area of tower and other
attachments, ft2 Figure 4-20. The curves depict the influence ofthe Reynolds
number, corner radius, and surface roughness on the drag co-
The gust response factor, G, when multiplied by the efficient, square to circular cylinders; r is the corner radius
mean wind load, produces an equivalent static wind load and K is the sand grain size [9].
 196 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

112 p!2

Figure 4-21. A sequence ofpressure fields forming around a cylinder at Nq6 = I 12,000 for approximately one third of one cycle
of vortex shedding (Flow-Induced Vibration by R. Blevins. @1977 by Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, Inc. Reprinted by
oermission.)

that would induce deflections equal to those of a gusty Table 4-1 1

wind. MacDonald [14] refers to this approach as a quasi-
static loading analysis. Quasi-static means that at any in-
stant the stress and deflection induced in the tower are
the same as if the instanlaneous mean wind load were ao-
plied as a static load. Thus. the significanl factor is iden-
tifying the single highest peak value of instantaneous
mean wind speed, or that is, predicting the future worst
peak value. Baker and others found at the end of the
nineteenth century that there is a simple relationship be-
tween the gust frontal area and gust duration. This rela-
tionship provides a means of determining the size of the
gust, and is illustrated in Figure 4-22. The figure indi-
cates that the worst wind condition for a Darticular tower
is not necessarily the maximum value of the wind veloc-
ity, but rather the highest wind speed of the particular
size of gust capable of totally enveloping it. To compen-
sate for this in a simple quasi-static analysis, ANSI
A58.1-1982 gives rhe gust factor as
Probability ol Exceeding Wind Design Speed
P" = 1- (1 - P")N
Annual
Probability Design Lite ot Structure in N years
P, 1510 15 25 50 100
0.10 0.100 0.410 0.651 0.'194 0.928 0.995 o.999
0.05 0.050 0.226 0.401 0.537 0.723 0.923 0.994
0.01 0.010 0.049 0.096 0.140 0.222 0.395 0.634
0.005 0.005 0.025 0.049 0.072 0.118 0.222 0.394
D_ probability of exceeding design wind speed
dunng n years, where P : l-(1 - p.)"
annual probability of wind speed exceeding a
given magnitude (Table 4-l l)
exposure factor evaluated at two-thirds the
mean height of the structure

lp ?tr.,/s \r2
_11 =
2.35(C,- )0 5
-
tJ: L,.o.l +t +
11
| (Zl301rt"
e-82)
\p 1 + 0.002ci
S: structure size factor (Figure 4-23)
where p: structural damping coefficienr (percentage of average horizontal dimension of the building
critical damping). For normal working stress or structure in a direction normal to the wind.
conditions, 0.01 < P < 0.02 for towers. ft (see Example 4-2)
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels r97

Iv
MEAN VELOCITY: V ^,--l
l'--4-l
|-J
OUnOt'O".?

GUST DURATION EFFECTIVE GUST DIAMETER

3
5
15 )165 tt
Figure 4-22. Diagram of relationship between gust duration and gust diameter.

For a tower with many obstructions, such as piping, ,I

ladders, platforms, and clips that are comparable in size i
to the vessel, the gust response factor can be determined
I
by:
i
r.l.:zr,),s \' '
* 1+
"
r.: = "--\/t.zsp
n r<
6 o.oolc/
(4-83)
I

The gust response factors given in Equations 4-82 and

4-83 are for flexible structures, such as towers, where
the height exceeds the minimum horizontal dimension at
least by five to one or the structure exhibits a natural fre-
quency less than one. The fact that the tower may have a
natural frequency less than one is significant.
Simiu and Scanlan [9] point out that for natural fre-
quencies greater than one, the response spectra are de-
s 0.9 pendent on the structure's height. However, for natural
frequencies less than one, the spectra distribution has lit-
:r[o3ora
tle influence on structural response, and the magnitude
ofturbulent fluctuation components, such as wind gusts,
^
at or near the natural frequency of the tower could signif-
0
icantly affect the structural response. For this reason
Equation 4-82 should be used for towers with particu-
20 30 r0 5060 80 t00 200 300 a005006008001000 2000
larly low natural frequencies.
hlftl
Figure 4-24 shows a plot of wind gust velocity versus
Figure 4-23. Structure size factor, s [l l]. the structural response of a structure. The cyclic loading
198 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

platform

Figure 4-24. Quasi-static structural response spectra versus

wind velocity [ 14].

DE = effective diameter
of area resisting
wind

induced in the tower can result in fatisue failure of vari-

ous vessel components.
Equation 4-81 contains the last parameter that must be
defined, Ar, the total cross-sectional area of the tower
and attachments that are perpendicular to the wind. This
area is computed by first determining the equivalent di-
ameter of the area facing the wind. This can be expressed
AS

De : (vessel OD) + 2(vessel insulation thickness)

+ (pipe OD) + 2(pipe insulation thickness)
+ (platform projection)
* (ladder projection) (4-84)
Figure 4-25A. Effective diameter can vary with height.
Equation 4-84 does not consider extraneous equipment
attached to a tower, such as reboilers. The engineer must
add the OD of the reboiler, plus twice the insulation
thickness, plus any other equipment diameters to Equa-
tion 4-84. Doing this and multiplying by a length over
which D" is effective determines As. Figure 4-25 shows
the effective or equivalent diameter.
FJ,
WIND-INDUCED MOMENTS Ma+F"(2,-Z;+F,"rb
Mb + (F" + FbXZb -
Z") + F,r"
After the wind pressure distribution is obtained from M. + (F, + Fb + FcXZc -Zd) + Fdtd
Md + (F, + Fb + F. + Fi(Zd - Z") + F"t"
Equation 4-77 , the distribution of section force vectors is
obtained from Equation 4-81. The force vectors, shown or in a general equation,
in Figure 4-26, act through the centroids of the pressure
distribution sections. Referring to Figure 4-26, we see
that the wind moment distribution is obtained from the M" = M"-1 * (2" -z 4n_t'Ll,t,,
1
-r\-p -t c; n (4-85 r

wind force vectors through the following relationships: i: l

 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 199

insulation OD

d = plattorm angle
Figure 4-258. Wind area and force calculations for conical sections.

WIND.INDUCED DEFLECTIONS OF /i = section length, ft

TOWERS Qi : wind shear at each section juncture
Mi : moment induced by wind profile, in.-lb
Thll process towers and stack are treated like canti-
lever beams in computing deflections induced by wind. For rotation we have
Like a cantilever beam, when the tower deflects it trans-
/n- I \
lates and rotates at the same time. These translations and l\-r.l o
rotations are most expediently computed by the method "{w,r,
_\?,'l
of superposition. The three cases to consider in the su-
perposition are a cantilever beam with a uniform load, ^, Er, \6 *q,r,_,,)
2 l
(4-87)

an end load, and an end couple. These three cases and :

Total deflection y
their accompanying equations are shown in Thble 4-12.
The first case of the uniform load reDresents the wind
load on the side of the tower, the second case o[ the edge ,s +F ,t.
load represents the wind shear at the various shell sec- "=F (4-88)

tions, and the third case of the end couple represents the
case of couples produced at the shell section junctures by
the translation and rotation of the upper sections. This
WIND-INDUCED VIBRATIONS ON TALL
combined loading is shown in Figure 4-26.
Adding the three cases we obtain the following: TOWERS

Chapter 2 discussed the phenomenon of vortex shed-

6,' = llY{*!{,*M')
Er\8 3 2l (4-86) ding inducing vibrations in piping systems. This chapter
focuses on the nature and techniques of analyzing vortex
shedding.
where 61 = lateral translational deflection of section i, in. Over the years many researchers have made wind tun-
!1 : length of section i nel tests, proposed various analytical procedures, and
W1 : concentrated wind load (wi/), lb conducted field tests of various structures subjected to
: wind profile, lb/ft wind loads. Wind-induced vibration was first noticed on
 Mechanical Design of Process Svstems
Table 4-12
Cantilever Beam Formulas
Uniform 1 w--.'
dITTtrM ^ w!2
Load
T-
End
Load
1i : Q/'
2
End ,-\
4
:vd
Couple
T-)
^ wl2 , w/,
, Mo{
-2EI-Er'
6EI
A:0t,
A=
tall stacks by Baker at the turn ofthe century. Since then,
many advances have been made in the field of aerody-
namics allowing designers to adequately design tall
structures. This chapter discusses tall process towers and
Chapter 5 discusses tall stacks. The differences between
the two will become more clear in the following discus-
sion. Staley and Graven u5l summarized the state ofthe
art of wind vibrations. Their studies indicate that even
though vortex excitation of higher modes has been ob-
tained in wind tunnel tests, existing free-standing stacks
have always been observed to vibrate during vortex exci-
tation at a frequency and with a mode shape associated
with the fundamental mode. Furthermore. the shaDe of
the dynamic lorce amplitude or existence of nearly con-
stant frequency over the height of the stack (or "lock-
in") implies that dynamic response will almost entirely
be induced by the first mode. Staley and Graven con-
cluded that all higher modes should be neglected in the
dynamic analysis and that the frequency and associated
critical wind velocity ofthe fundamental mode should be
considered. For this reason the Rayleigh method is the
industrially accepted method because it is used to deter-
mine an approximate value for the lowest natural fre-
quency of a conservative system based on an assumed
confisuration of the first mode.
Formula
: wf'
6EI 8EI
2El
= Qi,
3EI
EI
=
lul{
2ET
l iw{ -, wr +M)
EI\6
'
I\- olr
\2"1 "tw.t
I'+ w/
I'+M| \
Er, l\6 2 |
What is clear in wind tunnel tests and field observa-
tions is that at low Reynolds numbers the tower is dy-
namically stable, vulnerable only to forced vibrations
and at higher Reynolds numbers a possibility of self-ex-
cited vibration will be present. From many field obser-
vations it can be concluded that the first peak vibration
amplitudes occur at the critical wind velocity Vr, which
corresponds to a Strouhal number of 0.2 with the forced
vibration as the basic source of excitation. Thus. it is sis-
nificant that the peak amplitudes of vibration determined
by forced vibration theory are in very good agreemenr
with field observations. This will be seen later in this
chapter in Example 4-4.
Even though the Rayleigh method is the industrialll
accepted method for the present, there are other methods
used to describe the vibration phenomena of tall process
towers and stacks. One such method was devised by N.
O. Myklestad, a great pioneer in the theory of vibrations.
The Myklestad method used in cantilever beams is es-
sentially a Holzer procedure applied to the beam prob-
lem. Its strong point is utilizing field and point transfer
matrices to obtain relations that govern the flexural mo-
tion and vibrations of lumped-mass massless elastic
beam systems. This method is used in such applications
as aircraft wings where the structural component is sub-
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 2O1

jected to high Reynolds numbers. Since we have already
delineated the difference between cylinders subjected to
high and low Reynolds numbers and the fact that modes
higher than the fundamental mode can be neglected, the
Myklestad method has lost favor to the Rayleigh method.
We are primarily interested in forced vibration peak am-
plitudes of relatively low natural frequencies. Although
the Myklestad analysis is excellent for relatively clean
aerodynamic surfaces such as wings and missiles, its
practical use in process towers with attached ladders,
platforms, and piping is questionable. Even for stacks.
low Reynolds numbers allow for the fundamental mode
to dictate.
Before the Rayleigh method is applied to our analysis,
let us summarize some basic precepts. Equation 4-80
calculated the pressure force exerted on a cylinder by a
static wind. When dynamic effects settle in maximum ac-
tual amplitudes, these amplitudes often exceed those un-
der static conditions. The net result is to multiply Equa-
tion 4-80 bv a masnification factor. To understand the
magnification factor we must consider some basic prin-
ciples.
Consider Figne 4-27 in which a system with a single
degree of freedom is subjected to viscous damping and
an externally imposed harmonic force. The spring is
denoted by stiffness k, the friction coefficient by c, mass
by m, displacement by x, impressed force as F sin cJt so,
we have
-X+.x +ki: Fsin<rt (4-89)
From the theory of differential equations we know that
the solution of Equation 4-89 is the superposition of the
general or complementary solution of the homogeneous
Equation 4-89 and the particular solution of the same re-
lation. Writing this in equation form we have
X=X"*Xp
where X" is the complementary function and Xo is the
particular solution. This classical differential equation is

T"
*, = ]+ r|",1 lr-eol
I*
i
-7- -,
I

,-il]ur= r6"
_L-
-r ,r

,=
--l[: r-i- 14.=s\"
-r
I
[. 6!

4_.=o"lr,-.+r,.1

l)'. I_-r 6.

4_; qlL,.+r,-,+r, .l .L A

olFrt
== IA
4-.=qlq.,+ r'.+t'-..r.-"1 L*
Figure 4-26. Schematic diagram of wind loadings and deflections of a tower.
 202 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

we have

x., (.4-9t)

f fStru"t = forcing function
damper-represents tower's
stiffness
Figure 4-27. The vibration of a tower is modeled as a sinsle
degree of freedom. which i5 exposed to an exrernally impos=ed
harmonic force and subjected to viscous damping.
"T -,,f-1_12r*
The maximum actual amplitude X of forced vibration
is obtained by multiplying the static deflection X,, b1
fraction X/X,,.
The fraction or ratio X/X* is called the dynamic mag-
nification factor, D. These formulations indicate that the
nondimensional amplitude X/X,, and the phase angle, 0.
are functions of the frequency ratio r and the damping
factor f and are plotted in Figure 4-28. These curves in-
dicate that the damping factor has a large influence on
the amplitude and phase angle in the frequency region
near resonance. From Equation 4-91 we see that at reso-
nance the dynamic magnification factor, D, is inversell
proportional to the damping ratio, or

I
n-'

solved in numerous sources and will not be delved into

here. See Vierck [6] for a complete discussion of the
solution. The final solution takes the form of the follow-
lng:

X(t) : e t''(A cos (,Dt + B sin ropt)

X., sin (c,rt - d)

(4-90)
{t -l t+ (r'tt
t: c/c,
2(mk)ri2 is the critical damping factor that is the U

criteria for critical damping such that

I : nonvibrating motion : overdamping E

I : harmonic vibration : underdamping E

P
a few percent of c. for a tall, slender structure such
as a tower
static deflection of the spring acted upon by the
fbrce F/K
c,,,/o : frequency ratio of forced vibration frequency
to free vibration frequency

K
M

Letting X:
.(T -l t+ (2rt Freouencv r.tio. = (;/o
Figure 4-28. The dynamic magnification factor versus the
frequency ratio for various amounts of damping. (From Slruc-
and tan 0 tural Dynamics by M. Paz. @ 1980 by Van Nostrand Reinhold
I -r Company, Inc. Reprinted by permission.)
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 203

The damping ratio, €, is not known and extremely dif-
iicult to measure at best. A practical method for experi-
mentally determining the damping coefficient of a sys-
tem is to initiate free vibration, and measure through
decreasing amplitudes of oscillatory motion, as shown in
Figtre 4-29. This decrease or decay is termed the loga-
rithmic decrement, 6, and is defined as the natural loga-
rithm of the ratio of any two successive peak amplitudes,
The force coefficient can be readily obtained from Fig-
ure 4-29. Equation 4-92 yields the maximum transverse
force per unit area of the projected surface of a cylinder
at resonance.
Equation 4-93 may be rewritten with the velocity in
miles oer hour as
F= 0.00086(CrD)(H)V1'?, for air at 50'F (4-94a)

X1 and X2 in free vibration. Expressing this in equation

and
tbrm we have
F= 0.01I l3pCrDVr'?(dH) (4-94b)
^x,
x2

The evaluation of damping from the logarithmic dec-
rement is given analytically by
X(t) : Ce-fdr cos(@Dt - cr)
It can be shown [17] that the dynamic magnification
factor, D, and the logarithmic decrement, A, are related
using the previous expression as
These equations apply when the top third of the tower
is the controlling length. Often, the top fourth of the
stack may be best to use as the controlling length. An ex-
ample ofthis would be a section on top ofthe tower that
is one fourth the total tower height and is significantly
greater in diameter than the section below (see Example
4-4). Thus, for the top foufih of the tower Equation 4-93
becomes

^T (4-92)
F= 0.00065(CrDXd)(H)Vr'?, for air at 50'F (4-94c)

and
Most research data available for practical use are pre- (4-94d)
0.07728pCeDVr'?(dH)
sented in terms of the logarithmic decrement, 6. Table 4-
13 provides values of 6 versus D for various structures.
where d = outside diameter of either upper r/: or r/+ of
These values are acceptable for use in actual design of tower, ft
process towers and stacks. H= total height of tower, ft
Applying the dynamic magnification factor to Equa- Vr : first critical wind velocitY,
tion 4-80 we have Vr : 3.40d/T, mph
T: first period of vibration, Hz
CeDpV2fz
(4-93)
p: density of air at any specified temPerature,
lb/ft

F
z
=
9
h

Figure 4-29. The Reynolds number versus

the drag coefficient for a circular cylinder
tet.
 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Table 4-13
Conservative Values for Logarithmic Decrement
and Dynamic Magnilication Factor for Tall
Process Towers
Logarithmic Dynamic Magnitication
Decrement Factor
6 D
Low damping: rocky-stiff
soil, low-stressed pile 0.052
support, or structural
frame
Average damping: moderately
stiff soil, normal spread 0.080

High damping: soft soil,

fbundation on highly o.t26 25
stressed friction piles
Structural Coefficients l1
A: Steel frame
B : Reinforced or prestressed concrete
Low stress levels C. = critical damping factor
(a) 0.005 ( c ( 0.010
(b) 0.005 < c ( 0.010
lbi-sec
Working stress c":2(Mk)05=28I).'
'
(a)0.01 <c (0.02 \386/ ln.
(b)0.01s < c < 0.03 C:
Near yield
damping factor = tower stiffness, Ib/in.
(a)0.M(c(0.06
(b)0.0s<c(0.10 " ^ tLl
\c./
D.- : r/6
M: tower mass
c
k: tower stiffness, lb/in.
W= total tower weight, lbr

For tall, slender towers of constant diameter, the first the static equilibrium point. For the potential energy o;
period of vibration is given by the expression the system, the reverse is true. Thus,
T: (l/0.5l)(WHa/gEI)o 5
(4-95) (K.E.)-,, = (PE.).,- = total energy of the system

where g= 32.2 ftlsec The resulting equation will readily yield the natural fre-
H: total height of tower, ft quency of the system.
To estimate the period of vibration using the Rayleigh
The Rayleigh method applies only ro undamped sys- method the tower is considered as a series of lumpec
tems, but is found to be sufficientlv accurate for comDut- masses. These lumped masses are determined by consid
ing the fundamental frequency of process rowers. e;en ering the weights of
though towers have varying shell thicknesses down the
Iength that result in unevenly distributed mass and stiff- 1. Shell and heads
ness. The Rayleigh method is basically the conservation 2. Trays and internals
of energy, i.e., the total kinetic energy of the system is 3. Manways and nozzles
zero at the maximum disDlacement but is a maximum at 4. Insulation and fire proofing
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 205

These are summed for each section and the overall

:ower is considered as lumped masses at the centroid of M, : wr () * *, * nJ + w,(?.
:ach section along its entire length. The assumption is ")
nade that the stiffness is constant along the entire length
Jf the tower; an assumption that greatly simplifies the . *,(?) (4-9e)

;omputations for the various deflections of the section

:entroids. The more sections, the greater the overall ac- The moments obtained are used to determine the de-
.-uracy achieved. Such a beam with lumped masses is flections induced by vortex shedding. The method of de-
shown in Figure 4-30. For such a simple, one-mass, vi- flection computation is based on the area-moment (con-
brating system, Timoshenko et al. [19] have shown that jugate beam) method applied to a cantilever beam. In this
rhe angular natural undamped frequency (rad/sec) for method the slope of the elastic bending curve of the ac-
such a system is tual beam is equal to the shear at the same point on the
conjugate beam, which is an idealized beam correspond-
- lewv\o'
\wv'/
(4-96) ing to the actual member. The deflection y of the actual
beam (or tower) at any point relative to its original posi-
tion is equal to the bending moment at the corresponding
Integrating Equation 4-96 numerically across the section point on the conjugate beam that has the same M/EI area
centroids of the tower results in of the actual beam. Figure 4-31 shows weights of the
vessel sections distributed about the section centroids
- : [BOMry"+ Wzyb + ... + W,y.)/(W1y]
along with beam lengths used in the analysis. The conju-
+ w2y3 + ... + w"yillo 5 (4-e7)
gate beam method of computing deflection is demon-
strated in Table 4-14. For an indepth analysis of the
or method the reader is referred to Higdon et al. [20]. The
examples presented at the end of this chapter will clarify
this approach.
,"
[(i -")/(,8 *,,)]"
T_ (4-98)

The section weights, Wi, are computed by using cumula- OVALING

tive weights down the tower. Summing moments about
Ovaling is a resonance phenomenon more common in
the base in Figure 4-30 we obtain the moment distribu-
stacks rather than process towers. However, towers ex-
tion in the tower as follows:
hibit this phenomenon mostly during construction, be-
Mr=0 fore insulation and appurtenances are added to the ves-
sel. To avoid ovaling, the designer should consider the
+ /- -\
K2l following guidelines.
M,-\21
= W, lKr The cylinder is considered as a ring that has a natural
freouencv of

''-
, Kil 7.58r. vE
u. = w, lI1 +n. )l
* *,lvr-*,\
-\ 2 6oDt
(4-100)
\2 I

Figure 4-30. A tower modeled as a sectionless beam with distributed lumped masses.
 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Table 4-14A
Vibration Deflections Based on the Coniugate Beam Method

,f
+ t'+ +*t*t +
{
+
I
+
I
+
l)
t-, I r_, L, l- 15 ' -1.
|

w.w"vqq

Xs, = o,
P
Mr r, t4r M, S, +A, = A, ia, + e,\ Pt*l.z: Itt
E'It ZE)l) \?/
Lr=Pr
M2 = W1L1 , RI+R' rr 19 /v. M,\ 52*41 :,A2
/a, + a.\ Pz * ir: : r:
-' 2 EzI: \E,I, Err,/ t?,
2
xL2: P2
XL2: 52

M1 : *L) I:
W1(L1
+ w2L2
-
-2
R, +R. M: irur,- M, \ 53+A.4 = Aj
14i14)
Ptl p+: pt
E:I: \E.I- E,I,/ \21
2
xL3 = Pr
XL3: S1

wr(Lr + L2 Mr lM.,M.\ Sa A,=Aa Ptr ps:

+ L1) +W2 Lo=l+R" '. /eo + el pt
(L2 + L3) + 2 EoL, \E5I5 E4I4/ lrl
W:L, 2
-v xl-a = Pa
xl-o = So

M,:Mi r+Li r For cylindrical / M,*, M, I

/Ai + Ai*ri Pi * irr+r : I
\-w
i shells,
FT \E, + rli+ | E,l,/ s' +D Irl
Ll r '2_ Ri +Ri+r 2
l: l
xL; : P1
xl-i = S S:=Ar

I. v. /u.-' M"\ s" A"

lil p
E"r. \E"I" E"I"/ =
2

xLn: S"

M"+r : M"+L" Co_mputation of lateral y deflections. For formulas of y

see Table 4-16C.
deflection of real beam :
bending moment diagram oi conjusate beam
xFw, slope of real beam elasric curve -- shear of conjugate beam -
L,l moment diagram of real beam : load diagram of conjugate beam
y1: fu)(12), in.
 Table 4-148
Vibralion Deflections Based on the Coniugate Beam Method-Section Break Method

lttrttl
w" w'r w.{
V Y "Y V V

Ds, = o,
Mi li M/Eili = Mrdx/Eili Pi p = M;d2xlE;11
Mr :0 Ir Mr Mr - ^ sr +Ar:Ar /e' +
ErIt 2El1 l?l
xLq:P1

/- Ir M, /vt, M2\ s2 + A, = A/ Pt 't pt : ttz

+ ^\
Mj- W,lr(r
r(?l
= W,Lj EtI, \t'313 l'212l {rf
\21 2
xL2 = P'
_M,
' 2r..

xL2 = 52

Ir /Mr- Mrl 53+A*:4, Pr*t.,:/:

M, = w,lR' , R,
\2
r!\-w,fIL$,\
2l '\ 2 l Er \E.I. Err',/
lA, +
lrl
Aql

: Wr(Lr + Lr) + WrL2

2
xL3 = P3

u,' = w l/! +R, +Ri*w,(R,+ Ri t" MJ

It, r, \
lrvrl f, wlrl ra+45:Ad
/eo + ,+,\
Po*/r: = lr
\2 2l '\ 2 I EoL \E4I4 E4I4/ \) I

: 2
W1(L1 + L2 + Lr) + W2L2 xL4 = P4
xL4: 54

M,:w(q+*,**.*&\ 15 l& /tut, , tuto \ f,L,+a"\ Ps *ro = rs

-
\E+ E.L/ +
6

lrl
\2 2l E:I: s5 Dsi
2
+w,l&+n.+!l xL5: P5
'\2 2l xL5 = 55

+ &l
-\21
+ w.lR.

I,
lvl" = lvl^ r+L", r,sr --, -, E t/\
M" /tut"-, tnl"
W,-l _jI L" = P^
Ik \EJ" 2
2

xL":S" S"=A"
M.+ r = M"+L" @ : ebrupt section break
k : n + (number of abrupt section breaks)
<Fw, y = (pi)(12) ft Infigureabove,k=n*1
t:l
 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Table 4-14C
Centroids ol Shell Volumes

- b(4a - 3t)

':'(T i

Conical Section

3H(D": - Di) + 8Hr@., - Di") tano

v -Dit - 2H{D., - D.,) randj
6[{D"r

k-t--l

The vortex shedding frequency is given by process columns, because these vessels usually hare
many external, attached appurtenances. What is more
f,"D 0.2v
(4-101) commonly done with towers is to stiffen up shell sectiont
to offset ovaling resonance. See Chapter 5 for more in-
formation on ovaling.
where v : 45 mph or 66 fps

If for any section of the tower fi < 2f,, ovaling vibration

is imminent. The resonance wind velocity that would CRITERIA FOR VIBRATION ANALVSIS
theoretically induce ovaling is
While there is no absolute parameter available for de-
60 f.D termining whether a vibration analysis is required, there
(4-1o2)
are certain guidelines for designing towers.

where s = Strouhal number : 0.2 for this application 1. If the critical wind velocity, V1, exceeds 60 mpf.
then a vibration analysis is not required. Very feu
To counter ovaling vibration, ovaling rings or helical cases of severe vortex excitation have been ot -
strakes are added. These normallv are not oractical for served for wind velocities in this ranee.
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 209

2. If the first critical windvelocity, V|, is greater than

the wind design speed, a vibration analysis is not
required.
3. The limiting minimum height-to-diameter ratios H/
d are as follows:

z- 4-_} H/d > 13 unlined stacks )

H/d > 15 lined stacks ) (4- 103)

q- 4.
H/d ) 15 process columns I

The Zorilla criterion for vibration analysis is as fol-

+- lows:

+ LD,
\ ZW
vibration analysis must
be performed

q 20 <,^, (- ". " -' analysis should-

r, vibration o_.-'il (4-lo4)

vibration analysis need

+ 25 < ---
LDI not be performed

5. If the total force on the tower induced by the first

critical wind velocity V1 does not exceed l/rs of the

+- operating (corroded) weight W or

1"
:oViHd
')" 1

i
w o15 (4- 105)
:

.1+_ Further guidelines and procedures for stacks are dis-

cussed in Chapter 5.

q- SEISMIC DESIGN OF TALL TOWERS

+- There are several ways to analyze earthquake forces

imposed on a structure. The procedures outlined in the
Uniform Building Code [10] are the simplest and most
+- straightforward, but do not account for all of the signifi-
cant dynamic properties of structures. Large, complex
structures, such as so-story buildings, nuclear power
'--+---1 plants, large dams, and long suspension bridges, require
a more thorough dynamic analysis. Fortunately, the
UBC method is accurate enough for most tall, process
tower/stack design problems and is presented here.
In seismic analysis the design spectrum is not a speci-
r+_ fication of a particular earthquake ground motion; it is a
specification of the strengths of structures. For this rea-
son the tower must be ductile enough to absorb energy
without ultimate yield. This implies that for the structure
Figure 4-31. The vibration ensemble in which each section to absorb energy that exceeds maximum design condi-
weisht is located at the section centroid. tions the overall structure deformation will be ductile
 210 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

rather than brittle. The result is that while more risorous I : moment of inertia, ft
analyses are very helpful in determining design ciiteria. g= 32.2 ftlsec2
practical design procedures are simplifications of the
complex dynamic phenomenon used as'.quasi" static When Equation 4-108 is applied to sreel wirh a value of
criteria applied with elastic srress limits. :
E 30 x 106 psi we have
The Uniform Building Code 1982 [10] requires thar all
freestanding structures in seismic zones to be desisned
/ \, t::--
1= 17.65e v t0-") l[)'^1tz*o'' (4- l09
and constructed to with5tand a total lateral force t-base
shear) given by
\D",i !
r
r

and for E : 29 x
V: ZIKCSW (4- 106)
106 psi,

where Z : seismic zone factor (see Figure 4-32) (4-110)

I : occupancy importance factor : I for all
process towers and stacks
K : structure type coefficient where D,,, : mean diameter of tower, ft
c : structure period response factor
s = slte structure interaction factor For a tower with uniform cross section and tapered
= total operating weight of tower above ground (conical) skirt the following relationship can be used in
computing the fundamental period:
The structure type coefficient, K, is as follows:
K= 2.0 for vertical vessels on skirt supports r = 2" (o qod)" (4-111 )

K= 2.5 for vertical vessels on skirts when

t,h.n > 1.5 tskin
where 6= the calculated deflection at top of tower induced
by 1007" of irs weight applied as a laleral load
The structure period response factor, C, is determined
by With towers of varying cross sections and attaching
^l :
L (4_107)
equipment, a method used to determine the fundamental
15"rF frequency was developed by Warren W. Mitchell in an
-sec unpublished work [21]. The solution is based on the Rav-
where T = structure period of vibration, sec, with leigh method ofequating porenlial and kinetic energies in
c","" : 0.12 a vibrating system. The resulting formulation is readill
useful in computing fundamental periods of cylindrical.
For short, stiff structures, such as horizontal vessel sup-
tapered-cylindrical, and step-tapered-cylindrical struc-
ports, in lieu of making a period calculation, the re- tures common to the petrochemical industry (CpI). The
sponse factor C may be taken as equal to C."".
formulation is as follows:
For most industrially accepted design methods, the ef-
fects of the soil-structure interaction are considered.

,: ln)' \,F-4D-
This is done in the Uniform Building Code by using the
ratio of the fundamental elastic period of vibration of the
tower, T, to the characteristic site period, T,.
(4 Il2r
Formulations used to determine the fundamental natu-
ral period ofvibration for seismic response vary as to the fEo, +
\100/ a.y

type of structural cross-section considered. The gener- where T : period, sec

ally accepted equation for towers of uniform cross-sec- H = overall height of tower, ft
tion is w distributed weight (lb/f0 of each section
w concentrated loads attached to the tower
'l-- t.re lrql"
\EIei
(4- 108)
at any level, that add mass but do not
contribute to the stiffness of the tower
E modulus of elasticity (106 psi) for each
where fundamental period, sec section
LI . total heighr, ft coefficients for a given elevation
weight per unit of height, lb/ft depending on the ratio of the height of
shell thickness, in. the elevation above grade to the overall
E_ modulus of elasticity, psi height of the tower (h,/H)
The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 211

3
E

xllo
ollR
;llo
o||oll0
;''ll,ro
Ell'
"ll:
!l]f;
tl
oLJ

nt .€
ol 65
ol !o
Ll 6

6l
NI -R5C
R
ol
-

6l
212 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Ao, A.y : differentials in the values of a and .y, VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF SHEAR
from the top to the bottom of each FORCES
section of uniform weight, diameter,
and thickness. 6 is determined from
For towers having an overall height-to-base-width ra-
each concenttated mass. Values of a. 6.
and "r are shown in Table 4-15. tio greater than 3.0, a portion of the total earthquake
force. V. shall be applied ro rhe top of the tower aciord-
In applying Equation 4-ll2 the following factors ing to the following relationships:
should be considered:
For,
n Ifa tower's lower section is several times wider in di-
h
ameter and shorter than the upper sections, then the
tower's period can be more accurately determined by ;<3.0,F,:0
computing the upper section's period, assuming that
h
the tower is fixed as to translational and rotational dis- 3.0<:
l)
< 6.12. F. = 0.07 TV (4-ll4)
placement. If a tower's shell diameter or thickness is
significantly larger than that of the supporring skirt,
the period calculated by Equation 4-112 may be h
6.12, F, : 0.lsv
overly conservative for earthquake design and a more ;>
accurate method may be desirable.
D For conical tower sections the Mitchell eouation can- where F, : total force applied at top of structure
not be used because of lack of data for the
'coefficients h: overall height of tower, ft
a, B, and 7. The Rayleigh equation (Equation 4-97) is D= diameter of tower, ft
more comprehensive and ubiquitous in application.
V= total base shear from Equation 4-106

The remainder of the total seismic force is distributed

Once the fundamental period of vibration is deter- and applied to the mass distribution in the structure ac-
mined, the numerical coefficient for the site structure in- cording to the following equation:
teraction (seismic site-structure resonance coefficient),
S, can be determined. As previously stated, the soil- tt/ 1,
structure interaction is considered in most industrially F^ : (V F,) """ 14-1 l5 r

accepted methods. The value of S is determined by the \-w

LJ "I\
r,
following formulas:

For T/T, ( 1.0, where F* : lateral force applied to a mass at level x, lb

T / \.
ITI'
W* = weight of mass at level x, lb
S = 1.0 +:T,- 0.5 l:l (4-l l3a) h, = height of level x above the base (normally
\T,i measured from bottom of the base plate of
the tower), ft
For T/T. > 1.0, Ewh : the sum of the products of w" and h, for all
the masses within the structure, ftlb

S : 1.2 + 0.6 I - 0.3 E)' (4-l l3b)

T, \r,/ The seismic moments are computed from the following
expression:
s > 1.0
(c) (s) < 0.14 M: V, L, _, * F*,C; (4-116)

The characteristic site period, T,, falls into the following where Lr,-, : length of section below shear force, ft
tlme: Ci - L,lZ for a cylinder
/.\f 2 ^zrrr' + rr'l
^21
0.5 < T. < 2.5 sec
c - lil lrl-+ foracone tsee Figure 4-33r
\+/Lri+rlr,+r;I
When T. is not properly established, S is taken as 1.5,
except when T exceeds 2.5 seconds, S can be determined For an illustration of seismic analysis, see Example
by assuming a value of 2.5 seconds for Ts. 4-3.
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 213

Table 4-15
Coefficients for Determining Period of Vibration of Free-Standing Cylindrical Shells
Having Varying Cross Sections and Mass Distribution'
nx h"
H H
I .00 2.103 8.347 l .000000 0.50 0. 1094 0.9863 0.95573
0.99 2.02r 8.12l 1.000000 0.49 0.0998 0.9210 0.95143
0.98 1.941 7.898 1.000000 0.48 0.0909 0.8584 0.94683
0.97 1.863 7 .678 l .000000 0.4'7 0.0826 0.7987 0.94r 89
0.96 1.787 '7
.461 1.000000 0.46 0.0'749 o.74r8 0.93661
0.95 1 .'7 t4 7 .248 0.999999 0.45 0.0678 0.6876 0.9309'7
0.94 1.642 '7
.O3'7 0.999998 0.44 0.0612 0.6361 o.92495
0.93 1.513 6.830 0.999997 0.43 0.0551 0.5872 0.91854
0.92 1.506 6.626 0.999994 0.42 0.0494 0.5409 o.911'73
0.91 1.440 6.425 o.999989 0.41 0.0442 0.4971 0.90448
0.90 1.377 6.227 0.999982 0.40 0.0395 0.455'7 0.89679
0.89 1.316 6.O32 0.9999't I 0.39 0.0351 0.416'7 0.888&
0.88 1.256 5.840 0.999956 0.3 8 0.0311 0.3801 0.88001
0.87 1 .199 5.652 o.999934 o.37 o.o2'7 5 0.3456 0.87088
0.86 1.143 5.467 0.999905 0.36 o.0242 0.3134 0.86123
0.85 1.090 5.285 0.999867 0.35 0.0212 0.2833 0.85105
0.84 1.038 5. 106 0.999817 o.34 0.0185 0.2552 0.84032
0.83 0.988 4.930 0.999154 0.33 0.0161 0.2291 0.82901
0.82 0.939 4.758 o.999614 0.32 0.0140 0.2050 0.81710
0.81 0.892 4.589 0.9995'76 0.31 0.0120 0.1826 0.804s9
0.80 0.847 4.424 0.999455 0.30 0.010293 0.16200 0.79t4
0.'79 0.804 4.261 o.999309 0.29 0.008769 0.14308 0.7716
0.78 0.762 4.1o2 0.999t33 0.28 0.00-t426 o.12516 0.7632
0.'77 0.722 3.946 0.998923 0.27 0.006249 0.10997 0.7480
0.76 0.683 3.794 0.998676 0.26 0.005222 0.09564 o.'7321
0.75 0.646 3.645 0.998385 o.25 0.oo4332 o.0826'7 0.7 r 55
0.74 0.610 3.499 0.998047 0.24 0.003564 0.07101 0.6981
o.73 0.576 3.356 0.997656 o.23 0.002907 0.06056 0.6800
0.72 0.543 3.217 0.997205 0.22 0.002349 0.05126 0.6610
0.7 | 0.512 3.081 0.996689 o.21 0.001878 0.04303 0.@13
0.70 0.481 2.949 0.996101 0.20 0.001485 0.03579 o.6207
0.69 0.453 2.820 o.995434 0. l9 0.001159 0.02948 0.5992
0.68 o.425 2.694 0.99468 r 0. 18 0.000893 0.02400 o.57 69
0.6'7 0.399 2.57 | 0.993834 0.17 0.000677 0.01931 0.5536
0.66 0.374 0.992885 0. l6 0.000504 0.01531 0.5295
0.65 o.3497 2.3365 0.99183 0. 15 0.000368 0.01196 0.5044
0.64 0.3269 2.2240 0.99065 0. 14 0.000263 0.00917 0.4783
0.63 0.3052 2.1r48 0.98934 0. 13 0.000183 0.00689 o.4512
0,62 o.2846 2.OO89 0.98789 0.12 0.000124 0.00506 0.4231
0.61 o.2650 1.9062 0.98630 0.11 0.000081 0.00361 0.3940
0,60 o.2464 1.8068 0.98455 0.10 0.000051 o.00249 0.3639
0.59 o.2288 1.7107 o.98262 0.09 0.000030 0.00165 0.3327
0.58 o.2122 1.61'7'7 0.980s2 0.08 0.000017 0.00104 0.3003
0. 1965 1.52'79 0.97823 0.07 0.000009 0.00062 0.2669
0.56 0. l8l6 1.4413 0.97 573 0.06 0.0000M 0.00034 0.2323
0.55 0.1676 1 .3579 0.97301 0.05 0.000002 0.00016 0. 1966
0.54 1.1545 I .217 5 0.97W7 0.04 0.000001 0.00007 o.159'1
0.53 0.1421 1.2002 0.96688 0.03 0.000000 0.00002 0.1216
0.52 0.1305 1.1259 0.96344 0.02 0.000000 0.00000 0.0823
0.51 0.1196 1.0547 0.959'73 0.01 0.000000 0.00000 0.0418
0. 0. 0. 0.

r- ,, E wA. . ,ruiE
t {#l
pB
'vi,cher rormura:
ti--S;;-
214 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

r"o= OO SMALL END that the cone-to-cylinder stresses computed by the equiv-
r-= OD LARGE END alent circle method are very close in magnitude to those
computed by more exact methods. Because of its close
approximate answers and simplicity, the equivalent cir-
cle method is normally the method used for treating con-
TRUNCATED CONE ical sections in towers. The method will only be outlined
here, as others l22l have already derived it.
Figure 4-33 shows how the sections of a truncated
cone and a conical head are approximated by an equiva-
lent circle, which is used to compute the section modulus
and moment of inertia. These formulations are used in
tower design and are demonstrated in the examples that
follow.
Conical shells used in tower sections have a half anex
,."=[*&l anglecv ( 30degrees. Whenh. ( 0.10H, rhecon..an
be approximated by considering two cylinders shown
with dotted lines (Figure 4-34). In pracrice, stiffening
rings must be used when required by the vessel code.

CONICAL HEAD

Figure 4-33. The equivalent radius for cones. L

t\/2
T'

TOWER SHELL DISCONTINUITIES AND

CONICAL SECTIONS

Most vessel codes do not discuss the analytical compu-

tation of tower shell discontinuity stresses, which are
prevented by welding stiffening rings to the outside shell
of conical sections. In addition, most codes do not con-
sider discontinuity stresses on cylindrical shell sections.
The ASME Section VIII Division I uses a safety factor of
four to one to compensate for not computing these
stresses.
Conical sections can be tieated quite simply by utiliz- Figure 4-34. When h" ( 0.1 H, the cone can be approximated
ing the equivalent circle technique. Bednar [22] shows by considering the two cylinders shown with dotted lines.
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 215

EXAMPLE 4-l: WEAR PLATE o: : 37.845 psi

REOUIREMENT ANALYSIS
o2-r: 02 + oo : 1,715.34t0r'
A horizontal vessel containing hot oil is to be com- o7 = circumferential stress at horn of saddle
pletely analyzed using the Zick method to determine
wear plate requirements (Figure 4-35). 8R : 8(1.750) = 14.00 + L < 8R
Vessel material : 5A-516-70 Q : 7,828.981 lb A l5oo
Saddle material : 5.4.-36 cA:0 R- t.750
0.857 =k o.u5
Temp:300'F
Design pressure = 671 psi
0 = 120" - 7,828.981
4(0.94r)[0.375 + 1.s6[(21)(0.94)]0 5l

r:lrso-91 =tzo' _ l2(0.05x7,828.98 1)(l.7s0)

\21 (10x0.941)r

t l5e -284.547 - 928.358

.r = __: l:: + 301 :
I
1.396 rad - 80.0'
180 \12 l |,212.905 psi < < 1.25 dr,rr : 21,875

From Equation 4-1 at the saddle, ring compressive stress in shell over saddle

., = 10*13910)
[t# (, ,,1] [H#]
_ 7,828.981
(0.941)[0.375 + 1.56[(2 1X0.941)]0rl

or = 50.501 psi
.I I - cos(u4) I
lr - +
oo : -!D : iilllt'.t : 1,67i.50
:
I.990 sin (l t4) cos (l14,

os 865.678 psi < < 19,000 psi = 0.5 o,

orr : or + op : 1,728.00psi
Since the ring compressive stress and the circumferen-
tial stress at the saddle are less than one half of yield
At Midspan stress and the allowable stress, respectively, wear plates
are not required.
From Equation 4-3

3(7,828.981X 10.0) EXAMPLE 4-2: MEGHANIGAL

' ?r(21.0)11.0) - o 600]
DESIGN OF A PROCESS COLUMN

A detailed mechanical design is required for the pro-

10'-o' cess column shown in Figure 4-36. The design criteria
are as follows:

Design temperature: - 150"F

:
I
ol
Design wind speed 100 mph
Internal pressure at top head: 150 psig
i-l Internal pressure at boftom head: 162 psig
*l
c\t
I
Shell material: 304 SS
Skirt material: 436
-l External pressure requirement: None
PWHT: Yes
Radiograph: Full
Ambient temperature : lO"F min, 100oF max
o-o Wind distribution is to be computed from ASNI-A58.1-
Figure 4-35, Horizontal pressure vessel containing hot oil. 1982:
 216 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

towER ANo TNTEFATS (Nor ro scAL€) VIBBATON ENSEMALE WINO ENSEMBLE

I Ill;,
I ltt
I rtt
r rrtl
ltttr
r
I
SHELL AND
HEAT EXCHANGER
l
TTJBE I

l:'
_!_rt-!-!

'.. -7 -------+
"oo t$

I
'roP aEo 1.,

-'..
,tt
__ _.j--L___ -------lr:l-

___i-L__
____--L__
csruliiinny
,"r"*"" r*-------lli-I: |

-T I

BOTIOMBEO
-ti
.__i1___
-Tl
"-*.-,J:l
l*IU

F.-i-----+r l"l
N.RMAL LrourD .."r. I

ri
-f

--l FI
I

+-
Figure 4-36. Tower analyses ensembles.
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 217

9z
: 0.00256 Kz (IV)'z; V = 100 mph Effective Cross-sectional Area (Figure 4-37)

Top portion of tower,

Kz :2.58
D" = 66.5 tn. + (12.75 + 12) in. + (12.75 + 1l) in.
: /r s\'"
Kz 2.58 for z< rs ft 12 in. pipe 12 in. pipe
IZJ plus plus
insulation insulation

Tower is in Exposure Category C, for which + 12 in. : 127.00 in.

\-7-

a : 7 .0, Ze : 900, D" = 0.005 ladders

and
.At 15 ft, platforms

Bottom portion,
K,:2.58f
- l1\''' = o.rot
\900/
D. : 47.O il:'. + (12.'75 + r2) in.
ForZ)15ft, + (12.75 + in. + in. :
11) 12 107.50 in.
/ 7 \0286
K,'. : 2.58 l:l Gust Response Factor
\900/

For 15 ft and under, V= 100 mph, h= 104.292 ft, f: 0.981 Hz

qz : 0.00256(0.801)(Iv)': Structural damping coefficient : 0.01

I /szzor\
From Thbles and 5 of A58.1-1982, c = 1""'-- I { l27.ool
\r04.2921
I= 1.0

az = 0.00256(0.801)( 1001 : 20.506 lb/fC, z< 15 fr .(t+*)(ro75o) = 11s3s5

I 7 \D 286

o,
'" = 0.00256(2.58)1" \900/
I (100F From A.58.1 Table A9, s: 1.00

I7
: 66.048
\0.286

(eoo-1 . z > ts rt
- 0.5 Ih (10.5X0.981)1104.2921
r:_=#=lu.t4J
f

sv (1.00X100)

tz'?erre1* 1i'0 PtpE

6" THtcK
u'r","*-rr*I.$ INSULATION

'*"u'o''on

ffJ
Y
Figure 4-37. Effective cross sectional area.
214 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

1o4,292ft _
ir rs.:os\
+- _>..
9: \ t'? /: o.oe5:c
I 18.305
: 9.859
h 1o4.292
#----->r
ffi: ooo"
I- 0.0055, y= 6.145

D_ fly : (10.743)(0.0055X0.145) : 0.009

*--->..
o =
oo.*,(fr-o|"'",0r,,.

s : l.l
For a tower with many attachments and connecting pip-
ing,

c- 0.6s , [g!q * [(3 32x0 147)l?(l l)105 (4-83) q--->E

0.01 I { (0.002X9.85s).1
1

G= 0.65 + 1.076 : 1.726

30'oo
*+r-
From Simiu[9],

9:9zG
\+-{)-->
f00t '|
Figure 4-38 shows the wind pressure distribution q plot- l5.oort
ted along the tower length.
+;
Figure 4-38. Wind force distribution (q) along tower is para
bolic above 15 feet. Section wind force distributions are com-
Centroid of a Spandrel Segment bined into a force vector located at the centroid of the wini
section.
The centroid ofa parabolic segment is shown in Figure
4-39. Applying the general equation, Equation 4-117, to
our case we obtain
. t^ \
i _ tn + Ql llaqn I ngn.tl ,.t .t .r (4-117)
2(n + 2(}\ \dqn + nqn r/

From Figure 4-39 we obtain a general expression for the Using this equation we compute the wind force distribu-
composlte area, tion. From Figure 4-20, Cr = 0.6. Solving for sectior
properties we have the following:
t7 -7 .\
Af - ::l-----:l--I {dqn + nqn r). lb/ft (4-118) I7 \2t1
(n+q)
'" :66.048
aa 1.-l
\900/
Solving for the wind resultant force acting through each
centroid we obtain, Section A

F: AO"CI Z: 104.292 tt
- The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 219

)|
) l^l
NINI
il:
$l- il-
o

-l;l I
st?l
.l+l IN

il- Nlcl
,_l-l
Nt
ql
1l
!L!
tN+
-,I
I
--t^ ^lN
^,1 rf.f ^ |

:l r',.'NS
@ YI 1F
qo N
Ntd N.
=x":
I
r< I Lr-'
N I.t re Nir++
t:-o

6
T-l
'-l
g^1 Jii
Q,ni+++
F
I
"l
ol I

i- Ll
u,- !L >
.el hl rN tL>

(JO (l
gilrl
E
(!

:l' l
:-^ ldl
<t)
o* l.
-___t91
tl : ^l q)

N
,Yl.l
6 tt
€ - t: !
rr llld
il-
F[?
'iYrl
Y
isl
dlB N' ll 'i! | -;-
tql
o.l' nu' xl
<ft
tl
d;d N

Rt
(G -----i:--
q --J9
'l
.9
i l'l
=N Nl.
o- tN lt
rl-
o \t-l
IN
IN
:* ll
()+
'N
220 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

--l 28o
/rr}4 rq?\0 Section D
9z 66.048 l:: : : 35.659
\vwi
q":48.852
q" (l.726X3s.659) : 6r.547

( / qR \0 286
e"-r : (r.726)ffiul- (66.048):44.573
9n- t 726t l:;l 166.048) = 60.461

(12.75 )[(7X48.8s2) + (2)(44.s73)l

(6.292)l(7)(6t.s47) + (2)(60.461)l
2+7
610.739
385.735 lb/ft
o 11211t11+r.tsz1 +
,,., ,.,{2 x,r4.571)l
r9r [r2rrzrror.5+zr r- r2x60.461)1,. .^.. nL
nL 0@e8sz)
a)@e8sz) + t2\44.s1rll"'''l
2t2 . A, [ {ix6tJ47) + {2x60r'61) l'" "''
: 6.430 ft
3. 151 ft

Section B Section E

q" = 60.461

/ qn \o 286
(66.048):43.097
o. , = 1l.726] l^il (66.048) = s9.007
\vw/
+ (2X43.097)l
^_
(8.00x7)(60.461) + (2X59.007)l

:48 I . 103 lb/ft 165.919

-s (2)(7)(60.461) + (2X59.007,,l s l{zxzlt++.stz) + )(43.097)l (3.7s

z: tlnl (2
)
{8.00}
J2 [ (7x60.461) + (2)(59.007)l 0e4.sb + (2)@3.097
0)t44.s7, t)

: 4.009 ft
: 1.881 ft

Section C Section F

q" = 59 007

q.-, = (t.i26) (*#)""' (66.048) = 4s.352 (66.048) : 39.943

(43.50X7)(s9.007) + (2)(48.852)l + (2)(39.943)l

: 2,468.640 lb/ft 296 .713lblft

z: zl (2X7X59.007) + (2)(48.8s2)
,0, ,0,
eI(2) (7 )(43.o97) + (2X39. 943)
32 [ 1 + (7)(s9.007) (2X48.8s2) ] nl
32 | ('7 )|43.097) + 12)(39.943)]n
oo,

= 22.128 ft
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels

Section G Section J

q" = 39.943
35.347
28o
/ro oo\0
C" | = (1.726) l-:::::l (66.048) : 38.378 : 35.347
\vlru/ 9n_r

(3.00)ft?X39.943) + (2X38.378)l At
:
q(2" - Z" ,) = (3s.347X15.0)
^ - 530.205 lb/ft

: 118.786 lb/ft ll :
2
z.so r,

z- : 32e [r2rtrr32i+rt rle9.:]s{ c.oo,

| e)e9.943) + {2x38.378)l '- --'
= 1.506 ft Now solving for the section forces we have

F= ArD"Cr
Section H

q" = 38.378 ":

FA (385.7rs) ('']=oo)
12 / \ ,0." : 2,44e.4r7 tb

- 2s6
/r?
9"_r : (1.726)
on\o
l:::-:::; (66.048) = 36.63s FB = (481.103) {'t]^ool to.ut = 3.055.004 lb
\7wl \ rl /

+
^_
(3.00)t(7x38.378) (2X36.635)l 0l
Fc : (2.468.&0) {l?lq.
^ (0.6) = t5,675.864 lb
\tzl
: ll).972lblft
FD = (6r0.73e) {toLtol ,0.u, = 3,2E2.i22 rb
\12 I
-i : e l2IlI38.3Z8rj i?I36.61s)l ,r nn,
321 (7x38.378) + (2)(36.635t'- "-' 501
Fr- = n65.919r l'07 ro.ur = Eel.8r5 rb
: 1.507 ft
\12l
FF = es6.ii3) (ue- ) ,0 u, : r ,5e5. r55 rb
\ 12 /
Section I
F6 = (u8.786) {'ol=to) to.u,t = 638.475 lb
q":36.635
\ Lz I
/, < 286 r," = (n3.e7z) (!Zi2t\ ,o u, : 612.6oo rb
q"_r = (1.726) lj':Y:l^^\o
t66.048) = 35.347 \ /'
\vUU/
(2.00)[(7)(36.63s) + Ft = (72.6si) I'ol=tol to.u, = 3e0.746 lb
^_
(2X35.347)]
r2 \ I

: 72.697 lblft Fr = (s30.205) Ito],to) ,0.u, = 2,84e.852 lb

\12 I
- s[(2) (7 (36. 63 s) + (2) 5.347 )
Z=-l ) (3
,r.oo,
32[
(7X36.635) + (2\(3s.347)
32 1 ] J
Fc - 31,,141.650 lb
: 1.003 ft
222 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Solving for section moments we use the following ex- 1 "OD 16 BWG TUBE
presslon:

n- I

M"=M" t+(z^,-z^)DF,_, af\

+ F,z. (4-8s)

M^ : (2449.417)(3.151) : 7,718.113 ft-lb

Ms = 7,718, 113 + (2449.4r7)(8.oo)

+ (3,055.004X4.009) : 39,560.960 ft-lb

Mc : 39,560.960 + (5504.421X43.5)
+ (15,675.864)(22.128) = 625,g7g.rt tt-tt
Figure 4-40. The tube bundle is modeled in banks ofconcen-
MD : 625,878.792 + (2r,180.285)(12.75) tric circles used to approximate the section moment of inertia.
+ (3,282.722)(6.430) : 917,035.328 ft-lb The tube bundle enhances the section stiffness.

ME : 9r7,035.328 + (24,463.007)(3.75)
+ (891.815)(1.881) : 1,010,449.109 ft-lb
Mn : 1,010,,149.109 + (25,354.822)(7 .00)
+ (1,s9s.155)(3.s2s) : I,193,555.784 ft-lb

Mc : 1,193,555.784 + (26,949.9'77)(3.OO)
+ (638.475X1.506) : |,275,367 .258 tt-tb For l-in. OD i6 BWG tube,
Mu: 1,275,367.258 + (27,5 88.4s2)(3.00) I : 0.0210 in.a : metal cross section
+ (612.600Xr.491) : 1,359,046.001 ft-lb
A: 0.191 in.2 : metal area
Mr = 1,359,046.001 +
(28,201.052X2.00)
+ (390.746X1.003) :
1,415,840.023 ft-lb K: number of tubes per circle

: n : number of circles
Mr 1,415,840.023 + (28,591.798)(15.0)
+ (2,849 .8s2)(',7 .s0) : 1,866,090.883 ft-lb Thus, from the parallel-axis theorem the composite mo-
ment of inertia is
Section Moments of Inertia
I: DKIG + AL)
Section a-rl+-in. t
Values of I are tabulated in Table 4-16.
,." " ffs+.sol, _ ile\"]
64 1\t2 I
: 0.756 rta For enclosing shell, :/a-in. t,
\12/J
I " - (54.00)41 - 23,676.070 in.'
Section b-3/a in. t 64'1s+.zs)o
)-l
Lt' = rr4.i35.44r in.a + 23.676.070 in.'
The shell and tube heat exchanger section moment of
inertia is approximated by a set of concentric circles of : 138,411.511 in.a
tubes. The concentric circle pattern approximates that of
the exchanger tube sheet. Using the parallel-axis theo- or for the total cross-sectional area
rem, we arrive at the section moment of inertia. Refer-
ring to Figure 4-40 we analyze the exchanger as follows: Ib : 6.675 fC
 The Engineering Mechanics of pressure Vessels
-
Table 4-16
Values of I for Tube Bundle

16.364.299 t6,364.299
14.127 .503 30,491.802
12.104.531
10.284.531 s2,880.927
8.574.543 6r,45s.470
7. r38.100 68,593.s70
5.871.903 74,465.473
;
17.00
;i#.uZr
2 89.000 0.191 0.021 86 r.765.174 .7s,230.641

10 14.50 210.250 0. l9l o.021 85,937.106

88.197.856
89,860.696
91,063.953
9l,901.445
92,456.266
Jf, 92,79t.181
t7
18
92.980.407
t9 93.074. 195
t6 93.109.836
l0 93.119.576
2l
93.120.846
t55 2t,6t4.595 l1:1.735.1,+1

Section c- I/z-in. t )ectlon t-rA-tn. rL

, - 64" [/ss.oo\- /s+ oo\*l

[\ t2 / \12 /J ,=.[+:1!f
64 l\ 12
_/+z.ool.l
I \12lJ
: 1.533 ft4 : 1.1 10 fta

Section g-r3/r6-in. t
Section d-5/s-in. t

,: "[or4f _/+:.oo\.1 r - 64,r L\

ll43.62sl- _
t2 I \ t2 /J
142.001"1
l\ t2 I \t2lj
64

: 0.917 fta
: 1.208 fta

Referring to Figures 4-36 and 4_41 we calculate

Section e- t t/ro-in. t sectron moments
the
of inertia as follows:

r= L[(r#| (:gl Section h

: ,.r:( 26.193 + 21.812s \-

ff
I .013
2 cos 6.934" t- 24. I80 in.
224 Mechanical Desisn of Process Svstems

lso Deflections

! _ tb.292tt ltz.++s.+ngxo.zoztl
o Ia + "' (i.157 x lo") [- I

ydla h.
: 2.416 x 10-s ft

$ lo a"\
.-
(2.787
(8.oot
10'9
[(e,oss.oo+)(a.oo)
[ 8

(:2,449.4I7)(S.OO) {Z,Zrr. r r:l1

--3-21 -
reo=21.8125 in

rho=26.1925 in : 3.088 x l0 5 ft
tto:29.1109 in
51.o in
1o=
. (43.50)'? I (15,675.864X43.5)
Figure 4-41. The equivalent radii for the skirt sections. ' (6.402 10') [

(s,s04.421)(43.5) soo)l
+'32-) + Q2lOo

: 0.055 ft

t /.- .-\+ | ,- ^.\q

t.'' - o- | lr+6 rol - l4o dol l =
1
(3 ,282 .722)(t2 .7 5)
l.5i3 frr
64[\12/ \12ll ('1 8

Section i (21 , 180.285)( l2.75) razs,ttt.to4]

+ +
2l
/zs.rrr + zo.rs:\
* = t___t
r--
\ 2 cos 6.934' /
27.856 in. 0.017 ft

(3.'/r, [tal r. s rs)t:.zs)

(4230 x r0) t
"[/ss.zr,z\* /s+.oaz\tl
8

64 L\ 12 / \ 12 /l
, (24,463.OO7)(3.75)
-J-rl (917,03s.328t
Section j
= 0.002
/sr.oo + :s.rrr\
'' \ 2 cos 6.934' /
(7.00), [(r,sqs.rssxz.oo)
t-
L' j'" l/so.uor\t
ll"" '" 1 '1hs.ozo\*l
"" "1 | = 7.846 fta (4. 635,10)L 8
64 L\12 12
i \ iI
(2s ,354.822)(7 .0O) , (1,0r0,449.109t
-2)
Values of each section's wind force, shear, bending
moment, and moment of inertia are summarized in Thble
4-17 for the entire tower. : 0.006 ft
 1l

The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels

Table 4-17
Summation of Section Wind Force, Shear, Bending Moment and
Moment of lnertia
Section Fr (lb) Qi (lb) Mi (ft{b) li (fta) El (lb-ft'?)
a 2.449.4t7 2.449.417 7,118.113 0.756 3.157 x 10'q

3,055.004 5.504.421 39,560.960 6.6'7 5 2.78'7 x lOto

15,675.864 21. 180.285 625,878.'192 1.533 6.402 x 10!)

3,282.',722 24.463.00'l 917.035.328 0.917 3.829 x 109

891.815 25,354.822 1,010,449. 109 1.013 4.230 t t}e

26.949.971 1,193,555.784 1.110 4.635 loa
^
s 638.475 27,588.452 1,275,367.258 I .208 5-045 x 101r

612.600 28,20 r.052 1,359,046.001 1.533 6.402 x 10'

390.746 28,591.798 1.415.840.023 2.54',7 1.064 x 1010

2,849.852 3l,441.650 1,866,090.883 7 .846 3 .27 6 >< l0t'r

(6.2e2)(8.00) [ (3,05s.004)(8.00)
(rJ8i ,, 109 t 6

t26.s4s.s71 t3.0t , { 1.19J.555.7S4)l (2,,149.4 r 7x8.00)

+ ?.718.I r3l
I

3'l 2 I

= 0.001 ft 3.899 x 10 5ft

-', 13.oo1r 14.2e2X43. s0) [ ( 1s,67s.864)(43. s)

[(612.oo](3.0u/ ^
A'r:-l
(
(6.402 \ lOa) [ 8 (6.402 x lOY) [ 6

,
t-
(27,s88.4s2X3.0) , (r,27s,367.25U]|
-)l (5,504.421)(43.s)
+ 39,560.960]

= 0.001 ft = 0.027 ft

, 12.001/ [(3e0.7abx2.00) ^ .792yr2.7s11(3 ,282 .122)(12 .'t s)

^' ,,:
15't
": tr.oo+. ro9[ 8 oJ29 . lo) [ o

(28,201.052)(2.00) (r,3s9,046.001t (21 , 180.2 85X12.75) I

+'32ll + + 625.878 792
j
|

: 2.626 x t0 a ft = 0.148 ft

I
" (15.00), I (2.849.852)( 15.00) ^ r70.542rr3.75,1{8q1.815)r3.?51
orn:-l
(J.276 l0'9 L 8 't- r+.::ot tolL .
(28,59r.798)(r5.00) , 1,415,840.023)l , _ q tr,u:S.:28
-21 (
_ r 24 .46 3 .001 )\ 3 .15
2

: 0.006 ft : 0.060 fr
226 Mechanical Design ol Process Systems

^ -_ Tower Section Stress Galculations

r74.292n7.00) [{ t.5q5.155x7.00)
-)6 (4.6iai " ro1 t 6
Section a-ll+-in. t
(2s,354.822)(7.00)
+
2
+ 1
-,010,449.t09]I
For tension on the windward side, using Equation 4-
?1
: 0.124 ft

/po\ / ron^na \
\4tl - \?r((D" - D,XDa + Di,
(8r.2s2)(3.00)[(638.4 75X3.00)
^1
Dt
(5!45 x rO l- lzw\
6 - \"<n. * o, 1

(26 ,949 .977)(3 .0O)

* , "--'---"1
,oa aaa ,ool
P 150 psi, E = 1.0, t: 0.25 in., T : -100'F,
: 0.060 ft w 0.423 kips

Di 54.0 in., D" = 54.50 in.

[rrsO.Orrs+.orl I r6(54.50,{l2r{7.trA.rr:rl
^ _ 184.2s2t(3.00r fr6l2. 60x3.00)
-r8-(6J02^toq)L- 6
t {4x015) I = [.{015x t08J0)6J86.2t]

+
(27,588.452)(3.0)
2 ' ,-'-,ra'''" ,aol
ao., -'"1 - [tr(0lsxl08
2(1.8t4) I
d
: 0.052 ft o= 8,100 ! 161.009 - 42.57

o= 8,218.43 psi tension on windward side

(87 .2s2)(2.oo) l3s0.7 46)(2.o0)
(1.(064
)64 x t0ro)
t0ro) 6
q= 7 ,896.42 psi compression on leeward side
|.

Internal pressure circumferential stress,

+l(28,591.798X2.00)
2
+ 1,359,046.001]
o^=
PD ( 1s0.0)(54.0)
: O.O23 ft ' 2t 2(0.2sX1.0)

: 16,200 psi < 18,800 = o"

The circumferential stress governs in this section and is

(89.292x 15.00)
-^ '" _ [(2.849.8s2r 5.00) less than the allowable stress.
- rJ.276 < tolor I o
Section b- :/a-in. t
(2S,s91.798)(1s.oo) I
+
2 + 1,4r5,840.023.j
[t r:o.orrs+.orl

: L(4)(0.37s) I
0.067 ft

, [ 16(54.75)(39.s60.960)(12) ]
":
rt \-,1 * \-,r = [r{ 0J7s x 10850X5-9{3J63)l
L/" L/ -1

0.088 ft + 0.561 ft = 0.649 ft _ [ :rrs.zor.oor I

'7
.787 ir. t.(0 3is,(t08 itl
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels

5,400 + 550.16 - 237.30 Section e-l l/re-in. f,

5,712.86 psi tension

o=t-l [rrso.otr+z.or]
4,612.5 4 psi compression [ {4x0.688) I
(150.0)(54.0) : 16(43.3?5)(1,010,,149. 109)(12)
10.800 osi
2(0.375)(1.0) *[
-t r(0.688)(85.375X3,645.39r)
< 18,800:
- It"(0.o88x85.3?tl
o" zw,sor.sztt I

q : 2,289.24 + 12,509.56 - 482.98

Section c-\lz-in. t
o = 14,315.82 psi tension < 18,800 psi : o,
Ir rso.olrs+.orl
0r = t-l
t (4x0.s) I o : - 10,703.30 psi compression
(lsq'Pl!4? oo) :
'-
o" 4,578.488 psi
. I rorss.oolrozs.s 78.isu'l2t] 2(0.688)
= [-lr(0.
sot os. ool (5.9a
(t 1 . oo) I

- lzot.tzz.oll Section f-:/+-in. t

t"rcJ0l t0r)l
krso.olt+z.orl
o: 4,050.00 ! 6,497 .53 - 440.@6 - [ (4)(0.75) I
o: 10,106.884 psi tension < 18,800
, Iro(+s.soxr, ts:,555.7s4x12t
r= -2,888.176 psi compression = I I
"(0Jsxs550)(3,6562s0)
(150.0x54.0) Izr+o.sst.sssl I
o^ = ::
' 2(0.s0x1.0)
6.luuDSl - t"(oisx8s5o)l
q: 2,100.00 + 13,533.81 - 466.199
Section d-s/s-in. t o: l5,l67.61psi tension < 18,800 psi

o:t-l krso.ox+z.orl
o = -11,900.01 psi compression
[ (4)(0.62s) I
_ (1s0.00x42.00) _
*l
-t
(L 6) (43.25) (9 r7,03 s .328\ (12)
r(0.688)(8s.375)(3,&s.39r)
op
2(O.75)
4,200.00 psi

- t-l
I zt+:,+rs.oor I Section g-t:71u-in. g
lr(0.688t(85.375r1

! o:1-l krso.otr+z.orl
2,520.00 11,320.361 - 470.584
l(4)(0.813) I
13,369.777 psi tension < 18.800 psi : o,
. 6(43. 625) (1,27
116(43.625)(
1. |,27 s,3
s.367
67 .258) (r2)
.258)(t2
- 9,290.944 psi compression =[
"(0-813X85525X3'667140
(150'0x42'o) Izt+s.ozl.+ssr I
2(O.62s)
= 5.o4o.oo osi - t"(0-8t3l8s.6rtl
228 Mechanical Design of process Systems

q= 1 ,937 .2'l ! 13,319.972 - 439 .64 D": OO of base plate : 106.75 + 2(2.375)
: 111.50 in.
o: 14,817.602 psi tension < 18,800 psi : da
D; : ID of base plate = 111.50 - 2(6.j 5)
q: -ll,822.342 psi compression : 98.00 in.

All section stresses are less than the allowable stress of -rn2 - nll =
18,800 psi. Thus, the tower thicknesses are acceptable. A. '-o------1- 2221 .302 in '
4

fr4l
" "",'- "'
I. = -/na : 3.059.323.380
64

SKIRT AND BASE PLAIE DESIGN

\A.i iv).
" = iryl). /vl)
\A./ \2r.i (4-,11

_ 8MD,, W.
First we determine the size and number of anchor bolts ' N(Di + Dl) N
(4-.+ l
reouired.
_ (8)(12X1,866,090.883X1 1 1.s0) 63,815.727
(4-42) (.12)(22,036.250) n
^,: [+-*]/*".
Using an A- 193-87 high-strength bolt with an allowa-
= 70,219.061 Ib

ble stress of 40,000 psi per AISC and assuming a bolt

circle of 107 in., the required bolt area, ,4.6, is
_ (12)(70,219.061)
+ 63,8rs.721
2,22t .302 2,22\.302
( 1.866.090.883X12)(l I L50)
l2){ 1.866.090.8S3) _
[{4){ *,. ,rrl
"--- -)
I toz ^. 2(3,059,323.380)

(12X40,000) o" : 379.340 + 28.'129 + 408.069

o. : 816.138 psi < Fb : 1.33(900)
: l.o I I ln-' = I,197 psi
We select a lsls-in. d bolt of 8-thread series with a
minimum root area of 1.680 in., Thus, using Figure 4-
The concrete bearing strength criteria are met, so we ca.
15, the new bolt circle becomes
continue to the base plate design.
BC = 102 in. + 2(.2.375) : 106.75 in.
p"- D, _ lll.50 - 98.00
The new required area becomes h = 22
[*tgg- ( l2)(40,000)
-63,81s.727f
= 6.'75 : Base f, width = BP t W

I
(4_1j
= 1.615 in.'? < 1.680 in.2
lo.

. r( 106.75 )
20,000 = allowable working stress for steel, psi
lJOrr sDaclng
t2 I ,000 psi

= 21.947 in. > 18 in. minimum n oJo, = 19

Maximum bearing pressure on contact area: k 0.333

 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 229

with k : 0.333,1.588, C, = 2.376,2 = 0.431,

c" : Equation 4-64 becomes
J- 0.782, and six iterations of Equation 445 using Th-
ti - 0.845 ta - 0.046 = 0
ble 4-7, we obtain a value of k of 0. 186.

For k= 0.186, tc = 0.901 in

o. :
655.834 psi and o, = 26,850.892 psi
The allowable stress in the base ring = 36,000 psi Make gusset plates 15116 in. thick
The allowable shength in the concrete 3,000 psi :
Calculating the minimum skirt-to-base-plate weld size
Using Equation 4-54 and solving for the maximum in- we have from Equation 4-65
duced stress in the concrete,

^ : r6s{ o,o, [zro.tg.]xtoo.zsr

+ o.zsl 4M
*(* irun'n n.
[ 2(0. r83x 106.75r I -n2 \rDsr/

o.1.,"y : 769.139 psi

.
-
kt s83rl
r2X r ,8oo,090. 61.815 727

f. octmar lo5 t rll02.00tr I lrt102.00)

,lJ
nlfu\ : L l-l (4-56)
:
I o,ll I 2,939.611

For wind or earthquake,

111.50 - 102.00 _, ?<n i- : :
o* 1.33 o.(0.55) 1.33( 12,700X0.s5)
2
: 9,290.05 psi

2.939.611
weld size w (2)(9290.0s)
= 0.158

t
BTHK = t4.75t l -I v?6q
fr
" '""|
lqrlo
=
r
1.613 in. Use at least a 3/re-in. weld on each side of skirt.
L 20.000 I Anchor bolt torque is determined by Equation 4-66.
-
For lubricated bolts with Fel-Pro C-5A,
Make base t 15/8 in. thick
C: 0.15
Solving for the compression ring thickness using Equa-
tion 4-63 we have T: (0.15)(1.62s)(64,605.803) : 15,747.664 in.-tb

or
[ (b4,605.803x2.37s) I ^-^-
[4{20.000)14.75 - r 1.25I 1.625'1].j T: 1,313 ftlb with torque wrench

Make compression ring :/+ in. thick

Checking the skirt thickness for reaction of the bolting

ring against the skirt we have from Equation 4-39,
/ pp
\..
Using Equation 4-64 and Figure 4- l6 in calculating the
t 1.76 l--_5- I r' ' (4-19)
\m(GH)o"11/
compression ring thickness, we have

t-! ztE r= l. /o [t_(70.2le.06rx2.3zsr l' /rozl' '

18.000 G*r" - {F,)tl -

,

@-64) t, x
q
"00X
t'z /
1.500 ':a'4? 'z0"000)l
t = Q.672 in. < r3lroin. skirt thickness at chair
Fi = 64,605.803 Skirt thickness meets chair ring reaction
cnterla.
Grr : 9.00 in.; G* = 4.25 in. A sketch of the skirt and chair design is shown in Figure 4-42.
230 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

NOTE:TOFOUE BOTTS 1313 tr-|bs WttH

FEL-PRO C-sA USING TOROT'E

f 11td BoLls
^-$.-87

Figure 4-42. The skirt detail.

Section Gentroids Section c

Referring to Figure 4-21 we have the following:

ROO
y.=;=4.00ft
Section a
Lz : 2.50 + 4.00 = 6.50 ft
b(4a -30 Section d
,F-l _ 2.00 : r.w tt
lo= Z
toio
tot r.rt> - 3(0.25) L: : 4.00 + 1.00 : 5.00 ft

Section e
ul"r"'", - o.rr)
t : s.857 in. = 0.488 ft -
'-2-
24oo
= l2.ooft

50 L.+ : 1.00 + 12.00 : 13.00 ft

Lr = 0.488 ft + :_: = 2.988 fr
z
Section f
Section b
v :2'75 :
-2 1.3?5 ft
t,=+=2.5ort L5 : 12.00 + 1.375 : 13.375 ft
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 231

Section g Ltt = 6.125 + 1.875 : 8.00 ft

8oo:4.ooft Section m
i," =
'"2
_ 7.00
Ld = 1.3'75 + 4.00 : 5.375 ft 2

Section h Lr: : 1.875 + 3.50 : 5.375 ft

Section n
v,=17s=0.875ft
"2
Li : 4.00 + 0.875 : ft - 3.00
4.875 '"2
Section i : +
L13 3.50 1.50 = 5.00 ft

'2 :350:
Section o
t, l.75oft

La : 0.875 + l.'75 = 2.625 ft

D". = 43.625,D,.: 42.125, D". - D,. = 1.500 in.

D3, : r,903.r41, Di, = 1,774.516, D;. - Di : t28.62s

Section j
o= arctan
/roz.oo
| - +:. ou s\
| 6.934
,, _ 3HrDl - Di) r 8{D" - D, ) ran a \ 2(240.00) I
'mol
D., - Di, = 43.25 - 42.00 = 1.25 3(36)(128.62s) + 8(361(1.50) tan (6.93,1)
6[128.625 + 2(36X1.50) tan (6.934)]
D;. - Di : 1,870.563 - 1,',761.00 = 106.563

t.\ : 18.556 in.

cr = arctan lll : Ze.-scs'
\t2l y. = 1.546 ft
3(12X106.563) + 8(I\2(1.25) tan (26.565) Lr,r = 1.50 + 1.546 = 3.046 ft
6[106.563 + 2(12)(1.25) tan (26.56s)]

: 6.247 rn.
Section p
t = 0.521 ft

: D., : 52.381 in., D1 : 50.756 in., D". - Di. = 1.625

Lq = 1.750 + (1.0 - 0.521) 2.229 ft
DZ" = 2,743.'t9s, Dl. : 2,s'76.r97,
Section k
D3. - Di = 167.598 in.
) ?S
'1-'
j'^ : I
= 6.125 fr 3(204X167.598) + 8(2}4)r(t.625) tan (6.934)
2
6[167.s98 + 2(204)(r.62s) tan (6.934)]
Lro = 0.521 + 6.125 = 6.646 ft
: I13.044 in.
Section I
yp : 9,420 tt

"2
3.75
= l.X/l tf L,. : (3.00 1.546) + 9.420 : 10.874 ft
Lro : 17.00 - 9.420 : 7.580 ft
 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

2.625' 4.a75 5.375'. r3.375' 13.00'

l
H $
.'
R
s;^x^x^^x^^^;^;xx q P
9
H
9
E .-
3
N
9
€
|
! -
H: i :.
q ;iI qS
p .. 9

Figure 4-43, The vibration ensemble of lumped masses.

Vortex.lnduced Vibration
* : 6r?ffir,rral : 4.523 x ro-5
Referring to Figure 4-43 we have the following:

M.:0
687 ,472
: 1.038 x 10 4
(4.32 x 10)(1.533)
Mb: (0.423)(2.95 8) : 1.251 *o-t
M" : 1.251 + (1.814)(6.50) : 13.042 kip-ft
Ma : 13.042 + (15.201X5.00) : 89.047 kp-ft
8s3,091
M" : 89.047 + (16.192X13.00) : 299.543kip-ft ,4 ?) lft"t, r Sll' - 1.288 ' 10-4
"
Mr : 299.538 + (29.004)(13.375) = 687.472 ktp-ft
Mc : 687.46'7 + (30.813Xs.375) : 853.091 kip-ft t't _ 1.O24.t26
r '
Mh : 853.086 + (35.084X4.875) = 1,024.126 kip-ft
=
A Jx) = 1.546 to
Mi - |,024.r2r + (36.016)(2.625) = 1,118.668 kip-ft
Ivl = 1,118.663 + (37.s32)(2.229) : r,202.322 ktp-ft l'118 668 :
M,. = ,2o2 .322 + (37 .913)(6 .646) : | ,454 .292 ktp-tt !" 1.689 r lo '
1
Mt : |,454.292 + (43.171)(800) = 1,799.660 kip-ft
'- (4.32 x l0e)(1.533)
M. : 1,799.660 + (4s.028)(5.375) = 2,M1.685 kip-ft
M" : 2,041.685 + (47.662)(s.o0) = 2,279.995 Y,tp-ft <ro -
| .202.322
.lo"ltt.gtot
M. : 2,2'79.995 + (50.684)(3,046) : 2,434.379 kip-ft 14.32
MF = 2,434.379 + (s 1.937X10. 874) : 2,999. r42 kip-ft
Ms^, = 2,999.142 + (63.816)('7.58) : 3,482.867 kip-ft I L<L )A) _14?|v|^4
' (4.32 r t0")(0.917)
M' (30
- = E.I,
{, , x tO")tb/in.,(t44tin.b/ft,
r,, - f'7q9'660 4.tt2 t ro "
: (4.32 x 10,X1 .013) -
4.320 x lOe \blf€

!,,. 204l'685
1,251 : 3.830 x 10-7 ' -4.258xlo1
(4.32 x l0)(0.756) \4.32 ^ l0')(1.1l0)
13,042
r 1_70 00<
169 x l0 4

(4.32 x 10)(6.675)
= 4.523 x l0-1 <r4 - (4J2 /' 10\1108) - -' '

&= = r.345 x 1o 5 ,
r,< - 2,434,379
er+;ffi1j3,, (4.32 v l0)( 1.s32)

--r.u78xl0a
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels

2'99q'l42 = '' t4.258 + 4.369x10 "r(5.00) _ 2.t57 ,, l0 ,

r,- = q.902 ,. ro s,,
(4.12 \ I0'X7.011) 2

+
r. . (4.121482'q67
(,1.369 3.678)( r0-4)
l.l5o , Io a
Sr+ (3.046) = 1.226 x l0 r
/ 10)(7.01l)
/. + l,l,\ , (3.678 x 10 1+ 9.902 x l0 ) (10.874)
^ = 18,*t
J, l-l Li Sr: =
2
\rl
(3.83 x l0 )(2.958) : 2.538 x 10-'
5.665 x l0 '
2
Sro : (9.902 x l0 5 + 1.150 x 10 r)
(7.58)
t(3.83 x l0 ) + (4.523 x 10 ?)l
S:= (6.s0)
: 8.111 x 10 1

2.?15 x 10 6

x l0 ?) + (1.345 x l0-)] (s.00) a =q+\-q:s+,1

[(4.523 j=n
2

3.476 x 10 5
: 8.111 x l0
Ar a

x l0-) + (4.523 x 10 )] (r3.00) A: = 8.111 xl0-4+2.538xl0r:3.349xl0 l

[(1.345
$ : 3.349 x l0 3 + 1.226 x l0 Ir = 4.575 x l0-r
At : 4.575 x l0-r + 2.15'7 x 10 : 6.?32 x 10 r
: As : 6.'732x l0 3 + 2.249 x l0 3 = 8.981 x 10 l
3.814 x l0 4 Ao = 8.981 x l0-3 + 3.113 x l0-r : 1.209 x l0 r
N : 1.209 x 10 2+ 1.704 x 10 3 = 1.379 x 10-2
Ss: t(4.523 x 10 t + (1.038 x l0-4)l
(13.375) As : 1.379 x 10 2+3.506 x 10-1 : 1.414 x 10 l
As = 1.414 x 10-2 + 4.246 x l0-1 : 1.457 x 10 r
No : |.45'7 x 10 2 + 6.908 x 10 a = 1.526 x 10 r
r
: 9.966 x 10 a Arr : 1.526 x 10-2 + 6.251 x 10-1 : 1.589 x 10
Arz : 1.589 x 10 '? + 9.966 x l0 a - 1.688 x l0 2

011 - !?88110'-,5325, \ Ar: = 1.688 x l0 2 + 3.814 x 10 a = 1.'726 x 10 2

5"') -
,-1
l0 N+: 1.726 x l0-22 + 3.476 x l0-56 :: 1.730 x l0-'
b.2sr -

Ars : 1.730 x 10 + 2.115 x l0 1.730 x 10':

Aro = 1.730 x 10 2+5.665 x 10 r = 1.730 x 10'?
(1.288 + 1.546)(10-1
x l0 I
(4.875) = 6.908

+ ) /\
s8 : (1.546 L689)(10 e.625) : 4.246 x r0-l p'\21
= lA'+ A'.
lr-,

s, : (1 689 + L457Xl0r)
e.2zg) = 3.506 x r0 I r,. : (ry, : 3.s74
" ro ,
)(7.58)
8.111 x 10 1
+ 3.349 x 10
+ 10-) (6.646) P,. :
Sro =
(1.457 3.671)( : 1.704 x 10 r ( t ( 10.874)

.262 x l0-2
Sr 9!\?9(8.00) : 3.113 x ro l
r
t,,\.349 x10r + 4.575 x l0 1 (3.046)

s,, =
(4 112 + t258xl0 ) (s.37s) : z.z4g x 1.o l
r , I
: 1.207 x l0 r
234 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Pr.:( 4.575 x l0-3 + 6.732 x 10-

(s.00) Pr:( L730 x l0-2 + 1.730 x 10
_n
, , -) (6.s0)
: 2.827 x 10-2 : 1.125 x l0-,
P,r:( 6.7 32 x t0-3 + 8.981 x 10
_d
730 x 10-, + 1.730 x l0-
, J
15 175I
r , (2.958)

= 4.223 v l0-z : 5.117 x l0 ']

P'':( 8.981 .v l0-r + 1.209 x 10
(8.00) p16: x l0 3 ft : y(16) : 0.037 in.
3.074
, tt5 : x 10-3 + 2.262 x t0-2
3.074
: x 10-2 ft : Y(15) : 9.39t n.
2.569
:8 .428 x 1Q-2 pro : x 10'? + 1.207 x I0
2.569 2

: x l0-2 ft : V(t4y = 9.45, .r.

3.776
P'r=( 1.379 x l0-1 + 1.414 x l0- (6.646) pB : 3.'176 x l0-2 + 2.827 x l0-2
, : 6.603 x 16-z 1 : y(13) : 0..792 in.
az = 6.603 x 10'? + 4.223 x 10 2

= 9.281 x lO-'z : 1.083 x l0-rfr : y(12) : 1.399 1r.

p11 : 1.083 x l0-r + 8.428 x 10
1.414 x l0-z + 1.457 x 10- '
: 1.925 x 10 ! ft : y(11) : 2.310
P":( (2.229) in.
T p.6 : 1.925 x l0-r + 9.281 x l0-2
: 2.854 x 10 ' ft : y(10) : 3.425 'n.
3.2(
.200 10 2
: 2.854 x 10-r + 3.200 x l0-2
: 3.174 x 10-' ft : y(9) : 3.809 in.
Pr:( .457 X 10, + 1.526
'r.4 x l0
, (2.62s) = 3.174 x l0-r + 3.915 x l0 2

: 3.565 x 10-'ft: y(8) : 4.278 in.

: : 3.565 x l0-r + 7.593 x 10 ,
1.915 x 10-2
: 4.324 x 10 I ft : y(7) : 5.189 in.
xl0, : 4.324 x 10-r + 8.807 x l0-2
Pr:( 1.526 + 1.589 x l0 -i (.4.87 : 5.205 x 10-r ft = y(6) : 6.246 tn.
5)
, ) : 5.205 x 10-r + 2.283 x 10 '
: : 7.488 x l0-r ft : Y(5) : 8.986 in.
7.593 x l0 2
: 7.488 x lO-t + 2.246 x 10 |
1.589 x l0 ' + 1.688 x l0-
: 9.734 x l0 rft: y(4) = 11.681 in.
P.:l
'\ , (5.37s) F3
: 9.734 x 10-r + 8.650 x 10-2
: 1.060 x l0-'ft : y(3) : 12.720 in.
x
: 1.060 + 1.125 x l0 I
8.807 10-' : r.r72 ft : y(2) : 14.064 ir'.
Pl : 1.172 + 5.117 x l0
,
Pr:( /r.osa x ro t + 1.726 x. 10 -,\
: r.224ft: y(1) : 14.683 in.
(r3.37 s)
, )

= 2.283 x l0 |

_n
P":( |.726 x. t0 2
+ 1.730 x 10
( 13.00) Section weights and displacements for computing the
, ) tower's period of vibration are listed in Table 4-18.
The first period of vibration, T, is determined as fol-
: 2.246 x l0-1 lows:
x ,\ l0-
,=r"\E
1.730 10-, + 1.730
P,:(
t (s.00)
(4-98)
: 8.650 > l0-2 leDwv
 --__-4
- The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels

Table 4-18
Tower Vibration Def lections
Dellection
Section y (in.) w (lb) wy (in.lb) Wy' (lb-in.'?)
14.683 423 6.2 r0.909 91.194.771
14.064 1,391 t9 ,563 .024 5,134.3'70
2'7

12.720 13,387 170,282.640 2,165,995. r 81

11.681 9l I I1,575.871 t35,217 .749
8.986 12.812 t15,128.632 I,034,545.887
6.246 1,809 fi,299.0r4 70,5'73.64r
e 5. 189 4.271 22,162.219 rr4,999.754
4.278 3,98'7 .096 t] .056.797
3.809 1,516 5 ,774.444 2r ,994.85',/
1 3.425 381 | ,304.925 4,469 .368
2.310 s )sR 12,145.980 28,057.214
1 .300 1.857 2.414.100 3,138.330
0.792 2.634 2.086.128 1,652.213
0.453 3.O22 1.368.966 62Q.142
0.308 | )s? 385.924 l 18.865
0.037 20,493 439.523 16.262

D*, = 3l6,t2s:ss D*r,:3.g64,78s.40.

The second critical wind velocity, V2, is

: 1.024 sec/cycle
(386.4)(386,129.39s) Yz = 6.25 Vr : 65.163 mph

From Equation 4-94a and Table 4-13 we have

f : l/T : 0.976 Hz = 0.981 Hz : the initial assumed
value F, : 0.00086(0.6x60)(4.583)(104.292)(10.37 r,
= 1,592.930 lb
To determine if we have a problem with vortex-induced
Considering the upper third of the tower as being the vibrations, we must compare the force amplitude of
effective length for vortex shedding the first critical 1,592.93 lb against the corresponding maximum wind
wind velocity is as follows: force amplitude for the same region (either top l/r or r/+
of tower-in this case, the top r/:). Using Figure 4-39 we
T_ 104.292 : 34.764 ft - d have the following:
3
L: 34.764 ft, from above
54.00 + 1.00
: 4.583 ft
t2 1M.292 tt-34.764 ft : 69.528 ft

3.40 d (3.40)(4.s83) ft n. = al 716x15 659) 61 547 lb/trl

T se:
1.024 /60 srr\o 286

cycle o" ,= 1l.726) l"-^^"^-"I (66.048)

fi \900/
: 10.375 mph
sec 9" r : 54.808 lb/ft2
 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

_ (34.7 64)l(7)(6r. +
s47) (2)(54.8o8)l
:2,087.559 . Finally, if the Reynolds number is greater than approx-
(2+7) imately 350,000, a vibration analysis is not required, be-
cause in these regions the vortices break-up. In our case.
/r rr nn\
F= t2087.559r l'-;;""1 (0.6) = l? )55 000 rh-
\ rz I Nn" _ DcVp

or
where D. : effective wind diameter at top r/: or r/+ o:
F*,0 : 13,256 lbr > 1,608.56 lbr : F" tower : 127.0 in.
critical wind velocity = 15.292 ft/sec
Since F*;"6 ) F,iu.",ion, the wind stresses are greater 0.071 lb./fc
lhan those at resonance vibrarion, so no further vi6ration 1.285 x l0 5lb-/ft-sec
analysis is required.
If the vibration amplitude force had been greater than /rzzoo\ "f fi tts.292t /n\ rh
the maximum wind force, further investigation would lj:i--:,
\ Lz " I l:' lrO.Orr,)
\sec/
l
have been required. Dynamic stresses ar the-crirical wind
N"" : 11-
: 894,215
velocity can be approximated by taking the ratio of the (1.285 x 1o-1 ;lb.
It-sec
vibration force amplitude, F", to the maximum wind
force amplitude, F1,, and multiplying this ratio by the
bending stress term in Equation 4-29. The pressure Since N*" : 894,215 > 350,000, a vibration analvsis is
stress, which is a primary stress, and the weight load not required since we are outside rhe range of vortex for-
stress in tension are unaffected. Shear is not considered matron.
in the equation because it is almost always negligible. Vortex formation has been observed at NRe > 3.5 x
Defining the ratio of vibration force amplitude to the 106, but wind velocities encountered would not cause
maximum wind force amplitude as R. Equirion 4-29 be- Reynolds numbers that high.
comes

Equivalent Diameter Approach versus

oD: t(?J--[**"un#.J ANS|-A58.t-1982
In determining wind loadings in this example we used
.l 2w \
= \",rO. +
the formulation to compute wind forces:
DD7
p: q.CC,A, (4-81 r

where oo = dynamic stress, psi

oD < static allowable stress
Staley and Graven [15] state rhar when dynamic
stresses are combined with axial compressive stress. the
result can be compared to the allowabie sutic srress. The
same is generally true for tension, but one must be cog-
nizant of discontinuity stresses at the locations or irregi-
lar changes of geometry, such as welds. The latter can be
avoided by using stiffening rings. Certainly a more accu-
rate and detailed analysis, such as the octahedral shear
stress theory of yield, can be used, but such a detailed
analysis can be avoided in most tower designs. A de-
tailed fatigue analysis is mandatory in many aipplicarions
and should always be used in case of doubt. Weaver [24]
discovered in wind-tunnel tests that vortex sheddins can-
not prebently be analyzed as a response spectra beiause
of its random nature and unpredictable motion.
This
greatly complicates the study of vortex excitation by use
of finite element methods, but efforts are being made.
in which Ae is computed using the total width of the
tower, insulation, ladders, platforms, and attached pip-
ing as an equivalent or effective diameter of a cylinber.
called the effective or equivalent cylinder. This iquiva-
lent cylinder represents the total wind area. Suih an
analysis is called a quasi-analysis, because it is not exact.
The equivalent cylinder concept used for conical sections
is similar when compared to the exact analysis of a cone.
The ANSI-AS8.1-1982 uses a more refined and
equally complex analysis to determine the wind load-
ings. The relationship used for wind force is as follows:
F: q7G2CrA61 + qzcciArr
where G2 : gust response factor for cladding and compo,
nents calculated at heisht Z
Acr = area of insulation tclaJdingt of tower. and al.
external attachments such as platforms. lad
ders. and piping rhat resist wind
416 : area of the tower shell itself that resists winc
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels

The term G7 is given in Table 8 of ANSI-A5S.1-1982 where G21u"ry = average value of G7 across the height of the
rhat is determined by the following expressions: tower.

Gz : 0.65 + 3.65 Tz Also, rarely is y as great as 0.5, making the inequality

above more credible.
-L1 :-
2.35 (D")os After applying the real numbers for several cases, it is
(z/3o1tt" seen that the equivalent diameter method using the
ANSI-A58.1-1982 gust factor for flexible structures,
For category A, G, is more conservative than the ANSI method of using
the two gust response factors G2 and G. Thus, being
D" = 0.025,o:3.0,2e = 1,500 more conservative than ANSI A58.1 1982, one meets
the minimum requirements ofthe standard, as it is stated
For category B, in the title, "minimum design loads for buildings and
: q - 4.5.22: other structures." Certainly, using the formula for lattice
D. 0.010, 1,200
structures, Equation 4-83, is a conservative approach.
For category C,
For designing a tower without a computer software
package, the equivalent diameter method is recom-
D" = 0.005, a :7.0,2e: 9OQ mended. In such a design, one is faced with numerous
calculations, which leads to a greater possibility of error.
For category D, Also, the use of two gust factors with one varying in
height adds considerable complexity to the problem.
D. : 0.003,q : 10.0, ze = 700 When using a high-speed electronic computer the use of
two gust factors would be a very good method to use,
G2, which is used for cladding and components, varies although cumbersome to verify. Certainly, some could
with height and is a parabolic distribution. The term G is argue that with less conservatism a cheaper vessel is pro-
used with the tower shell and only is constant along the duced. Such a consideration must be analyzed in each
height of the tower. separate circumstance. For some, the additional man-
Comparing the two methods we set Equation 4-81 hours may offset the economics of the vessel or time may
equal to the comparable expression given by ANSI- be the ruling criterion.
A58.1-1982.

F - q/GC,A, - q7G7C,A, r qrCc,e,

EXAMPLE 4.3: SEISMIC ANALYSIS OF A
VERTICAL TOWER

A client has a vertical tower that is to be moved from a

We now define the following variables: Dlant in Jackass Flats. Nevada to a location northeast of
Los Angeles, California. The vessel must be analyzed
Acr . Arr for seismic zone 4 to determine if it can be moved. This
Ar Ar result is to be compared to a wind analysis for an 80-mph
wind.
from which
qzcCA:q2C,A1(xQ.+yG) Seismic Analysis
G-xGzayG V= ZIKCSW (4- 106)
G1t -y; > xc'

Now, for many, if not almost all cases, For zone 4,2 : t,I = 1, K : 2.0, W : 15,571 lb
Since the tower is not of uniform thickness, equation
c>G, 4-108 cannot be used. Either the Rayleigh equation
(Equation 4-97) or a modified form of the Rayleigh
This is certainly true as one moves up the tower in com- Equation, the Mitchell Equation (Equation 4-112), can
puting Gz. It can be safely said that only be used. For illustration purposes the Mitchell
Equation will be applied and then compared to the more
G ) Gau,er accurate Rayleigh method.
238 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Using values in Table 4-15 we determine the values to Solving for V we have
be used in Equation 4-112. Connecting piping exerts a
concentrated load o12.7 kips at the support point mid- v: (1)(1X2.0X0.078X1.434X1s,571) : 3,484.0 lb
way in Secrion @-@. using the values in Table 4-15 we
construct Table 4-19, Using Equation 4-114 to find F,, we have the following:

where A = !twa" + *Btt; h72 : 36 + Fr = 0.15V

D2
n: Ee(,f,)'.a, Fr : (0.15)(3,484.0) : s22.60

Using Table 4-18 we have From Equation 4-115 we obtain

111 \2
F- : (V - Ft) -YYhY : 13.484 - 522.60)
w)hv
: 0.673 sec/cycle 515,380
u00/ D*'*"
i=
I
Using the more accurate Rayleigh method, Equation
4-97 , the value of T is : 0.0057 wr,hy

T : 0.734 sec/cycle

in which the Mitchell Equation is in 8.3 % error (which is To solve this equation we must set up the table shown
quite normal). For application ofthe Rayleigh Equation in Thble 4-20. After determining the values for W, h",
see Examples 4-2 and,4-4. W)h). F,- and V, we solve for the seismic moments using
Now, we must solve for the bending moments induced Eouation 4-116:
by the seismic forces. First we find the base shear using
Equation 4-106. To accomplish this we have the follow- M- Vxi Ly_r + Fx Ci Dt
rng: M, - (0.30)(5.083) + (0.49)Q.s42) : 2.770 2.'770
M3 : (0.49)(7.50) + (1.19X3.75) : 8.138 10.908
1""'r l:125 Ma : (1.68)(5.417) + (0.18X2.708) = 9.s88 20.496
(r.i" - l.U
= 1.t25 < t.5... K - 2.0 M5 : (1.86X2.00) + (0.09x1.00) = 3.810 24.306
M6 = (1.95X8.00) + (0.28)(4.00) = 16.72o 4r.026
M7 : (2.23X4.00) + (0.16)(2.00) : 9.240 50.266
Flexibility facror = C: -]- = O.OZA Ms : (2.39X10.00) + (0.32)(s.00) : 25.sm 75.766
15(l1tr': M, : (2.71X10.00) + (0.22X5.00) 28.200 : 103.966
M16 : (2.93)(9.083) + (0.23)(4.542) 27.658 : 13r.624
The characteristic site period, T,, is determined by a Mrr : (3.16)(8.00) + (0.10X4.00) 25.680: rs7.304
soils consultant to fall within the following range: M12: (3.26)(2.917) + (0.01)(1.458) 9.524 : 166.828

0.5<T.<0.55
To be safe, we will use the lower value of 0.5. Now,
The wind moment for an 80-mph wind was calculated
T O ?14 ro be 106,716 ft-lb. Since 166,828 ft-lb > 106,716 ft-lb
_l s - ;;u.)u = 1.468 > 1.0 in which Equation 4-tl3b seismic phenomena govern.
The skirt and base plate analysis is identical for seis-
applies. Thus, we have mic and wind analyses. Just as in Example 4-2, the seis-
mic forces and moments are used instead of the wind
forces and moments. In the case of this tower a thicker
: + 0.6 El El'
\TJ-
S 1.2 0.. base plate was welded on, the number of gusset plates
\TJ
were doubled, and anchor bolts of a high strength alloy
S: 1.2 +0.6(1.468) - 0.3(1.468f were used to meet the seismic criteria. In an earthquake
zone other than zero, a comparison of seismic to wind
s: 1.434 should always be made.
 t
-
The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels

Table 4-19
Numeric Integraiion ol Period
ot Vibralion, T sec/cycle
whv Aa P WAa +
E l9l'to"
kipsfft H
WAB/H
u0i

1 .00 2.103 1.000 1.000

0.091 0.597 0.054

0.923 1.506 1.000 1.000

2.'7 0.878 o.567 5.840 o.219

0.079 0.045
0.820 0.939 1.000 1.000

0.100 0.329 0.033 1.234 x 10-6

o."t45 0.610 0.998 0.998

0.t42 0.067 0.010 9.541 x l0 5

0.1r7 0.543 0.997 0.997

0.125 o.278 0.035 0.0010

0.607 0.265 0.986 0.986

0.161 0.097 0.016 0.0015

0.552 0. 168 0.973 0.973

0. 161 0.r24 0.020 0.0080

o.414 0.0,14 0.904 0.904

0.155 0.037 0.006 0.021 1

0.276 0.007 o.763 0.763

0.285 0.007 0.002 0.0649

0. 151 0,0004 0.504 0.504

0.3t2 0.0004 0.0001 0.1175

0.040 0.160 0.160

0.380 0.0412
0.000
A:0.,140 B:0.261
240 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Table 4-20
Wind Load Distribution
x"'o-ri. Lzt ztttp w\-r
kips !r w,h, Fx v, *,1-u *,oTi
72 ffi
+
\: 0.49 2.770 2.770
3.289 63.2 207 .86 l. l9
+ .': 1.68 8.138 10.908
0.542 56.7 30.73 0. 18
-\3
1.86 9.588 20.496
+ ->s,* i 0.284 53.0 15.05 0.09

+ +2s.k-
1.0 48.0 48.00 0.28
1.95 3.810 24.306

+ 1.0' -l
0.645 42.0 27 .09 0.16
2.23 16.720 41.026

/: 2.39 9.240 41.026

+ --> rsr ..: '+
G
1.613 15.0 56.46 0.32
2.7 1 2s.500 15.766
1.550 25.0 38.75 0.22

+ $ 2.581 15.5 40.01 0.23

2.93 28.200 103.966

3.16 27 .658 131.624

€ 2.493 '7
.O 17 .45 0.10

+ $
1.109 1.5 l .66 0.01
3.26 25.680
9.524
157.304
166.828
15.571 5 15.38 3.270 3.27

+
@

-+

+ o
5l
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 241

EXAMPLE 4-4: VIBRATION ANALYSIS FOR D. = 54.25 in. = 4.521 ft

TOWER WITH LARGE VORTEX-INDUCED
DISPLACEMENTS Zone 6-Section 2

A phone call from a plant manager reveals that an ex- D" : [24.50 in. + 2(4.5) in.] + [3.50 in, + 2(4) in.]
isting tower needs to be analyzed for wind vibrations.
The tower was designed, built and installed overseas and D. : 33.50 in. + 11.50 in.
is vibrating so badly all the natives drove off the plant
site in fear of the tower falling over. D" = 45.00 in. = 3.75 ft
The tower with the appropriate wind load distribution
Zone 7-Section I
is shown in Figure 4-44. The tower is divided into wind
zones at 30 ft,40 ft, and 75 ft and according to shell di-
ameter and thickless. The variation of wind zones based D. : 136.625 in. + 2(4.5) in.l + [6.625 in. + 2(5) in.]
on the shell diameter and thickoess is necessary since the + [3.50 in. + 2(4.5) in.] + [6.625 in. + 2(5) in.]
tower's section moment of inertia will vary.
To begin the analysis we start with defining the effec-
D" = 46.625 in. + 16.625 in. + 12.50 in. + 16.625 in.
tive diameter of each section as illustrated in Figure 4- D. = 104.875 in. : 8.740 ft
45. Thus we have the following:

Zone 1-Sections 7. 8. and 9

Moments of Inertia
D" : [32 in. + 2 (4) in.] + [6.625 in. + 2(3.5) in.]
+ [2.375 in. + 2(3.0) in.] + [4.5 in. + 2(3) in.] r:#(D".-Di)
D" = 40.00 + 13.625 + 8.375 + 10.50

D" : 72.5 in. : 6.042 ft

\ : hl36.62s)4 - (36.000)41 = 5,876.389 in.a

Zone 2-Section 6 : 0.283 fta

Transition Piece-Section 2
De:[32in.+8in.] + 14.5 in. I 2(2) in.l 48.5 in.
: 4.042 ft
Referring to Figure 4-45,
Zone 3-Section 5

5" : [25.25 in. + 2(2.5) in.] + [4.5 in. + 2(2.5) in.] ,"r:( 18.375 + 12.375
+ [3.5 in. + 2(3.5) in.] 2 cos 26.565'

D" = 30.25 in. + 9.50 in. * 10.50 in. req 17. 190 + D.q = 34.380 in

D" : 50.25 in. = 4.l88ft r, =

#(34.380)4 -
(33.630)11

Zone 4-Section 4
Iz : 5791.250 in.a : 0.279 fta
D" : 25.25 in. + 2(2.5) in. = 30.25 in.
\ : 1, - : r,400.ri2 in.a
D" :
Kz4.sq4 e4.00)11
2.521 ft

Zone 5-Section 3 : 0.068 fc

9" = 125.25 in. + 2(4.5) in.l + [4.5 in. + 2(2.5) in.] + \ = L64Kz4.i5)o - (24.00)11 = 2,133.181 in.a
[3.5 in. + 2(3.5) in.]

D" : 34.25 in. + 9.50 in. * 10.50 in. - 0.103 fta

Mechanical Design of Process Systems

l\'
* "; %: *,*
".". ' '"*

T(

Figure 4-44. Tower wind ensemble.

 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure ry'essels

Wind Moment Calculations

Sections I and 2

M2 : es8.4zs) (#. tr.r) * o,uno.rrrr(U)

+ 4,450
Mz: lL,99O.762 + 18,158.661 + 4,450.00
Mz : 34'599.423 ft-lb

Figure 445. Tfalsition piece of section 2 of Figarc 444. Sections 2 and 3

M3 = (788.425)(15.2W + 17.0O) + Q,690.r72)(6.75

+ 17.00) + 4,450 + (1,453.50) ht\

tt
M: : 25,394.381 + 63,891.585 + 4,450 + 12,354.75
M: = 106,090.716 ft-lb

I. : 1g- [(25.ooy - (24.00)41 : 2,888.744 in.a Section 3 and 4

: 0.139 fll lvl4 = (788.425)(32.209 + 10.00)

+ (2,690.172)Q3.75 + 10.00)
u.= fir<zs.zsf - @4.oof1 : 3,667.316 in.a rroi
+ (1,453.s0X10.00) + Q21.5s2\lrl
= 0,177 tr
+ (268.541(+)
Section 7
Referring to Figure 446

-'* =- lrs.as + n.azs\ :14.174in.

_ ," ,
\-ffi/
+ D.e = 28.348 in.

y : f,11zt.z+ty4 - (27.72141

b: 2,704.843 in.a : 0.130 fll

I8 = #rc2.00)4 - (30.00F1 = r1,i1r.wzin.a

= 0.565 fll

r, : fftfrz.oof - eo.6zr4l : 8,2e2.684n.a

= 0.2t00 ff Figure 4-46, Section 7 of Figure 4-44.

 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Mt:33,278.631 + 90,793.305 + 4,450 + 14,535.00 Sections 7 and 8

+ 3,607 .76 + 402.821
Mq = 147 ,067 .517 ft-lb M8 : (788.425X67.292 +8) + (2,690.172X68.833 + 8)
+ 4,4s0 + (1,453.50X35.083 + 8)
Sections 4 and 5 + (721.552)(30.083 + 8) + (268 .547)(26.583 + 8)
+ (349.41 l)(21.083 + 8)
+ (39.328Xr7.583 + 8) + (522.662)(4.542 + 8)
M5 : (788.425X42.2o9 + B.O) + (2,690.172)(43.7 s
+ 8.0) + 4,450 + (1,453.50x10 + 8.0) /n\
+ (721.552)(5 + 8) + 17s4.042t l:l
\zl

+ (268.547x1.5
- 8) - (J4s.41) l:l Mr = 59,362.095 + 206,693.985 + 4,450 + 62,621.t41
\21 + 27,478.86s + 9,287.16r + 10,161.920
+ 1,006.128 + 6,555.227 + 3,016.168
+ (3e.328) lll
\zl Ma = 390,632.690 ftib
M: : 39,586.031 + 139,216.401 + 4,450 Sections 8 and 9
+ 26,163.00 + 9,380.176
+ 2,551.197 + 1,397.&4 + 19.664 :
Me Q 88.425)(75.292 + 2.9 17) + Q,690.r72)(.1 6.833
M5 = 222,7&.113 ft-Ib + ).:917) + 4,450 + (1,453.50)(43.083 + 2.9t7)
+ (721.5s2x38.083 + 2.9t7) + Q68.547)(34.583
Section 5 and 6
+ 2.9t7) + (349.41r)(29.083 + 2.917)
+ (39.328)(25.583 + 2.917)
+ (522.662)(r2.sQ + 2.917)
M6 : (788.425)(50.209 + 8.0) + (2,690.172)(5r.75
+ 8.0) + 4,450 + (1,453.50)(18.0 + 8.0) -, 17s4.042\A + 2.gt.l,) + ,Zt+.OOr(2.717\
+ (72r.5s2)(13 + 8) + (268.547X9.5 + 8) \z I
+ (349.411)(4 + 8) + (39.328X0.5 + 8)
Ms : 61,661.931 + 214,541.217 + 4,450 + 66,861.00
/^\ + 29,583.632 + 10,070.513 + 11,181.152
+ rs22.662t lll + 1,120.848 + 8,079.832 + 5,215.709
\21 + 401.003
Mo : 45,893.431 + 160,737.'177 + 4,450
+ 37,79r.00 + t5,152.592 + 4,699.573 Ms = 413,166.837 ft-lb
+ 4,192.932 + 334.288 + 2,090.648
M6 = 2'7Q,892.241 ft-lb

Sections 6 and 7 Wind Deflections

M? : (788.425Xs8.209 + 9.083) + (2,690.r'12)(59.75

'
1B), [r:.+ZS.:SZtr r:) , +,+sOl
+ 9.083) + 4,450 + (1,453.50)(26.0 + 9.083) t4.176 x t0"x0.28J) [ 8 2 )
+ (721.552)(2r + 9.083) + (268.547)(17.5
+ 9.083) + (349.411X12 + 9.083) : 0.00113 ft

r 9.083) + rszz.ooz, (9 983) _ (17)' l{2,+tt.serot .o)

- {3e.328X8.s !z (4.r76 \ l0)(0.068) t3
\z I
Mz : 53,054.695 + 185,172.609 + 4,450 + 50,993.141 (r,4s3.5_0)(17.0)
+ 2t,706.449 + 7,138.785 + 7,366.632 + +34,s2s.42]: 0.04081 ft
+ 691.504 + 2,373.669
821
: Y:: Ar?6t-To"xorort
(10F
l1+,vzz.ost11ro1
M7 332,94'1 .484 ft-lb :
E
The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 245

(99o.o99xro)
*,
ff _ _.-l:
106,090.721 _ 001658 fr r, 'T ".. ,., . "l = 0.t3055 rt
622.662t8t+ 222.764.1131 .

(sf ks,szz.rso)(s)
-'6 -
(56.50X9.083) ft6.833.596)(9.081)
(4J?6 x t06x0x9)t 3 14.176 x t0\0260)t 2

(388,738)(8) t+'t.OOt.SZ]
+
8 *' 2 l-= 0.00989 ri +
(572 730x9 083)
+ 2io.8s2.z41f = 0.143 ft
6l
(8f ko,:ro.s:+Xs)
Af?6 x ro)(oJ??)-t 3 (71.583X8) ft2,+oo.rz r'11r;
(4.176 x 10)(0.565) Lz
+ t522.66UG)
*' Zzz.lo+.tnl
8 2 = 0.0r I 15 ri
)- +(7s4'y2)(8) + n2,s4i.481: 0-09071 rt
6l
-'* - 17 )
3.58r(2.g t67 [rS. rOO.:OStrZ.l rOrr
(4.176 x 10)(0.260) 1+, tuo x to"1o,+ogt 2

+
(572.730)(9.033)
+270,8s2.24rf : 0.012 ft * 121!!!)t2!tfr)+
6) J90.632.691 = 0.05r74 ft
82j
(8), 6 : total deflection at top of vessel
[tr.+oo. rzox
t' - ,aJ6 v 1g\05sr[ a r

: \-
.l 2y, + \- LtA, I

: 0.743 ft
(7s4.042)(8) 332,s47.481 :
+
821 + 0.00507 ft
: 8.910 in. at top for static gust wind
(2.gt667tt [rt. roo.:os x z.r reor I
18 - t+.tzo x ronxo,+oott :
Referring to Figure 4-47 , we determine

t274.u2\2.st667, * 39!.632.69] Mr :0
- 821 = 0.00201 ft

(13.5)(l7) M, : (4.71)(6.961) : 32.786 kip-ft

[tf.+la.sertr t r r
-" - (4.176-,. looxol68)t z Mz : 32.786 + (4.823)(8.789) : 75.u5 kip-ft

(1'453 50)(17) M4 : 75.175 + (7.533X13.25) : 174.987 kip-ft

+
6l * ro.rnn.or]: 0.05519 ft
Ms = L'74.987 + (10.013X9.00) : 265.104 kip-ft
(30.50Xr0) ft+.erz.owxror
' \4.176 x 10"x0.103)[ 2 M6 : 265.104 + (12.023)(8.00) = 361.288 kip-ft

Mi : 361.288 + (14.253X8.862) : 487.598 kip-ft

, (990'0?9x t0)
+ 106.090.721 : 0.07709 rr
6l Mr : 487.598 + (ri.693)(8.221) : 633.032 kip-ft
(40.50)(8) [rs.lzz. rvolr
Ms : 633.032 + (21.233)(5.458) : 748.922 l<tp-tt
r

't + - ,4. x to\rn t rorl Z

17,6,

Mrc : 748.922 + (23.143)(1.458) = 782.664 ktp-tt

-, --- 6
{388.738x8)
+, l+/,uo
, ,,
".1.s2l = 0.09560 fr T:M/I
I
(48.s0x8) ft6.310.934)(8) Mt 32'786 :
' (4.176 x t0')(0.177)[ 2
T,
'' = tz - rv.5t2.54
0.279
246 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

T^ :M.: 75,t75 _
I,105,514.71
I3 0.068

:Mo: 17 4,987 _
T4 1,698,902.91
r4 0.103

M'= 265,104 _
= I5 0.139
|,907 ,223.02

:Mu= 361,288 _
T6 2 ,041 ,r7 5 .14
I6 o.t77

T- :Mr: 487598 _
3,7 50,7 53.85

-q-
11 0.130
---->4.71k
:Mt= 633,032 _
T8 | ,r20 ,4r0 .62
Is 0.565

'748,922
:M,: _ 1,872,305.00

-------e Ie 0.400

782,@
Tro =M'o=
Ie n /An - 1,956,660.00

s. = M dx/I
--r.2.71k +
Sro
_ (1,956,660.00 1,872,305.00)
(1.458)
------€)
----------->2 .48x :2,791,315.49

(1,872,305.00 + t,r20,410.62)
(5.458)
2.01k 2

------e
-> 8,167 ,120.93

2,23k ^"2 (1.120.410.62 +

3.750.753.85)
\'-_:___:__________________:__________rv,,,r ^ ^^"

-> :20,022,921.55
-------€
_ (.3,75O,7s3.8s + 2,041,175.r4)
(8.862)
S7
344k

-----e
--> : ,5 664 017

(2,O41,175.14
15

+
-----l3.54K Sr: 2
1,90',1 ,223.O2) (8.00)

(s) 15 ,793 ,592 .64

' \-"/
----------> 1.91x
_ (1 ,907 ,223 .02 + | ,698 ,902 .9r)
(9.00)
(;\ S5
2

Figwe 4-47. Tower vibration ensemble. : 16,227,566.69

t
The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure ry'essels

Sr: (1,698,902.91 + 1,105,514.71)

(13.25) . _
lE_----_-2-
(10,958,436.42 + 30,98r,357.9't)
2
$.22t)
18 ,579 ,266 .73 = 172,393,524.9

(1,105,514.71 + ^ (30.981.357.97 + s6.&5.39:.32)

$= lr7,512.54)
(8.789) rt = --------------T- $.862)
2
5,374,593.25 :388,274,143.9

(117,512.54\
Po: (56,645,395.32 + 72,438,9U .96)
Sz: 6.961\
2
(8.00)
a
Q9,002.40 516,337 ,533.2

(72,438,987 .96 + 88,666,554.65)

Ps:
e, = Ds, = 1M1 dx)/! 724,974,941.7
2,791,315.49
_ (88,666,554.65 + 107.245,821.4) ,,...,
P4 lr5'zJ)
2,791,315.49 + 8,t67,120.93 z -
10,958,436.42 : 1 ,297 ,919,492
10,958,436.42 + 20,022,921.55 (to7,245,821.4 + t2,620,4t4.7)
30,98r,357 .97 P:: 1
(8.789)
2
30,981,357 .97 + 25,ffi4,037.35 966,202,r7 5.0
56,&5,395,32

Pz=
(112,620,414.7 + 113,029,417.1)
56,&5,395.32 + 15,793,592.&
2
(6.961)
72,438,987.96
785,374,239.6
72,438,987 .96 + 16,227 ,566.69
88,666,554.65

88,666,554.65 + 18,579,266.73
: 2,034,868.99
rc7,245,82t.4 ttto

tu,245,821.4 + 5,37 4,593.25 w : 2,034,868.99 + 37,523,072.96

112,620,414.7 = 39,557 ,941 .95

lL2,620,414.7 + 409,002.40
ps : 39,557,941.95 + 172,393,524.9
rt3,o29,4r7.r = 211,951,466.9

pt : 211,951,466.9 + 388,274,143.9
: @0,225,61O.8

o=(*, )u t4 =
:
ffi0,225,610.8 + 516,337,533.2
|,116,563,144

Pro: 2.79t.315.49.- ,_^.

---:---------:- | l -4)x) t'.s : |,116,563,144 + 724,974,941.7
: 1,841,538,086
2,O34,868.99
lt4 = 1,841,538,086 + 1,297,919,492
Q,79r,3r5.49 + 10,958,436.42) : 3,139,457,578
458)
14 = 3,139,457,578 + 966,202,175.0
37 ,523 ,U2 .96 = 4,1O5,659,753
248 Mechanical Design of process Systems

p2 : 4,105,659,753 + 785,374,239.6 t:0]1'868

: 4,891,033,993 r,,: (4.32 x l0r)
li :4.it0x r0 aft = 0.006in.

The tower section weights and displacements are com-

' l44Ei bined in Thble 4-21 to determine the period of vibration
of the tower.
4,891,033,993
Yz: : l.lJ n = lj-)v ln. First critical wind velocity, V,
144(30 x t05

4,105,659
-..T 3.40 d
,7 53
: 0.950 ft : 11.405 in.
(43' x tOt
q6
3,1,39,457 ,578
:
L= 16";-=re.24tt
(4.32 x l0e)
0.727 ft = 8.721 in.

. = (,+*) $740) +(,uaA.,r', = ,.,,,

I,841,538,086
ft :
t5 -
1bt =
0.426 5.1 15 in.

":z1
|,1t6,563,r44 :
From Equation 4-101, at resonance

(43' x iort 0.258 ft : 3.102 in.

fy : vortex shedding frequency : natural frequency

600,225,610.8 : 0.139 ft : 1.667 in. V, : fvD - to 91)(7.1221 : 34.540a

@tt]ott S U.l Sec

2rr,951,466.9 : : 23.550 mph

Y8: ft :
$8 16 0.049 0.589 in.
Considering the top portion (Section 1) we have
39,557 ,94r.95
: ft v- (o eT(lfa) L
J9-
w2t16 0.009 = 0.1l0 in.
u.z = 423s
sec
= 2E.eo mph

Table 4-21
Values for Determining Tower's Period of Vibration
Detlectlon
1_!:-! w
13.59 4.7 r0 64.008.90 869.880.95
1.289.33 14.711.26
8.72 710 23.63t .20 064.06
5.r2 2,480 .60 65.01 l.7 t
3. l0 2,010 6.231 .00 19.316.10
1.67 2,230 3.724.10 6.219.25
0.59 3.444 2,029.60 1.197 .46
0.11 1 54n 389.40
0.01 1.9i0 19.10 0.19
Dtr : 114,02s.23 Dwy, = r,182.443.81
First Period of Vibration, T
ILwy' i 11. t82.441.8r)
r = z,r \/etrwv = zr 1/(386.4X114,020.23, = 1.03 sec/cycle of= O.9j Hz
tou J t
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels

Since the field measurements indicated an air velocity

at resonance to be 30 mph and a stack deflection of 13
2 r\36)\'l 2 )z _ o,12r'lst.zq _ 15l.2ar1l
inches, this analysis agrees with empirical results. From 2 | l(361 j
the calculations for the first critical wind velocity, it ap-
pears that the larger diameter of Section t has a larger = 59.948.76 trl.3 = 259.52 gal in one head
influence on this deflection. For this reason we use the From Equation A-1 in Appendix A the partial volume of
top I/+ of the tower rather than the top 1/:. Now, liquid in the cylindrical portion is calculated.
Y1 : 6.25; Vr : (6.25)(28.90) : 180.63 mph
., (72)2(150)(l2t lott+0.+St ^ --l
A tower that has been fabricated and installed in the 2 L 180 I
field is beyond design changes. Unlike stacks (see Chap- : 9,351 ,647 .46 in.3
ter 5), vortex strakes are difficult to install on many tow-
ers and impossible on others. Shortening the tower
height is impractical, since the tower's internals are nec-
= 40,483.32 gal
essary (unlike a stack). Consequently, the only resolu- Total fluid volume above Section A-B is
tion is to mount guy wires to the tower's upper section
(normally 2/3 the height). Except for special applications, Y: 4O,483.32 gaI + 2(259.52) gal = 4t,002.36 gal
guy wires are to be avoided in practice. They use a lot of : 5,481.22 ft3
space and plant maintenance people sometimes must
temporarily remove one or two to gain access to an area
The total fluid weight is then
for equipment installation or some other reason. Prob-
lems then may arise in keeping the tower from falling
over during this temporary time interval, remembering Wres Wrco = t5-48t.22t fr' tOZ.qt Ib, rr .+r
to reconnect the guy wire(s), and making sure the wires
are properly tensioned once they are reconnected. De- : 478,839.22 tb
spite these disadvantages, guy wires were essential in
this application. Metal Weight Above Each Section, A-B and C-D
For outside surlace on h.ud, thuiur" V, ir,. tt'i.k,
EXAMPLE 4.5r SADDLE PLATE ANALYSTS
OF A HORIZONTAL VESSEL
2r\36 .25 )(7 2 .5 ), _
A proposed horizontal vessel design shown in Figure "<t?.r,lsr.t+ -
448 is fully loaded with corn syrup used by a confec-
tionery manufacturing plant in Fayetteville, Arkansas. : 62,434.25 in.3
The corn syrup has a specific gravity of .y = 1.4 un6 . ut
90"F. The thickness of the head and shell is t/z in. since The inside volume in the head was determined in com-
the corn syrup is at 90'F, there is practically no thermal puting the fluid volume as being 59,948.76 in3. The
expansion of the vessel, so only uniform compression is metal volume in one head is then
considered in evaluating the saddles. Even though a Zick
analysis indicates that the vessel is grossly overstressed, VM : 62,434.25 in.3 - 59,948.76 in.3 : 2,485.49 in.l
the saddle in Figure 4-48 is to be evaluated.
To analyze the saddle plate, refer to Figure 4-48 c. For two heads,
Each section of the saddle plate, A-B, B-C, C-D, is
considered separately. Each section supports a portion of Yu = 2(2,485.49) : 4,970.98 jn.3
the vessel weight indicated by the dotted lines. Sections
The metal volume in the cylinder portion above Section
A-B and C-D support equal weights.
A-B is determined as follows:
Section A-B and C-D For outside surface,

x : 4.27 ft : 51.24 in., Ri : 6.0 ft = i2rn. _ (72.5)2050)(12)

From Appendix A, Equation A-8, the fluid volume in

2 l""l;';"' - o'r]
vessel above SectionA-B is as follows: = 9,512,090.41 in.l
250 Mechanical Desisn of Process Svstems

I50 It TAN/TAN

T
lrot
I
l-
I

i\
i-8
A, f.i.,---
" i"['i"'

wi=3 46 tl
tttl
ABCD

Figure 4-48. Horizontal vessel containing corn syrup. lcl

The inside volume was determined in computing the rr AB - vvcD -

525,651.36 lb
: 262,825.68 lb : Q
fluid volume as being 9,351,647.46 in3. The metal vol-
ume in the cylinder is then
Section B-C
V: 9,512,090.41 in.3 - 9,351,647.46 in.3
: 160,442.95 ir.3 Similarly to Section A-B, for the head, the liquid vol-
ume is determined from Equation A-7 in Appendix A.
The total metal volume above Section A-B is

vM - 4,970.98 in.r + 160,442.95 in.3 : 165,413.93 in.3

r : {#[" r- -
t#l : 135,483 43 in3

The metal weight is For total volume,

v = 2(135,483.43) : 270,966.86 in.3 for one head

wy = 1r65.413.93) in.J (0.283) .lb, = 46,8t2.14 lb
rn.J For both heads,

Combining with fluid weight the total weight, v: 2(270,966.86) : 54r,933.73 in.3

W : 46,812.14 lb + 478,839 .22 lb Liquid volume for cylinder portion is

: 525,651.36 lb
v : r(72)'?(r50)(r2) in.3 - 2(9,351,647.46) in.3
For each saddle, : 10,611,534.46 in.3
{

The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure rGssels 251

The total liquid volume above Section B{ is vru : 484,029.86 in.3 + 3228.72 in.3 : 487,258.58 in.3

Vr : 10,611,534.46 in.3 + 541,933.73 in.3 The total metal weight above Section B-C is
= 11,153,468.19 in.3
-^^-..^ lb
Metal Volume Above Section B-C
Ws = (487.258.58)in.i (0.2833)
ft3

For outside surface on a single head, usin€ Equation

A-7
: 137,894.18 lb

- r(7?.s\2[rt * - tr#J :
The total liquid volume above Section B-C is
u B7,oe7.7e in.3

w,- _ (11.151,198.I?)in.r
|
(62.4) E (1.4)ftj
The inside volume was determined from calculating the rn.3
,723
liquid volume as being 135,483.43 in.3 Thus the metal : 563,869.78 lb
volume for a single head is
The total weight above Section B-C is
Yu = 137,097.43 in.3 - 135,483.43 in.3 = 1,614'35 in.3
Wr = 137,894.18 lb + 563,869.78 lb : 701,763.96 lb

For two heads, For each saddle,

Vr,,r : 2(1,614.36)n.3 : 3,228.72 in.3 701,763.96 lb

Wrc:Q: : 350,881.98 lb
The metal volume for the cylindrical portion is deter-
mined using Equation A-l and the total volume ofa cyl-
inder as follows:
Saddle Plate Buckllng Analysls
(72)z(r50X12)
rQz.0)2(15O't02')
The critical buckling stress for a plate is determined
from Equation 4-17a.

V: 19,963,181.93 in.3 for inside volume (4-r7a)

For outside volume,

_ (72.5)2(rs0)(r2) where h = + 2hG

r(72.5)?(150)(12)
2
ldi ts - 1)

I h = 0'50 in'
*f0a6.'12"\ - 0.551I
(12x3.46X0.50)
V= 20,205,196.86 in.3
(12)(3.46X0.s) + 2(0.sxls - 1)l
The metal volume is
= 0.59 in.
Vr,a =
:
20,205,196.86 in.3 - 19,963,181.93 in.3
AIso,
242,O14.93 in.3

For both sides of centerline in Figure 448 c, b.: Kt. (+1s)

h = (1.28X0.5) = 0.64 in. (use.0.597 in.)
Yu = 2Q42,014.93)in.3
: 484,029.86 in.3 Adding more length to web plate will net. increase the
local buckling strength for pure compression. The same
Combining both the cylindrlcal and head metal weights also holds for bending and shear. Substituting the value
we have of b, above into Equation 4-17a ws have
252 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

vc,_ -,-____ x- 106) :4.980.860psi

(1.28)r, (29 Horizontal Reactlon Force on Saddle
,,1, _ 1l l(3.46x l2 )1, From Equation 4-19 the horizontal reaction is
\ e/\ 0.s I
Substituting this value into Equation 4-18 we deter-
mine the buckling load for compressive loading as fol-
lows: F:Q
z- - B * sin B cos p
Fs : n(A, + 2be tJo. (4-18)

-:) 'r -f = no"

FB : (4)[7.5 + 2(0.597)(0.5) : 161,321.389 lb o= (rso =
Since 161,321.4 lb < 262,825.7 lb < 350,881.98 lb +
^
v: 2(262.825.68) 350.881.98 : 438,266.67 lb
z
we must use more stiffening plates if we are to use a
t/z-in. saddle plate.
Now

FB." : 351,000 lb : 8s,294.56 lb

The effective area resisting this force is

From Equation 4-18 we have

= (,u),. = (9 (o 5o) : 12 ss 1n,
351,000 : n[7.5 + 2(0.597X0.5)]o".
^"
This results in a stress of
351,000
n 8s,294.56 tb: _ ^-^ ^_
o= /'uJ6 60 PSr
tzttg irtl

Referring to Table 4-6, the allowable stress for A-36 is

The effective plate width normal to the web plate axis is 0.60 o, : 22,000 psi. Since 7,058.86 psi < 22,000
osi. the saddle is sufficient for the horizontal reaction.
d" : di (0.25 + 0.91\'?)

where \ = (l)[9"
\w,/ \o*i
1{OTATION

^
= (u*;)(':'-'*f': oo' dimension from saddle centerline to tansent of
head (Figure 4-2) ft, in.
w" : (3.46)(12)(0.25 + 0.91 (0.41)'?) : 16.74 1n. effective area of concrete, ft2
b plate width (Equation 4-15) in.
10.392( l2) BP bearing pressure, psi
n= = 7.449 -use E stiffeners BPW base plate thickness, in.
16.74
C constant for bolt torque (Equation 4-66), di-
l5l'ooo mensionless; friction coefficient (Equation 4-
-8=
o^, : 43.875.0 osi 89) dimensionless; structure period response
factor (Equation 4-106) dimensionless
FB = (8)[7.5 + 2(0.597X0.s)](43,875.0) CA: corrosion allowance, in.
: 2,842,W7.0 lb c.: critical damping factor (Equation 4-90), di-
mensionless
Since 2,&42,047 lb > > 351,000 lb, eight stiffeners are cs= compressive strength of concrete (Thble 4-7),
sufficient. psi
 The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels 253

D= diameter (Equation 4-27), in.; dynamic magni qF : velocity pressure of wind on structures (Equa-
fication factor (Equation 4-9 1), dimensionless tion q-i6), rcJf(
Dr : effective wind diameter (Figure 4-22), in. g:o : basic wind pressure at 30 ft, lbrift'?
D. : outside diametet in. S : Strouhal number used (Equation 4-102), di-
D, = inside diameter. in. mensionless; structure size factor (Equation 4-
E: welding joint efficiency (Table 4-2), dimen- 82)
sionless: modulus of elasticity. psi T= bolt torque as defined (Equation 4-66), in.-lb
F= wind force (Equation 4-94) Tr : exposure facior for wind (Thble 4-11), dimen-
F; : bold uplift force (Equation 4-39), lbr sionless
f. : natural frequency of a ring (Equation 4-100), t6q : compression plate thickness (Equation 4-63),
Hz in.
f, : vortex shedding frequency Equation 4-101, Hz t8 : gusset plate thickness, in.
Gr : dynamic gust response factor, dimensionless tr, : head thickness (Equation 4-7), in.
Gg = gusset plate height (Equations 4-39 and 4-63), ( : shell thickness (Equation 4-1), in.
ln. vo : theoretical ovaling velocity (Equation 4-102),
G* : gusset plate width (Equation 4-63), in. mph or ft/sec
H: depth of vessel head (Figure 4-2), in. vr : first critical wind velocity (Equation 4-94),
I: moment of inertia (Equation 4-24), in1 ;occu- mph
pancy importance factor (Equation 4-106), di- v30 = basic wind speed at thirty feet used as design
mensionless wind speed (Equation 4-75), mph
I" = moment of inertia of effective area of con- W= vessel weight (Equation 4-40), lbr
crete, in1 x.t : static deflection of a spring acted upon by a
K: coefficient of buckling for shear (Equation 4- force (Equation 4-90). in.
15 and Figure 4-3), dimensionless xO = displacement as a function of time (Equation 4-
k: dimensionless parameter for concrete (Thble 4- 90), in.
7) y= total lateral displacement of tower (Equation
K' = plate buckling coefficient (Equation 4-15), di- 4-88, Figure 4-21), in., ft
mensionless Z: elevation or height above a reference point,
Kz : velocity pressure coefficient (Thble.4-9 and such as the ground (Equation 4-74), ft
Equation 4-78) Z= reference height in which basic wind speed is
L: length of a horizontal vessel from seam to considered (30 ft or 10 m), ft
seam (Figure 4-2), ft, in.
L" = effective column length (Equation 4-19), in.
M: bending moment, in.lb, ft-lb Greek Symbols
m: bolt spacing (Equation 4-39), in.
Mc : compressive bending moment in the shell of a a : ir - (tr 1180)(012 + B/20) (Equation 4-6), de-
horizontal vessel (Figure 4-2), tt-lb grees
Mr : tensional bending moment in the shell of a hor- B= (180 -012), degrees
izontal vessel (Figure 4-2), ft-lb A= t
(?./180x5di 12 30), degrees
N: number of anchor bolts (Equation 440), di- 6; = lateral translational deflection oftower, (Equa-
mensionless tion 4-88 and Figure 4-26), in.
: d : angle of contact of saddle with shell (Figure 4-
P buckling load for compressive loading (Equa- 1), degrees, radians; rotational displacement
tion 4-18), lb6; probability of exceeding wind of tower (Figure 4-26), degrees
design speed during n years (Thble 4-11) and
Appendix A), dimensionless
\ = (t/bxE/ocil used in Equation 4-18, dimension-
less
Pu : annual probability of wind speed exceeding a p : radius of gyration : (I/Af .5
given magnitude-see (Appendix A), dimen-
6 = general term for stress, psi
sionless o" : allowable stress values (Table 4-3) psi
R: mean radius of shell (Figure 4-2), ft, in. d. : allowable stress induced on concrete (Equation
Ri : inside vessel radius (Equation 4-13), in. 4-40), psi; general tern for compressive stress
& : outside vessel radius (Equation 4-73), in. (Equation 4-16), psi
r: inside radius of vessel (Figure 4-2), ft ogp = critical stress in a flat plate defined in Equa-
Q: reaction at saddle (wl2), lbl tion 4-15, psi
 Mechanical Design of Process Systems
: elastic buckling stress (Equation 4-16), psi;
28-day ultimate compressive strength of con-
crete (Thble 4-7), psi
oE : stress due to weight, lbr
oP : pressure stress induced by either internal or
external pressure, psi; longitudinal stress in
Equation 4-67 , psi
o. : tensile stress in steel, psi
ow : stress induced by wind or earthquake response
spectra, psi
oy : minimum yield stress for a ductile material,
psi
z= Poisson ratio for a given material, dimension-
less
d: concrete bearing parameter (Equation 4-20),
dimensionless
' 17 . Paz, M., Structural Dynamics, Van Nostrand
REFERENCES
l. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section
VIII Division I , American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, New York.
2. Zick, L. P., "Stresses in Large Horizontal Cylindri-
cal Pressure Vessels on Two Saddle Supports,"
Welding Research Journal Stpplement, 1971.
3. Brownell, L. E. and Young, E. H., Process Equip-
ment Design, John Wiley and Sons, New York,
1959.
4. U.S. Steel, Steel Design Manual, U.S. Steel, Pitts-
burgh, Pennsylvania, 1981.
5. American Institute of Steel Construction, Manual of
Steel Construction, Eighth Edition, AISC, Chicago,
Illinois. 1980.
6. Timoshenko,5., Theory of Plates and Shells, Mc-
Graw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1959.
7. Bickford, J. H., An Introduction to the Design and
Behavior of Bohed Joints, Marcel Dekker, Inc.,
New York, 1981.
8. Faires, Y. M., Design of Machine Elements, The
Macmillan Co.. New York. 1962.
9. Simiu, E. and Scanlan, R. H., Wind Effects on
Stuctures, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1978.
10. International Conference of Building Officials, Unl-
form Building Code, Whittier, California, 1982.
11. American National Standards Institute, Inc., "ANSI
A58.1-Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and
Other Structures- 1982," New York.
12. Kuethe, A. M. and Schetzer, J. D., Foundations of
Aerodynamics, John Wiley and Sons, New York,
1959.
13. Blevins, R. D., Flow-Induced Vibration, Van Nos-
trand Rheinhold Co., New York, 1977.
14. Macdonald, A. J., Wind Inading on Buildings, Ap-
plied Science Publishers, Ltd., London, England,
1980.
15. Staley, C. M. and Graven, G. G., The Static and
Dynamic Wind Design of Steel Stacks, ASME 72-
Pet-30, New York.
16. Vierck, R. K., Vibration Analysis, Harper and Row,
New York, 1979.
Rheinhold Co. New York, 1980.
18. Australian Standard 1170, Part 2-1983 SAA Load-
ing Code, Part 2-Wind Forces, p. 55.
19. Timoshenko, S., Young, D. H., Weaver, W., Vibra-
tion Problems In Engineering, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1974.
20. Higdon, A., Olsen, E. H., Stiles, W B., Weese, J.
A., and Riley, W. F., Mechanics of Materials, John
Wiley and Sons, New York, 1976.
21. Mitchell, Warren W., "Determination of the Period
of Vibration of MultiDiameter Columns by the
Method Used on Rayleigh's Principle," an unpub-
lished work prepared for the Engineering Depart-
ment of the Standard Oil Company of California.
San Francisco, California, 1962.
22. Bedna\ H. H., Pressure Vessel Design Handbook,
Van Nostrand Rheinhold Co.. New York. 1981.
23. Boardman, H. C.. "Stresses at Junction ofCone and
Cylinder in Thnks With Cone Bottoms or Ends,"
Pressure Vessel and Piping Design, coTlected, pa-
pers, ASME, N.Y., 1960.
24. Weaver, William, Jr., "Wind-Induced Vibrations in
Antenna Members," American Society of Civil En-
gineers, Paper No.3336, Yol. 127, Part 1, N.Y..
N.Y., 1962.
 Appendix A

Partial Volumes and Pressure Vessel

Calculations

PARTIAL VOLUiIE OF A CYLINDER

v"' : RiL
|to' _ ,inol - panial volume shown (A-l)
2 \180' rl In snaoeo regron

L: length of cylinder

R: inside radius of cylinder

-/.\
J- __ _

I--x^L?-q
Examplg lFigure A.tl ' ait --
For a cylinder with 144-in. ID find the partial volume
of a fluid head of 60 in., if L : 100 ft:

|= w.+r Figure A.l. Sketch for calculating partial volume of a cylin-

v,' :
(721!zoo) der.
r80 - sin (160.81")l
2 ["tlggrsri [ I
Yp : 7,707 ,650.2 in.3 : 33,366.5 gal

PARTIAL VOLUIIE OF A
HEIIISPHERICAL HEAD r(3sft3(50) - l00l : 64,140.85 in.3 : 277.7 ga|
,,rP _- -------------
rry':(3Ri -D)
(A-2)
J
Example
V. = partial volume shown in shaded region
For horizontal volume in Figure A-2b find partial vol-
Example ume for a head with Rr :
50 in. and y 35 in.' :
For vertical volume in Figure A-2a find partial volume 277 .7
for a head with Ri :
50 in. and y = 35 in.:
= 138.85 gal

255
256 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

(a) Example-Spherically Dished Horizontal

Head
A spherically dished head with a 114-in. @ OD is spun
from l-in. plate. Determine the partial volume of l0 in.
of liquid. From vessel head manufacturer's catalog we
determine the following:

IDD : 16.786 in. (Figure A-5), p : 193 1n.

^
K, =
ll4 - 2(1.0)
)O.U ln.
z
-=-:
a: 159.43" : 2.78

L: 108 - 16.786:91.2r in.

Figure A-2. Partial volume of vertical hemispherical head.

(8) Partial volume of horizonral hemispherical head.
-_r--T
-lY'
ll
I

I ln,
lv
tl I

t?
PARTIAL VOLUMES OF SPHERICALLY
DISHED HEADS --
--.-{-} -
Horlzontal Head
The partial volume of a horizontal head (Figure A-3) is

v="lJGt:lT-{p-v-F ryl (A-l) Figure A-3. Partial volume of spherically dished horizontal
neaqs.

Vertical Head
The partial volume of a vertical head (Figure A-4) is

-.
v: ?rv(3x2
--:--:----------
+ v2)
(A-4)
6

or

,, rry2(3o - v)
(A-5) Figure A-4. Partial volume of spherically dished vertical
3 heads.
n
Appendix A: Pressure ry'essel Formulations

Yi = 6.786"

Figure A-5.

r=\:.,O/l- 1..,fi082 --61s6-,P - J(lo-s: - 5FF

(91.21)(562 - 6.7862)

V : 38,893.21 in.3 = 168.37 gal

Example- Spherically Dished Vertical

Head
For the same head above, determine the partial volume
of a head of liquid of 9 in.
x : 55.456 in.

u_r(9)[3(55.a56f+g'z] : 14,874 in.3 : 64.4 gal

End View of Horizontal Head

Flgure A-6. Partial volume of horizontal elliptical

PABTIAL VOLUTES OF ELLIPTICAL HEADS

The exact partial volume of a horizontal elliptical head

(Figure 4-6) is as follows:

u = (I93)'-(Rl
- n1i (4-6)
6RI

Vertlcal Elliptical Heads

Volume of top portion @ of Figure A-7 is

v^: oR't[" t'I

- 2 r - 3GDD),1 (A-7)

Volume of bottom portion O is

.
v^= . 2r(tDD)R''?
' ' rRl _______:
Ilv uj I
(A-8)
-
2 l' 3(IDD)'?j Figure A.7. Partial volume of vertical elliptical head.
258 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Horizontal Head Exampte

A
Find the partial volume of a 2:1 (Ri/IDD = 2) ellipti- vertical head
cal head that is 108-in. OD. The level of the liquid ii 35
in.. and the head is spun from l-in. plate.

IDD: 108 - 2(1.0)

: 26.50 in.

From Equation ,4-6 and Figure A-8 we have the follow_

IDD
rng:
-X
.,t : (IDD)a r--
6R v{K,' - yi.f
a:138.80":2.42
(19.0)12.42t
v_ .,?r s _ / rEtrl B
6(53)
horizontal head
V: 17,512.94 in.3 : 75.81 gal

Vertical Head Example

For some head above, determine the partial volume for
avertical head with 19 in. of liquid. Using Equation A-g
we have the following:

v : 2r(lDD)R,2 _ "n, [, _ y,, I c

6 2I'' 3(rDD4 vertical knuckle region

,, - 2rQ6.50)(53.U2 - -z-'lteo-
zrt53.0) [

V= 77,951.81 in.3 - 1310.75 in.3

V : 76,641.06 in.3 = 331.78 gal

H=IDO-KR

D
horizontal knuckle region

Figure A-9. Partial volumes of torispherical heads: (A) verti-

cal, (B) horizontal, (C) vertical knuckle region, (D) horizontal
Figure A-8. knuckle resion.
 Appendix A: Pressure vessel Formulations

PARTIAL VOLUilES OF
TORISPHERICAL HEADS

For Figures A-9 and A-10, Figule 4F10.

Vr : knuckle volume y: height of liquid

Vo : dish volume IDD: inside depth of dish
KR : knuckle radius p: inside dish radius

For vertical heads (Figure A-9c) the knuckle-cylinder

partial volume is

v-: ? <t, + 4rM2 + ri2) (A-e)

The partial volume of the dish region of a vertical head is

.,vD _ ?ry(3x2 + y2)

(A-10)
- 6-
The total partial volume in a vertical head is

oH ?rY(3x'z + Y'z)
' 6'"(r^2 + 4ru2
v": '" + 12)
" + 6
(A-11)

wherey:IDD-KR

Horizontal Todspherical Hcad$

Partial Volume of Dish O (Figure A-l l)

Vo:o {F:1tr - vG, - R-5 _ L(&, - yf ) (A-12) end view of dish

volume

Volume of Knuck-Cylinder Region @ (Figure A-12) Figure A-11. Sketch for example partial volume calculation
of horizontal torispherical head.

vo = *FI9 + Rr - KR) * (*, - K*)'l (A- 13)

The total partial volume for a horizontal torispherical

head is as follows:

V1 : V6+ V6

- \GI:TF - L(&'? - yf)

2

* "[# + Gi - KR) + (& - KR),] (A-14)

wherel: p _ IDD Figure A-12.

260 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Horlzontal Head Example The head is vertical and the liquid level is 18-in. Deter-
mine the partial volume.
A 102-in. @ OD flanged and dished (torispherical) From the vessel head manufacturer's catalog we deter-
head made to ASME specifications (KR ) 0.60p and mine the following:
KR > 3th, tr, = head thickness) is spun from l-in. plate.
The head is horizontal and the liquid level is 35-in. deter-
mine the partial volume. p : 132 in., KR = 3 in.,IDD = 20.283 in.
From the vessel head manufacturer's catalog and Fig-
llR trl 5l
ure A-12 we determine the following: R, = '-- - 2.=-" -', = 67.50 in.;
p= 96 in., KR : 6.125 in.. IDD : 17.562 in.
x = 67.50 - (31 - H2lo5 : 66.446 in.
too
R, = : 50in., L = 96.0 - 17.562 = 78.4J8 in.
=z For kluckle-cylinder region,
From Equation A-14 we have
r,, = Rr :61.50;ri
= Ri - KR : 67.50 - 3.00 : 64.50

vr = Q.532) vaq6t--rsry - uOai- tcl in.

3
67.50 + 64.50
f
rm=-=ob.ul
(78.438)(50' - 15') , /.) < r1, 14(6.125)
T JT = + 15.0)l :2.283 in.
h 120.283 - (3.0
+ (5o.oo - 6.12s) + (50.00 - 6.125f1
" -l-'' l(67.50), +
vv = -()
)9,11
) 4(66.0)2 + (64.5011
Vr = 14.091.,14 in.r = 147.59 ga. o

* z(17.283)[3(64.500)'? + (17.283)'?]
Vertical Head Example 6
Yv = 31,247.726 in.r + 115,645.832 in.3
A 138-in. d OD F&D (flanged
and dished) head nor
made to ASME specifications is spun from 1llz-in. plate. Vv = 146,893.558 in.r : 635.903 gal
 Appendix A: Pressure Vessel Formulations

INTERNAL PBESSURE ASIIE FORIIULATIOI{S

wtrH ouTsrDE DlllENslol{s

Cylindrical Shell
Longitudinal Joint

i= PR D_ oEt
oE + 0.4P '-R-O3t
Circumferential Joint
PB" 2oEl
'- ^
2'E + 1AP Ro - 1.4t

2:l ElliDsoidal Head

t= PDo
^ 2oEl
2oE + 1-BP D. - 1.8r

Sphere and Hemispherical Head

t= PRo o_ 2oEl
2dE + O-8P

ASME Flanged and Dished Head

when UR = 16qh

qEt
| _ 0.885P1 ^
'-;E+o-sP 0.885L - 0.8t

When UB < 161b

. PLM ^' 2oEt

2oE+P(M-0.2) ML-(M -0.2)

Conical Section

r= PDo
- 2 cos o(oE ^Y=- 2SEl cos a
+ 0.4P) Do - 0.8t cos c
Mechanical Design of Process Systems

INTERI|IAL PRESSURE ASME FORMULATIONS

WITH INSIDE DIMENSIONS

Cylindrical Shell
Longiludinal Joint

PRi
t=
oE - 0.6P I'ti + u.bt

Circumferential Joint

PRi
t= ' -F;- o.4t
2oE + O.4P

1-\
i-
2:1 Ellipsoidal Head

^
Or
2oEl
+ 0.2t
lt-----Ti -'------t l'-

Sohere and Hemisoherical Head

^ 2oEl
R + 0.2t

ASME Flanged and Dished Head

when UR = 16E3

sE - 0.1P 0.885L + 0.lt

l-_, When UR < 16?e

FOR VALUES OF M SEE SUPPLEMENT t= '-"' ^ 2oEt

2oE - O.2P LM + 0.2t

Conical Section

PDi 2oEt cos a

t= ^
o_
2 cos d(oE - 0.6P) Di + I.2t cos a
a
Appendix A: Pressure Vessel Formulations 263

Supplement for ASME Formulations

1. For a cylindrical shell, when the wall thickness exceeds one

half the inside radius or P > 0.385dE, the lormulas in ASME
Code ADDendix 1-2 shall be used.
For hemispherical hsads without a straight flange, the effi-
ciency of ihe head-to-shell joinl is to be used if it is less than
the efficiency oI lhe seams in the head.
For elliDsoidal heads, where the ralio ol lhe major axis is
other than 2:1, reler to ASME Code Appendix 1-4(c).
4. To use the lormulations tor a conical section in the table, the
half apex angle, €r, shall not exceed 30". lf d > 30o, then a
special analysis is required per ASME Code Appendix
1-5(e).
For an ASME flanged and dished head (torispherical head)
when Ur< 1643 the lollowing values ol M shall be used:

Values ot Factor M
UT 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.50 6.00 6.50
M 1 .00 1.03 1.06 1 .08 1.10 1.13 1.15 1.17 1 .18 1.20 1.22 1.25 1.2a 1.31 1.34 't.36 1.39
10.5 11.0 1.5 '12.0 13.0 14.0 16.0 164s
Ur 7.OO 7.50 8.00 8.50 9.00 9.50 10.0 1
M 1.41 1.44 1.46 1.48 1.50 1.52 1.54 t.co '1.58 1.60 1.62 1.65 1.69 1.72 1.75 1.77
. The maximum allowed ratio: L-t= D. When Ur > 16?3 (non-ASME Code construction), the values of M may be calculated by
i

I
M= 1

/ fL\
oit.!;/
I
xrl
National Wind Design Standards
A standard is a collection of current practices, past ex-
periences, and research knowledge. Standards that are
developed by consensus groups (e.g., ASTM, ANSI),
trade associations (e.g., AISC, ACI), or government
groups (e.g., HUD, CPSC) carry more authority than
other standards because they reflect wider ranges of ma-
terials.
The ANSI A58.1-1982 is a collection of information
that is considered to be the state-of-the-art in the design
of buildings and other structures. Local and regional
building codes adopt portions of the ANSI standard for
their own use. These local and regional codes are devel-
oped to represent the needs and interests of their respec-
tive areas and are written in legal language to be incor-
porated into state and local laws. Because these building
codes are regional or local in scope, they often do not
include everything in the ANSI standard, which is na-
tional in perspective. For this reason, one must be cer-
tain that a local code written for one area is applicable to
the site being considered.
The ANSI standard does not have as much authority as
the ASME vessel codes, and, unfortunately, does not
have a referral committee or group to officially interpret
the document. Therefore, one must make decisions
based on past experience and accepted methods of de-
sign. The ANSI standard (Paragraph 6.6, p. 16) states
that in determining the value for the gust response factor
a rational analysis can be used. A note below the-para-
graph states that one such procedure for determining the
gust response factor is in the standard's appendix. The
note at the top ofthe appendix (p. 52) states clearly that it
is not a part of the ANSI 458.1 mirninum design stan-
dard. What all this implies is that one may follow the
guide of the ANSI standard's appendix or use another ra-
tional analysis, which includes another wind standard.
Thus, one caz use another standard for design purposes.
265
-@
Appendix B
One of the most widely accepted international standards
is the Australian Standard 1170. Part 2-1983. SAA
Loading Code Part 2-Wind Forces.
The Australian Standard I 170 is more applicable to the
process industries because in it are shape factors for
geometries that are more common in that industry, e.g.,
circular shapes. However, before applying the shape fac-
tors of the Australian standard to the ANSI or any other
national standard, one must be very careful to correctly
convert the factors. This is because the codes have dif-
ferent basis upon which these factors are deiermined,
and a direct application of other parameters is not possi
ble. This is discussed later after we discuss the basis for
the various standards.
CRITERIA FOR DETERMINING WIND
SPEED
Wind is caused by differential heating of air masses by
the sun. These masses of air at approximately one mile
above the ground circulate air around their centers of
pressure. At this altitude, the velocity and direction of
the wind is almost entirely determined by macro-scale
forces caused by large scale weather systems. Below this
gradient height, the wind is modified by surface rough-
ness, which reduces its velocity and changes its direction
and turbulence. A secondary criterion, except for ex-
treme wind conditions, is the temperature gradient,
which affects the vertical mobility of turbulent eddies
and therefore influences the surface velocity and the gra-
dient height. Therefore, the exact nature of the surface
wind at any point depends, first, on the general weather
situation, which determines the gradient wind and the
temperature gradient, and, second, on the surrounding
topography and ground roughness which, together with
266 Mechanical Design of Process Systems
the temperature gradient, modify the gradient wind to
the surface wind.
Wind motion is further complicated by the rotation of
the earth, which induces additional forces that cause the
air moving across the earth's surface to be subjected to a
fbrce at right angles to the wind velocity vector. These
additional forces are known as Coriolis forces.
Each country has adopted its own standard for measur-
ing wind velocity. The U.S. National Weather Service
and U.S. codes use the fastest-mile wind sDeed. which is
defined as the average speed ofone mile of air passing an
anemometer. Thus, a fastest-mile wind speed of 120 mph
means that a "mile" of wind passed the anemometer dur-
ing a 30-second period. Other nations, namely Australia
and Great Britain, use the two-second gust speed. This is
based on the worst 2-second mean as measured by a cup
anemometer. The mean gust speeds are recorded over a
period of time such that a mean recurrence interval is de-
termined. The mean recurrence interval is the reciprocal
of the probability of exceeding a wind speed of a given
magnitude at a particular location in one year. The risk,
or probability, R, that the design wind speed will be
equaled or surpassed at least once in the life of the tower
is given by the expression
R:l-(l-P,)"
where P, : annual probability of exceedance (reciprocal
of the mean recurrence interval)
n : life of the tower or stack
The risk that a given wind speed of specified magni-
tude will be equaled or exceeded increases with the pe-
riod of time that the tower is exposed to the wind. Values
of risk of exceeding design wind speed for a designated
annual probability and a given design life ofthe structure
are shown in Table B-1.
For example, if the design wind speed for a tower is
based on an annual probability of 0.02 (mean recurrence
interval of 50 years) and the projected tower life is 25
years, there is a 0.40 probability that the design wind
Table B-1
Probability of Exceeding Wind Design Speed
Pr = 1-(1 - Po)*
Annual
Probability Design Lile of Structure in N Years
PAI 5 l0 15 25 50
0.10 0. 1000.410 0.651 0.794 0.928 0.995 0.999
0.05 0.050 0.226 0.40t 0.537 0.'723 0.923 0.994
0.01 0.010 0.049 0.096 0.140 0.222 0.395 0.634
0.005 0.005 0.025 0.049 0.072 o.tt8 0.222 0.394
Figure B-1. Cup generator anemometer.
speedwill be exceeded during the life of the structure.
The United States and Australian wind codes use the 50-
year recurrence interval.
The instrument for measuring the wind in the United
States, Great Britain, and Australia is the cup-generator
anemometer shown in Figure B-1. This device is oper-
ated by the wind striking the cups, which drive a small
permanent alternator. The indicator, which incorporates
a rectifier, is simply a voltmeter calibrated in miles per
hour. In most recent cup-generator models the generator
output is used to activate a pen-chart recorder which pro-
vides a record of continuous wind soeed.
WIND SPEED RELATIONSHIPS
As stated previously, another method can be substi-
tuted for the appendix in ANSI A58. l. What this means
is that another code could be used instead of the appen-
dix. To do this one must be careful to utilize the correct
conversion factors between standards. To accomplish
this we refer to Figure B-2. For a 100-mph fastest mile
wind speed in ANSI 458.1 we wish to determine the
equivalent fastest mile wind speed for a 2-second gust
using either the Australian or British code. From Figure
B-2 we read from the ordinate 1.54 fior 2 sec. Knowins
that one mile ol wind moving at 100 mph will pass thi
anemometer in 36 sec, we read 36 sec on the curve and
arrive at V,/V3666 = 1.30. Thus, the equivalent fastest
mile wind speed is
/r sa\
:
100
V - t;:^lrl00) mph tt8.4 mph
\1.30i
for a 2-sec gust. For I l0 mph, the values becomes
V: (1.18)(ll0) mph : 129.8 mph

Figure B-2, Ratio of probable maximum wind speed averaged over t seconds to hourly mean speed.
Thus, the 1.18 factor would have to be used in the 2-sec
gust code if that code were to be substituted for Appen-
dix A of ANSI A58.1-1982.
Similarly, the Canadian code we must convert to ob-
tain an equivalent fastest mile wind speed from the mean
hourly. The mean hourly implies that the wind moves an
average of 100 mph across the anemometer in a period of
3,600 sec. Reading Figure B-2 we have V'/Vru* = 1.6.
Thus
lj: ozor
which yields an equivalent velocity of 76.9 mph. With
the Canadian code one must use 0.769 in use of shape
constants and the various other parameters when using
with ANSI A58.1. A comparison of the major wind
codes is given in Thbles B-Z, B-3, B-4, and B-5.
ANS| A58.r-1982 WIND CATEGORIES
In the ANSI A58.1-1982 there are four wind catego-
ries-A, B, C, and D. The categories are described as
follows:
a
Appendix B: National Wind Design Standards
Category A-A very restricted category in which the
wind speed is drastically reduced. Most petrochemical
and power facilities do not fall within this category.
The wind force is reduced because the structure is con-
sidered to be among many tall structures. One exam-
ple would be a ten-story building in downtown Man-
hattan, New York, where the taller buildings would
block the stronger air currents.
Category B-A classification that encompasses some tall
structures, but not enough to block the majority of
wind gusts. An example of this category would be a
tower in the midst of a large petrochemical facility
where there were other towers that would block some
of the wind force. A forest surrounding a tower is an-
other example.
Category C-The most common classification for petro-
chemical applications. This category is open terraln
where the tower would receive full impact from the
wind with minimum ground resistance to the wind. An
example of this category would be an open field or an
alrDort.
Category D-A classification for wind moving over wa-
ter. A beachhead, in which there is flat beach up to a
row of buildings would be in Category D. Miami
beach, from the ocean front up to the facade of hotels,
is a good example. Behind the hotel fronts would be
Category C. Another example of this classification
would be a tall vertical vessel on an offshore structure.
 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Malor U.S. and Foreign Building Codes and Standards Used in Wind Design
Code or Standard
Australian Standard I 170,
Part 2-Wind Forces
British Code of Basic
Data for Design of Buildings
(cP3)
Wind Loading Handbook
(commentary on CP3)
National Building Code
ofcanada (NRCC No. 17303)
The Supplement to the
National Building Code of
Canada (NRCC 17724)
ANSI A58.1,1982
Uniform Building Code
Standard Building Code
with
Basic Building Code
Table B-2
Edition Organization Address
1983 Standards Association Standards House
of Australia 80 Arthur Street/North Sydney,
N.S.W. Australia
1972 British Standards British Standards Institution
Institution 2 Park Street
London, WIA 285, England
1974 Building Research Building Research Station
Establishment Garston, Watford, WD2 7JR, England
1980 National Research National Research Council of
Council of Canada Canada
1980 National Research Ottawa, Ontario K1A OR6
Council of Canada Canada
1982 American National 1430 Broadway
Standards Institute New York, New York 10018
1982 International Conference 5360 South Workman Mill Road
of Building Officials Whittier, California 90601
1982 Southern Building Code 900 Montclair Road
Congress International Birmingham, Alabama 35213
1983 rev.
1984 Building Officials and 17926 South Halsted Street
Code Administrators Homewood, Illinois 60430
International, Inc.

Table B-3
Reference Wind Speed
Australian British Canadian United States
Feference 1983)
(SAA, (BSl, 1982) (NRCC, 1980) (ANS|, 19s2)
Averaging time 2-3 second 2-second Mean hourly Fastest mile
gust speed gust speed
Equivalent reference 118.4 I18.4 76.9 100
wind speed to fastest
mile 100 mph
 'l'*"1iil

Appendix B: National Wind Design Standards

Table B-4
Parameters Used in the Maior National Standards
Australian British Canadian United Siates
Parametel ,1 1982)
Wind Speed
Terrain roughness 4 4 3 4
l,ocal terrain Yes Yes None None
Height variation Yes Yes Yes Yes
Ref. speed 2-sec gusts 2-sec gusts Mean hourly Fastest mile
Wind Pressure
Pressure coefficients Tbbles in Thbles, includes Figures and Thbles, figures
appendix includes figures tables in and notes
figures commentaries
Gusts
Magnitude Gust speed Gust speed Gust effect factor Gust response factor
Spatial correlation Reduction for None Gust effect factor Area averaging
large area
Gust frequency Dynamic consideration Dynamic Dynamic Dynamic consideration
for h/b > 5 consideration consideration for h/b > 5
not included for h/b > 4
in. or for
h> 400 ft
Analysis procedure This standard is consid- Overall a very good An excellent wind Although the appendix
ered by many the best code, its weakest part standard. The is technically not con-
for use in the process is the lack of dynamic analysis procedure sidered a part of the
industries. Figures and consideration . is straight-forward standard, it contains
tables are easy to read. and the docu- figures difficult to read,
The standard actually ments-code and namely Figure 6. For
provides the user with supplement con- many structures the
equations to cutves. tain tables and fig- data extend beyond the
The analysis procedure ures easy to read. limits of the curves in
is straight-forward. Figures 6 and 7. In the
method in the appendix,
one must assume an ini-
tial natural frequency,
resulting in an iterative
process. This method is
extremely difficult in
designing petrochemical
towers without the use
of a computer.
270 Mechanical Desisn of Process Svstems

Table B-5
Limitalions of Codes and Standards
Code or Standard Statement of Limitation Location
Australian Standard "Minimum Design Loads Title
I 170, Part 2- 1983 on Structures"
National Building "...EssentiallyaSet Guide to the
Code of Canada of Minimum Regulations . . ." Use of the Code
(NRCC, 1980)
British CP3 ". . . Does Not Apply to Section 1 (Scope)
Buildings. . . That Areof
Unusual Shape or Location
For Which Special Investigations
May Be Necessary . . ."
United States "Minimum Design Loads . . ." Title
ANSI A58.I "Specific Guidelines Are Given Paragraph 6. I
For. . . Wind Tunnel Investigations
. .. For Buildings. .. Having
IrregularShapes..."
Uniform Building "The purpose . . . is to provide Section 102
Code minimumstandards..."
Basic Building "The Basic Minimum Wind Speeds Section 912.1
Code (BOCA, 1984) Are Shown in Figure 912.1 . . ."
Standard Building "The Purpose of This Code is to Preface
Code, 1982 (SBCCI, Provide Minimum Requirements . . ." Article 1205.2(a)
t982) "The Building Official May Require
Evidence to Support the Design
Pressures Used in the Design
of Structures Not Included in
This Section."
 Appendix C

Properties of Pipe
272 Mechanical Design ol Process Systems

+
PROPERTIES OF PIPE
Th6 tollowilg tormulqs dre used in lh€ computorior of th6 volues i Tlr€ lsEilic ste6ls rnay be sbout 5% les!, dDd the crEte.itic stdin_
,bo\|'n in lhe toble: legs sleels qbout 27o greate! thon the values shown in tbiE tqble
t weighl which ore bcsed ort weigbts lor cdrboIt steel.
ot pipe per toor (pouDds) 10.6802(D-0
weight ol lPcler p€r foot (pou!ds) 0.340sd, * achedule numben
=
squqre leet ou&id€ ludoco per loot : 0.2518D
squorc leet inside surlace F€r loot 0.26r0d Stordord weight pipe qnd schedule rlo qte the scrae in oll sizss
= lhrough lo-isdr; lrom lz-ilch thtough 24-irch, stqndard {eight pip6
inside drea (squdre hches) 0.785d,
dred o{ rnetcd (squore irches) 0,785(Dr-d?) has d croll thicloess oI %-ircb.
moment ol ir6rtia (inches.) 0.049r(D.-d) Extro BtroDg woight pipe ond schedulegO dla the sdEe in oll
sires
A^E o' lhrough 8-i[ch, llom 8-inch thlough 24-trch. ertrd strong weight
saction moduluB (inches3)
= 0.0982(D.-ci.) pipe bos a wall thicloess oI ){-incb.
D
lodius oI gyrqtion (i!ches) Double €nr(l 3troDg weight pip6 bss no c-orrespodding schedule
= 0.25t/D,'D,+--
auEbe!,
An = oted of Eetql (square i4ches)
d = inside didoeter (incb€s) o: ANSI836.10 st€el pipe schedule Dub.b€rs
D = outside diqrn€ter (incheB)
R, b: ANSI 836.10 steel pip€ DoDilrol woll thichress dosiglqtio!
= radius ol gFcrion {iiche3)
t = pip€ woU thickness (inches) c: ANSI 836.19 6tdiDle3s steel pipe schedule uuEbols

nordnol
piF .ize achedule wcll i!3ide
inside metdl
Bq li sq tt Feiqht moD€ttl aoction rardiur
thick. dioEr- outaid6 inlide stoight
ou|lide o[ wcter OI Eodu- gyrc-
surtdce, aurldce, F!Il, psr It. inertic, lu& lior|,
b in. in"
rq. rn sq. in
Per lt po! tl Ib* iE
in
I0s 0.01s 0.307 0.0740 0.0548 0.r06 0.0804 0.186 0.0321 0.0m88 0.00437 0.127t
% 40 srd 40s 0.068 0.269 0.0568 0.0720 0.106 0.0705 0.215 0.0216 0.00108 0.0052s 0.1215
0.405
80 xs 80s 0,0s5 0.2I5 0.036{ 0.092s 0.106 0.0563 0.315 0.0157 0.00t22 0.00600 0.llt6
l0s 0.06s 0.410 0.1320 0.0970 0.141 0.1073 0.330 o,0512 0.00279 0.01032 0.1694
% 40 srd 40s 0.088 0.364 0.1041 0.1250 0.111 0.0955 0.425 0.0451 0.00331 0.01230 0.1528
0.540
80 xs. 80s 0.119 0.302 0.0716 0.1574 0.111 0.0794 0J35 0.0310 0.003?8 0.0139s 0.1547
ss 0.065 0.7I0 0.396 0.1582 0-220 0.1859 0.538 0.I716 0.01197 0.0285 0.2750
% l0s 0.065 0.545 0.2333 0.12{6 0.t77 o.t427 0.423 0.1011 0.00585 0.01737 0.2169
0.675 40 ;;; 40s 0.0st 0.493 0.1910 0.16t0 0.r77 0.1295 0.568 0.0827 0.00730 0.02160 0.2090
80 xs 80s 0.126 0-423 0.1405 0.2173 0,t77 0.1106 0.739 0.0609 0.00862 0.02s54 0.199r
0.065 0.710 0.3959 0.1583 0.220 0.1853 0.538 0.171 0.0120 0.0285 0.27S0
r0s 0.083 0.674 0.357 0,1974 o.220 0.1765 0.571 0.1547 0.0I431 0.m4I 0-2892
% 40 ;; 40s 0.10s 0.822 0.304 0.2503 0.220 0.1628 0,851 0.1316 0.0r710 0.0407 0.2613
0.840 80 xs 80s 0.147 0.sd6 0.2340 0.320 0.220 0.1433 r.0€8 0.1013 0.02010 0.0178 0.2505
160 0.187 0.466 0.1706 0.383 0.220 0.t220 1.304 0.0740 0-022t3 0.0s27 0.2402
n(s 0.294 0,252 0.0499 0.504 0.220 0.0660 1.714 0.0216 0.02125 0.0s77 0.2rs2
0.06s 0.920 0.655 0.20u o.275 0.2409 0,684 o.2a82 0.02451 0.046? 0.3{9
l0s 0.083 0.884 0.614 0-2321 0-275 0.2314 0.857 0.2661 0.02970 0.0s66 0.343
10 ;;; 10s 0.113 0-821 0.s33 0.333 o.275 0.2t57 l.r3l 0.2301 0.03?0 0.0706 0.334
i.050 s0 xs 80s 0.154 0-7 42 0-132 0.435 0.275 0.1913 1.414 0.r875 0.0448 0.08s3 0.321
160 0.218 0.614 0.2961 0.570 0.275 0.1607 1.937 0.1284 0.os27 0.1004 0.304
xxs 0.308 0,434 0.1d79 0.718 0,215 0.1137 2.441 0.0641 0.0s79 0.1104 0.28{0
0.065 1.185 1.t03 0.3{4 0.310 0.868 0.478 0.0500 0,0760 0.443
10s 0.109 1.097 0.915 0,413 0.344 0.2872 1.401 0.409 0.0757 0.ll5r 0.428
I 40 40s 0.133 I.049 0.86{ 0.494 0.344 o,2746 1.679 o,37 4 0.087{ 0.1329 o.121
J.3t5 80 80s 0.179 0.s57 0.t19 0.639 0.3{4 0.2520 2.t72 0.31t 0.1056 0.1606 0.107
t60 0.250 0.815 0.522 0.836 0.344 0.213{ 2.444 o.2261 0.t2s2 0.1900 0.387
xxs 0.358 0.599 0.28r8 1.076 o.314 0.r570 3.659 0.1221 0.140s 0.2t37 0.36t
0.06s 1.530 1.839 0.326 0.434 0.{01 1.107 0.797 0.1038 0.1250 0.55{
r0s 0.109 t.142 1.633 u.531 0.434 0.378 1.805 0.7tl 0.r60s 0.1934 0.5s0
r% 40 l'; 40s 0.140 1.380 1.496 0.669 0.434 0.361 2.273 0.618 0.1s48 0.2316 0.540
I.66'0 80 80s 0.r91 l27A 1.283 0.88r 0.{34 0.335 2.991 o.24t8 0.2913 0.s24
160 0.250 1.160 r,057 1.I07 0.43{ 0.304 3.765 0.{58 0.2839 0.342 0.506
*ts 0.382 0.896 0.631 1,534 0.434 0.2345 5.2t1 o.2r32 0.341 0.411 0.472
rt4 0.065 t.770 2.161 0-375 0-497 0.463 1.274 1.067 0.ts80 0.1663 0.649
1.900 r0s 0.109 1,682 2.222 0.613 0.497 0.440 2.08s 0.962 0.2469 0.2599 0.634
*Couftesr of ITT Gtinncll.
F
Appendix C: Properties of Pipe

PROPERTIES OI' PIPE (Continued)

noainail
prpe !ir( .chedule trcll inside 6q lt sq lt weiEhl !adiu!
!uEber' tbicL- dicnr- i!!ide metcl outride inaid€ w6ight ol wlter ol modu- 9l.rc_
outride qted, per It,
diotreter oler, surtdce, BUttdc€, p€! lt, inertiq, lus, UoE
b i|r. in- Bq. i|r. aq. i|l.
Frft per It lbt inJ in.r
iE"

{0 40s 0.145 1.6r0 2,036 0.7ss 0.{97 0.421 2.718 0.882 0.310 0.326 0.623
80 xs 80s 0.200 1.500 t-761 r.068 0.497 0.393 3.63r 0.765 0.39r 0.{12 0.605
rh 160 0.28r 1.338 1.406 1.429 0.{97 0.350 4.859 0.608 0.483 0.508 0.581
J.900 xxs 0.400 1.100 0.s50 1.885 0.49? 0.288 6.408 0-112 0.568 0.598 0.s19
0,525 0.8s0 0.567 2-287 0.197 o.223 7.710 0.218 0.6140 0,6470 0.5200
0.650 0.600 0.283 2.551 0.497 0.157 8.678 0.123 0.6340 0.6670 0.4980

0.065 2.215 3.96 o.472 o.622 0.588 1.604 1.7I6 0.3t5 0.2652 0.817
l0s 0.109 2-ts7 3.65 0.116 o.822 0.565 2.638 1.582 0.499 0.120 0,802
;; ;; 40s 0.154 2,087 3:36 r.075 o,622 0.541 3.553 1.455 0.666 0.s61 0.r81
2.3r5 80 xs 80s 0.218 1.939 2.953 t.417 0.822 0.508 5.O22 1.280 0.868 0.73t 0.756
160 0.343 1.689 2.240 2.190 o.822 o.442 7.141 0.971 I.163 0.979 0-729
xx!; 0,436 r.503 t.774 2.656 o,622 0.393 9.029 0.769 1.3I2 1.104 0.703
0.552 1.251 t-229 3.I99 0.622 0.328 10.882 0.533 1.442 r.2140 0.6t10
''''. ...' 0.587 1.001 0.187 3.641 o.622 0-262 12.385 0.341 1.5130 1.2740 0.64d0

0.083 2.709 0.128 0.75s 0.709 2.175 2.49S 0.710 0.4s4 0.988
l0s 0.120 1.039 0.753 0.690 3,531 0.988 0.687 0.975
;; :.. 40s 0,203 2.469 4,75 t.701 0.753 0.646 5.793 2.076 1.530 L064 0.9d,
2% 80 xs 80s 0.276 2.323 4.24 2.251 0.753 0.60s 7.661 1.837 1.925 1.339 0.924
2.875 ta: 0,375 2.t25 3.55 2.915 0.753 I0.01 1.535 2.353 1.637 0.894
)0(s 0.552 1.771 2.464 4.03 0.753 0.451 13.70 1.087 2.872 1.s98 0.84{
0.6?5 t.525 1.825 4.663 0.753 0.399 15.860 0.792 3.0890 2.1490 0.8140
0.800 t.275 t,276 5.2t2 0.753 0.334 t7.729 0.554 3.2250 2.2430 0.7860

0.083 3.334 4.73 0.891 0.916 0.873 3.03 3.78 1.301 o,144 1.208
l0s 0.120 3.260 8.35 t.274 0.916 0.8s3 4.33 3.6r ta22 1.011 1.195
;i d; 10s 0.216 3.068 7.39 2.228 0.916 0.803 7.58 3.20 3.02 t.124 1.164
3 80 xs 80s 0.300 2.900 3.02 0.916 0.759 10.25 2,864 3.90 2-228 r.136
3.500 160 0.437 2.62A 5.42 4.21 0.916 0.687 14.32 2-348 5.03 2.876 1.091
xxs 0.600 2.300 4.15 3.17 0.916 0.602 18.58 1.80t 5.99 3,43 1.o17
o;125 2.050 3.299 0.916 0.537 2t.487 1.431 6.5010 3.7150 1.0140
-' 0.850 1.800 2.543 7.073 0.916 0.471 24.Os? t.103 6.8530 3.9160 0.9840
5S 0.083 3.834 r.021 t-017 1.00{ 3.47 5.0r 1.960 0.980 1.385
3y2 r0s 0.120 3.t60 ll.l0 1,463 t-o47 0.98{ 4.57 4.81 2.756 1.378 L.312
*Un 40 ;; 40s o.226 3.548 9.89 2.680 t-041 0.929 9.ll 4.28 4.79 2.351 t.337
80 xs 80s 0.318 3.364 8.89 3.68 t.047 0.881 12.51 3.85 6.28 3.t4 1.307
xt(s 0.636 2.728 5.845 6.721 1.047 0.716 22.450 2.530 9.8480 4.92d0 1.2100

0.083 4.334 14.75 1.152 l.l78 1.135 6.{0 2.8u 1.249 1.562
tGs 0.120 {.260 14.2S 1.178 l.ll5 6.17 3.96 1.162 1.549
0.188 4.t24 13.35? 2.547 1.178 1.082 8.560 5.800 5.8500 2.600.0 1.5250
;; s;; 40s 0237 4.826 t2-73 3.-17 1.178 1.054 10.?9 7.23 3.21 1.510
80 XS 80s 0.337 3.826 I1,50 {.{l 1.178 r.002 l{.98 4.98 9.61 t.477
4.5N t20 0.437 10.33 t.178 0.949 18.96 4.48 5.18 1.445
0.500 3.s00 9.62r 6.283 1.178 0.916 2r.360 4.160 12.71t0 s.6760 l-1250
t60 0.531 3.438 9.24 6.62 1.178 0.900 22.51 4.O2 13.21 5.90 1.416
)c; 0.674 3.152 7.80 Lr0 1.178 0.825 27.51 r5.29 6.79 t.371
0.800 2.900 6.602 9.294 t.178 0.75S 31.613 2.864 16.6610 7.1050 1,3380
0.925 2.650 5.513 t0.384 ].l78 0.694 35,318 2.391 17.7130 7.8720 1.3060

5S 0.109 5,345 22.11 1.868 1.t56 1.399 9,73 6.95 2.498 r.929
10s 0.134 5.295 22,02 2.245 l.{s6 1.386 ?,77 9.53 8.43 3.03 t.920
;; -:. 4os 0.258 5.047 20.0r 4.30 1.455 1.321 t1.82 I5.17 5.{5 1.878
80 xs 80s 0.375 4.813 18.t9 6.lI 1.156 t.260 20-74 t.89 20.68 1.43 1.839
t20 0.500 4.563 16,35 7.95 1.456 1.195 27,01 7.09 25.74 9.25 1.799
r60 0.625 4.313 14.61 9.70 1.456 Ll29 32.98 30.0 10.80 !.760
,ots 0.7s0 4.063 t2s7 t1.34 1.456 1.064 38.55 s-82 !2.10
0.875 3.813 I1.413 12.880 1.4s6 0.998 {3.8I0 4.9S1 36.6450 13.1750 1.6860

- 1.000 3.563 l{.328 1.456 0.933 t'|.'134 1.232 39.11l0 14.0610 t.6s20
274 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

PROPERTIES OF PIPE (Conti:rued)

pipe size wqll irgide Bq lt sq lt weight radiu3

schedule inside metcl weight
ihick- diam- outside inside of sYro-
per It.
per lt, inertiq, lu5, tion.
in, in. sq. rn. sq, ia. pe! lt per lt lbt lb in.' in.1 in.
b
5S 0.109 6.407 32.2 2.231 1.734 t.677 5.37 r3.98 1I.85 3.58 2.304
t0s 0.134 6.3s7 31.7 2-733 t.734 1.664 9.29 13.74 14.40 4.35 2.295
0.2IS 6.187 30.r00 4.4I0 t.734 1.620 15.020 r3.I00 22.6600 6.8400 2.2700
40 sld 40s r0.280 6.06s 28.89 5.58 1.734 1.588 t8.s7 l2.sI 28.t4 8.50 2.245
6 80 80s 0.432 5.76I 26.O7 8.40 I.734 I.508 24.5',1 I1.29 40.5 t2.23 2.195
6.625 120 0.562 5.501 23.77 10.70 t.734 L440 36.39 10.30 49.6 14.s8 2.153
160 0.7t 8 5.189 21.t 5 r3.33 1.734 1.358 45.30 9.16 5S.0 17.81 2.104
xxs 0.864 4.897 18.83 15.64 1.134 r.2s2 8.17 66.3 20.0s 2.060
1.000 4.825 18.192 17.662 t.134 l.2l I 60.076 1.284 72.1190 21.1120 2.0200
1.125 4.37S r5.025 I9.429 t.'t34 1.145 66.084 6.SI7 76.5970 23.1244 L98s0
0.109 8.407 55.5 2.916 2.258 2.201 s.9l 24.07 26.45 6.13 3.01
l0s 0.148 8.32S 54.5 3.94 2.258 2.180 13.40 23.59 35.4 a.2l 3.00
0.219 8.187 52.630 5.800 2.258 2.150 1s.640 22.900 5t.3200 11.9000 2.9700
8 20 0.2s0 8.125 51.8 6.58 2.25a 2.127 22.38 22.48 57 -7 13.3S 2.562
8.625 30 0.211 8.07t 51.2 7.26 2.2s8 2.t13 24.70 22.t8 63.4 14.69 2,S53
40 std ;; 0.322 7.981 50.0 8.40 2.258 2.089 28.55 21.69 72.5 16.81 2.938
60 0.406 7.813 47.9 I0.48 2.258 2.045 35.64 20.79 88.8 20.58 2.909
80 xs 80s 0.500 7.625 45.7 t2.76 2.258 1.996 43.39 19.80 I0s.7 24.52 2.879
100 0.593 7.439 43.5 14.96 2.258 1.948 50.87 t8.84 12t.4 28.t4 2.847
r20 0.7I8 7.189 40.6 t1.84 2.258 I.882 60.63 17.60 140.6 32.6 2.847
I t40 0.8I2 7.00I ls.s3 2.258 L833 16.69 I53.8 35.7 2.777
8.625 r60 0.906 6.813 36.5 2t.97 2.258 t.784 74.69 15.80 I65.9 38.5 2.748
1.000 6.625 34.454 23.942 2.258 I.734 81.437 14.9{5 177.1320 41.0740 2.',1t90
1.125 6.375 31.903 26.494 2.2s8 1.669 90.I1{ I3.838 190.6210 44.2020 2.6810

5S 0.134 to.482 86.3 4.52 2.815 2.744 r5. ts 37.4 63.7 11.8S 3.75
I0s 0.16s 10.420 85.3 5.49 2.815 2.724 18.70 36.9 I4.30 3.74
0.219 10.312 83.52 '1.24 2.815 2.10 24.63 36.2 100.46 I8.69 3.72
20 0.250 10.250 82.5 8.26 2.815 2.683 28.04 35.8 Ir3.7 2l.r6 3.71
30 0.307 10.136 80.7 I0.07 2.815 2.654 34.24 3S.0 137.5 3.69
40 std 4;; 0.36S 10.020 78.9 ll.sl 2.8r5 2.623 40.48 34.I 160.8 29.90
l0 60 xs 80s 0.500 9.750 7 4.7 16.10 2.815 2.553 54.74 32.3 2t2.0 39.4
10.750 80 0.593 s.564 7L8 I8.92 2.815 2.504 64.33 3l.l 244.9 45.6 3.60
I00 0.718 9.314 22.63 2.815 2.438 76.93 29.5 288.2 53.2 3.56
t20 0.843 9.064 64.5 26.24 2.815 2.373 89.20 2e.0 324 60.3 3.52
0.875 9.000 63.62 27.!4 2.815 2.36 92.28 27.6 333.46 82.O4 3.50
t40 1.000 8.750 60.1 30.6 2.815 2.191 .04.13 26.1 68.4
160 l.I2s 8.500 56.7 34.0 2.815 2.225 u5.65 24.6 399 ?4.3 3.43
L2s0 8.250 53.45 37.31 2.815 2.18 126.82 23.2 424.t7 79.65 3.39
1.500 7.75D 47.15 43.57 2.8I5 2.03 t48.I9 20.5 478.59 89.04

0.I56 12.438 t2t.4 6.17 3.34 20.99 s2.7 t22.2 19.20 4.45
10s 0.180 I2.390 120.6 7.t I 3.34 3.24 24.20 52-2 I40.5 22.93 t.44
;i 0.250 t2.2s0 u7.9 9.84 3.34 3.21 3s.38 r91.9 30.r 4.42
30 0.330 t2.090 114.8 12.88 3.34 3.t1 43.7'l {9.7 248.5 39.0 4.3S
;,; 4;; 0.375 12.000 I l3.l 14.s8 3.34 3.14 49.56 49.0 219.3 43.8 4.38
40 0.406 I1.938 III.9 15.74 3.34 3.13 53.S3 48.S 300 47.1 4.37
80s 0.500 I1.750 I00.4 19.24 3.34 3.08 65.42 47.0 362 4.33
t2 ;; 0.562 11.626 106.2 2r.52 3.34 3.04 73.16 46.0 401 62.8 4.3r
)2.750 80 0.687 I1.376 101.6 26-O4 3.34 2.978 88.51 44.0 475 74.5 4.21
0.7s0 I1.250 99.40 28.27 3.34 2.94 96.2 43.r 510.7 80.1 4.25
100 0.843 11.064 96.1 31.5 3.34 2.897 07.20 41.6 562 88.r 4.22
0.875 11.000 95.00 32.64 3.34 2.AA 10.3 4t.l s78.S 90.7
120 t.000 10.750 90.8 36.9 3.34 2.414 25.49 3S.3 642 100.7 1-t7
140 1.125 10.500 86.6 4I.l 3.34 2.749 39.68 37.5 701 109.9 4.13
L250 I0.250 82.50 45.16 3.34 2.68 53.6 35.8 75s.S 4.09
r.312 10.t26 80.5 47.1 3.34 2.651 60.27 34.9 781 r22.6 1.01
 Appendix C: Properties of Pipe 275

PROPERTIES OF PIPE (Continued)

noEit'al
pipo rirc .chedule wqll ilride sq tt rq It
lreight
weisht aeclion !adiu!
idside |rretol iagide ol modu- qryr6-
outside |tumb€r' tbicL- diqra- outgide
lurlcc€, auddc6, !'er IL pe! ll, inerlid, lu& Uon
didr!€ter
itr. i!- aq, in aq. in per lt perlt tbt lb in. inJ ia.
i|r b
0,156 13.6S8 t47.20 3.67 3.S8 23.O {.90
t0s 0.r88 13.624 145.80 8.16 3.57 27.7 63.1 194.6 2't.8 4.88
0.210 13.580 144.80 9.10 3.67 3.55 30.9 62.8 216.2 30.9 1.57
0.219 13.562 111.50 9.48 3.55 32.2 225-l 32.2 4.57
l0 0.250 13.S00 143.1 10.80 3.67 3.53 36.71 62.1 255.4 36.5 4.86
0.281 13.438 141.80 l2.ll 3.S2 4t.2 285.2 40;I 4.85
20 0.312 140.5 t3.42 3.67 3.50 45.68 60.9 314 4{.9 4.91
0.344 13.3I2 t39.20 14.16 3.87 3.48 50.2 50.3 344.3 t9.2 4.83
l4 ;; 0.375 13.250 137.9 16.05 3.67 3.41 54.57 59.7 s3.3 4.82
14.@o 40 0,{37 13.r25 r35.3 18.62 3.67 3.44 63.37 s8.7 429 61.2 4.80
0.469 13,062 134.00 19.94 3.67 3.42 67.8 s8.0 156.8 1.79
0.s00 13.000 t32,7 2t.21 3.67 3.40 72.09 57.5 484 69.1 4-74
;; 0.593 12,814 r29.0 24,98 3.67 3.35 84.91 80.3 4.74
0.625 12.750 t27.1 26.25 3.34 8S.28 55.3 589 84.1 4;13
80 0.750 12.500 t22.7 3,61 3.27 108,13 687 98.2 4.69
t00 0.937 12.t28 38.5 3.67 3.17 130.73 50.0 825 117.8 4.63
I20 1.093 ll.8r4 109.6 44.3 3.57 3.09 150.67 47.5 930 I32.8 4.58
140 1.250 rr.500 103.s 50.1 3.67 3.01 t70.22 45.0 tt27 l{6.8 4,53
160 1.406 11.188 98.3 3.67 2.929 189.12 42.6 l0l7 159.6 4,48

0.165 15.670 192.90 a,2L 4.19 4.10 28 83.5 257 32.2

0.188 15.624 19r.70 9.3{ 4.ls 4,09 32 83.0 292
io 0.250 r5.500 188.7 12.37 4.19 4.06 42.05 81.8 384 48,0
0.312 r5.376 185.7 15.38 4.19 4.03 52.36 80.5 473 5S.2
30 0.375 15.250 182,6 18.4I {.I9 3.99 6458 79.1 562 70.3
l6 40 0.500 15.000 116.7 24.35 4.19 3.93 82.17 732 9I.S 5.18
16.0@ 14.688 169.4 31.6 4.19 3.85 107.50 73.4 933 s.13
80 0.843 r4,3t4 160.9 40.1 4.I9 3.75 136.46 69.7 lt5? 144.6 s.37
r00 1.031 r3.938 152.5 48.5 4.19 3.65 r64.83 66,1 r365 170,6 5.30
120 r.218 13.564 144.5 s6.6 4,19 3.55 192,29 l5s6 194.5 5.24
140 1.437 13.126 135.3 65.7 4.19 3.44 223.64 58.5 I760 220.0
160 12.814 129.0 72.1 {.I9 3.35 24S.ll 1894 236,1 5.12
0.165 t7,670 245.20 9.24 4.7 L 4.63 31 I06.2 368 40.8 6.31
l0s 0.188 t7.624 243.90 10.52 4.71 {.61 105.7 4t7 46.4 6.30
i; 0.2s0 17,500 210-S r3.94 4.71 4.58 47.39 104.3 549 61.0 6.28
20 0.312 17.376 237.1 11,34 4.55 59.03 102.8 678 6.2S
0.3?5 17r50 233-7 20.76 4.52 70.59 101.2 807 89.6 6.23
l8 30 0.437 t7.126 230.4 24.t| 4.48 82.06 99.9 93I I03.4 6.2r
0.500 17.00 227.0 27.49 1.?l 4.45 93.45 s8,4 1053 117.0
r8.o00 40 0.562 r6,876 223.7 30,8 1.?l 4.42 104.?5 97.0 tt72 130.2
60 0.750 15.500 213.8 {0.6 1.71 4.32 138.r7 92.7 168.3 6.10
80 0.937 16.126 204.2 50.2 4.22 170.75 88.5 1834 203.8 6.04
100 l.ls6 15.688 193.3 61.2 4.71 4.tI 207.96 83.7 2180 242.2 5.97
120 1.37S 15.250 182.6 71.8 4.7 | 3.99 244.t4 79.2 2499 217.6 5.90
140 1.562 14.876 173.8 80.7 4.71 3.89 214.23 75.3 27sO 306 5.84
150 1,781 r4.438 t53.7 90.7 4.7 | 3.78 308.51 71.0 3020 336 5,77
0.r88 1s.634 302.40 11.70 s.24 5.14 40 13t,0 574 s't.4 7.00
10s 0.218 I9.564 300.60 13.55 5.24 5.12 46 130.2 56,3 6.99
i; 0.250 19.500 298.6 15.5r 5.24 5.I I 52.73 t29.5 757 75.7 6.98
20 ;; 1s.250 291.0 23.r2 5.24 5.04 78.50 126,0 lll4 n t.4 6.94
20 30 xs 0.500 r9.000 283.S 30.6 5.24 4,97 t04.I3 t22.8 1457 I45.7 6.90
20.000 40 0.593 r8.8I4 278.0 36.2 4.93 r22.91 t20.4 1704 170.4
60 0.812 r8.376 265.2 48.9 5.24 4.8r r66.40 lls.0 22s? 225.? 6.79
0.875 18.250 52,8 5.24 1.78 178.73 1t3.4 2405 240.9
80 1.03r 17.s38 252-7 61.4 s.24 4.70 208,87 109.{ 2772 277.2
100 1.281 17.438 238.8 75.3 5.24 4.57 t03,4 3320 332
276 Mechanical Desisn of Process Svstems

PROPERTIES OF PIPE (Continued)

notlrindl
pip6 .iz€ schedule woll idrids 6q It sq lt rroight Ino|'lent aection tcdiut
thick- di(rm- idaide met(ll weight
outside ir16ide ol nodu- gytq-
sutldce, 6urlcce,
po!It,
sq in. aq in tbf
pe! ll, in€rti(r, lus, tior
rn. b i!L per lt perlt lb ia.. in.

r20 1.500 17.000 227.0 47.2 5.24 4.45 296.37 98.3 3760 376 6.S6
20
I40 1.750 16.500 213.8 100.3 s-24 1-32 341.10 92.6 4220 422 6,48
20.000
160 1.968 I6.064 202-',l Iu.5 5,24 4.21 37S.01 87.S 4590 459 6.41
0.188 2L.824 367.3 12.88 5.76 44 t59.1 766 69.7 1,71
t0s 0.218 2I.564 365.2 t4.92 5.76 5.65 158.2 88S 80.4 7.10
i; 0.250 21.500 363.1 17.t8 5.?6 5.63 157.4 l0l0 91.8 7.63
20 io 0.375 2r.250 354.7 25.48 5.76 5.56 87 I53.7 1490 135.4
30 xs 0.500 21.000 346.4 33.77 5.76 5_50 l15 150.2 1953 t77.5
0.625 20.?s0 338.2 4t.97 5.76 s.43 143 146.6 2400 2t4.2 7.56
22 0.7s0 20.500 330.1 50.07 5.37 170 l{3.1 2429 zs1 -2 ?.52
22.000 ;; 0.875 20.250 322.1 58.07 5.76 5.30 197 r39.6 3245 295.0 7.17
80 1.125 19.750 306.4 73.78 5.76 5.17 25r 132.8 4029 366.3 7,33
100 I.375 19.2s0 231.0 89.09 5.76 5.04 303 t26.2 475S 432.6 7.31
120 I.625 18.750 276.1 104.02 5.76 4.91 354 u9.6 493.S 7.23
I40 1.87s I8.250 261.6 1t8.55 5.76 4.78 403 113.3 6054 550.3 7.15
r60 2.t25 17,750 247.4 I32.68 5.75 4.65 451 t07.2 602,1 1.07
l0 0.250 23.500 434 18.65 6.28 63.41 188.0 l3l6 109.6 8.40
20 srd 0.375 23.250 425 27.83 6.28 6.09 94.62 183.8 1943 161.9 8.35
0.500 23.000 415 6.28 6.02 125.49 180.1 2550 2r2.5 8.31
30 0.562 22.876 4ll 41.4 6.28 5.99 140.80 178.1 2840 237.0 8.29
0.62s 22.750 406 5.28 5.96 t56.03 t78.2 3140 281.4 4.21
io 0.687 22.628 402 s0.3 6.28 5.92 vt.r? t74.3 3420 245.2 8.2S
0.750 22.500 398 54.8 6.28 5.89 186.2{ t72.4 37I0 309 8-22
:: 0.218 23.564 436.1 16.29 6.28 s5 r88.9 lt52 96.0 8.41
24.000 0.875 22.250 388.6 63.54 6.28 5.83 216 42S6 3s4.7 8.18
60 0.968 22.064 382 70.0 6.28 5.78 238.11 165.8 4650 388 Lt5
80 I.218 21.564 365 47.2 6.28 296.36 158.3 5670 473 8.07
100 1.531 20.938 344 r08.I 6.28 5.48 367.40 1{9,3 6850 57I 7.96
t20 l.8I? 20.316 328 126.3 6.28 5.33 429.39 141.4 7830 7.87
t40 2.062 19.876 3t0 r42.1 8.28 5.20 483.13 134.5 8630 719 7.r9
160 2.343 19.314 159.4 6.28 5.06 5{1.94 t27.O 9460 788 7.70
0.2s0 25.500 s10.7 I9.S5 6.81 6.68 221.1 I646 126.6 9.10
10 0.3I2 25.376 505.8 25.18 6.81 6.64 2t9.2 20?6 r59.7 9,08
srd 0.37s 25.250 500.7 30.I9 6.81 6.61 I03 217.1 2418 I90.6 9.06
20 xs 0.500 25.000 490.9 40.06 6.54 r36 2t2.8 3259 250.7 9.02
28
0.625 24.750 481.1 49.S2 6.8I 6.48 l6s 208.6 40I3 308.7 8.98
26.000
0.750 24.500 471.4 59.49 6.8t 6.4I 202 204.4 4744 364.9 8.93
0.875 24.250 461.9 69.07 6.81 6.35 235 200.2 54S8 4I9.9 8.89
L000 24.000 452.4 78.54 6.81 6.28 267 I96.1 6149 4?3.0 8.85
l l25 23.750 443.0 8?.91 6.81 6.22 299 192,1 6813 524,1 8.80

0.250 27.500 594.0 21.80 1,20 74 257.3 2098 t49.8 9.8r

l0 0.3I2 2',1.376 588.6 27.t4 7.t7 92 255,0 260r 185.8 9.79
srd 0.375 27.250 583.2 32.54 7.33 lll 252.6 3105 221.e 9,7',1
20 xs 0.500 27.400 572.6 13.20 7.07 244.0 408S 291.8 9,72
2A
30 0.625 26.7S0 562.0 s3.75 7.33 7.00 183 243.4 5038 359.8 9.68
28.000
0.750 26.500 64.21 7.33 6.94 2ta 238.9 5964 426.0 9.61
0.875 26.250 54I.2 74.56 253 234.4 {90.3 9.60
1.000 26.000 530.S 84.82 6.8t 288 230.0 7740 552.8 9.55
Ll25 25.750 520.8 94.98 6.7r 323 225.6 s590 613.6 9.51

0.250 29.500 683.4 23.37 7.85 7.72 79 296.3 258S 172.3 10.52

30
l0 l0s 0.3I2 25.316 617.8 29.19 7.85 7.69 99 293.7 3201 213.4 10.50

30.000
srd 0.375 29.250 672.0 34.90 7.85 9 251.2 3823 2S4.8 t0.48
20 xs 0.500 29.000 650.5 46.34 7.85 7.59 r58 286.2 335.5 10.43
30 0.625 z8.'ts0 649.2 57.68 7.8s 7.53 281.3 62I3 4t4.2 10.39
 Appendix C: Properties of Pipe 277

PROPERTIES OF PIPE (Continued)

nomincl
schedule
woll inside sq It sq It weight rddius
pipe si:e inside rrlelal weight
lhick- didtn- oulside inside ol modu- gYra-
outside per Il,
neat, sultcce. per ft inertid, Iug, tion,
diamelet,
ilr. sq. in, Bq. in. per ft per It lbf tb in.' in.3 in.
b

40 0.750 28.s00 637.9 68.92 7.85 7.44 234 276.6 137 r 49t.4 10.34
30 0.875 28.2s0 620.? 80.06 7.85 7.3S 272 27 t.B 8494 566.2 10.30
30.000 1.000 28.000 6I5.7 9t.l l 7.33 3t0 267.O 9591 63S.4 10.25
1.t25 27 .',t 50 604.7 t02.05 7.85 347 262.2 10653 't t0.2 r0.22

0.250 31.500 779.2 24.9s 8.38 8.25 85 337.8 3l4 t 196.3 tt.22
l0 o.312 3r.376 7'13,2 31.02 8.38 8.21 106 335.2 3891 243.2 u.20
rio 0.375 3t.250 766.9 31,2s 8.38 8.18 t2'l 332.5 4656 291.0 I l.l8
20 XS 0.s00 31.000 754;1 49.48 8.38 Lll 168 327.2 6l{0 383.8 I l.l4
32 30 0.62s 30.750 742.5 61.59 8.38 8.0s 209 321.9 7578 473.6 I LoS
32.000 10 0.688 30.624 736.6 8.38 8.02 230 319.0 8298 518.6 I1.07
0.750 30.s00 730.5 73.63 8.38 7.98 250 3t6.7 8990 561.9 11.05
0.875 30.2s0 718.3 85.52 8.38 7.92 291 3l1.6 t8372 648.2 I l.0I
1.000 30.000 706.8 97.38 8.38 7.85 331 306.4 n680 730.0 10.95
LI25 29.750 694.7 109.0 8.38 7.ts 371 301.3 1302s 814.0 10.92

0.2s0 33.500 881.2 26.50 8.S0 4.77 90 382.0 371s 22t.9 11.93
10 0.312 33.376 s74.9 32.99 8.90 8.74 tt2 379.3 4680 275.3 I l.9l
srd 0.375 33.2s0 867.8 39.61 8.S0 8.70 135 3',18,2 s597 329.2 II.89
20 XS 0.500 33.000 855.3 52.62 LS0 8.64 l?s 370.8 7385 434.4 I1.85
34 30 0.625 32.750 841.9 65.53 8.90 223 365.0 9124 s36.7 I1.80
34.000 40 0.688 32.624 835.9 72.O0 8.90 8.54 245 9992 587.8 I1.78
0.7s0 32.500 82S.3 78.34 8.90 8.51 359.5 10829 637.0 r 1.76
0.875 32.2s0 8r6.4 91.0t 8.S0 8.44 310 354.1 l2s0l 735.4 tt.12
1.000 32.000 804.2 103.67 8.S0 8.38 353 348.6 141t4 830.2
I.I25 31.7s0 79r.3 116.13 8.90 8.31 395 343.2 15719 924.1 I I.63

0.250 35.500 98S.7 28.1r 9.42 9.29 96 429.1 4491 249.S 12.64
l0 0.312 35.376 s82.9 34.S5 9-42 s.26 ll9 426.1 309.1 t2.62
;,; 0.37S 35.250 975.8 42.01 9-42 9.23 143 423.1 6684 370.2 12.59
2D xs 0.500 35.000 962.1 9.42 9.16 I90 4t1.1 8785 48S.I 12.55

36.000
30 0.625 34.750 948,3 69.50 9-42 s.l0 236 4I l.l t0a72 604.0 t2.51
40 0.750 34.500 934.7 83.01 9.42 9.03 282 405.3 I2898 716.5 12.16
0.875 34.250 920.5 96.50 9.42 8.97 324 399.4 I4903 82',1.9 12.42
1.000 34.000 907.9 109.96 9.42 8.90 374 393.6 I685I s36.2 12.38
Ll25 33.750 894.2 123.I9 9.42 8.89 419 387.9 r8763 1042.4 t2.34

0.250 41.500 1352.6 32.82 10.99 I0.86 l12 586.4 7t26 339.3 I4.73
srd 0.375 41.250 r336.3 49.08 10.s9 10.80 167 s79.3 to627 506.1 14.71
20 xs 0.500 41.000 1320.2 65.I8 10.99 I0.73 222 s72.3 14037 668.4 14.67
42 30 0.6?5 40.7s0 1304.1 81.28 t0.99 10.67 565.{ 17373 827.3 14.62
42.000 40 0.750 40.500 1288.2 97.23 r0.99 10.60 330 558.4 20589 985.2 14.59
I.000 40.000 I256.6 r28.81 10.99 10.47 438 544.8 27080 1289.5 14.s0
1.250 33.500 r22S-3 I60.03 10.s9 10.3{ 544 53t.2 33233 1582.5 t4.41
1.500 39.000 1194.5 I90.S5 10.99 t0.21 649 5I7.S 3918I 1865.7 t4.33
278 Mechanical Desien of Process Svstems

INSI'LATION WEIGI{T FACTORS

To determine the seight per foot of any piping
insulation, use the pipe size and nominal insulation
thickness to find the insulation l'eight factor F in the
chart shorvn belorv. Then multiply F by the density
of the insulation in pounds per cubic foot.
Erample. For 4" pipe rvith 4" nominal thickness
insulation, F : .77. It the insulation density is
12 pounds per cubic foot, then the insulation rveight
b .77 x 12 : 9.24lb/tt.

Nominal Nominal Insulation Thickness

Pipe Size 1%" 2rA" 3%" 4" 4%" 5%" 6"

I .057 .10 .16 .31 .40

r% .051 .30 .39
lt/i .066 .11 .29 .38 .48
2 .080 .r4 .21 ,29 .47 .59

2% .091 .19 .36 .46 .58 .70 .83

3 .r0 .34 .68 .81
3% .23 .41 .54 .66 .97
4 .30 .39 .cr .63 .96 1.10

.24 .34 .45 .58 .88 t.04 1.20

6 .38 .64 .97 r.13 1.34
8 .34 .66 .80 1.17 1.36 1.56 1.75
10 .43 .59 .93 1.32 1.99

t2 .50 .68 .88 1.07 1.52 1.99 2.24 2.50

l4 .70 .90 l.l I 1.3.{ 1.81 2.O7 2.34 2.62
.74 1.01 1.24 1.49 1.7 4 2.01 2.29 2.58 2.88
18 .87 \.\2 |.37 1.64 1.92 2.51 2.82 3.14

20 .70 .96 1.23 1.50 1.79 2.09 2.40 2.73 3.06 3.40
24 .83 1.13 t.44 2.10 2.44 2.80 3.16 3.54 3.92

LOAD CARRYING CAPACITIES OF THREADED HOT ROLLED STEEL ROD

CONFORMING TO ASTM A.36
Nominal Rod r% 3'h
Diameter, in. lz % v4 1 1 1r/e 2 2y4 21/2 2y4 3 3r/q

Root Area of .068 ,126 .202 .302 .419 .693 .889 1.293 1.7 44 2.300 3.023 3.?19 4.619 5.621 6.724 7.918
Thread, sq, in.
Max. Safe Load,
lbs. at Rod 610 1130 1810 21L0 3??0 4960 6230 8000 11630 15700 20700 21200 33500 41580 50580 60480 ?1280
Temp. of 650"F
 Appendix C: Properties of Pipe 279

WEIGHTS OF PIPING MATERIALS l" prpe r.sr3' o.D.

Au-r'
z /\
i.
?
w
{l\
z E-I
4/ a^
B

t_J-----,

\]J
Temperature Range 'F
tr{agnesia
z Calcium
F
Combina-
tion
z
Fiber-
Sodium

type is ueight in
Boldface
ffi pounds. Lightface t]'pe benerth
weight is veight factor for
z
,t & insulation.
Instrlation thicknesses and
weights are based on average
conditions and do not constitute
Njs a recommendation for specific
thicknesses oI materials. Insula-
tion Neights are based on 85/6
{|s.:ssr magnesia and hvdrous calcium
silic&te et 1l lbs,i cubic foot. The
listed thicknesses and Neights of
7 T}
'-11 combination covering are the
sums of ihe inner layer of dia-
F 4l tomacecus earth at 2l lbs/cubic
foot and the outer layer at
N
/9N
11 lbs,/cubicfoot.
Insulotion rveights include al-
z.( lorvcnces for wire, cemerrt, can-
vas, bands and paint, but not
special
- surface finishes.
To find the weight of covering
on flanges, valves or fittings,
multiply the \veight frctor by the
uoight.pcr foot of covering nsed

@tr\
on slrarght prpe.
Vf,tve \veights 3re rpproxi-
mate. When possible, obtain
qJ Neights from the nranufacturer.
Cast iron valve $eights are for

+€ flangcd end valves; steel $eighLs

for welding end velves.
AII flanged fitting, fl&nged
Fsc valve and fllnge $'eights include
the DroDorlion.l \leieht of bolts
or siudi to make up all joiots,
* 16 lb cu. ft. density.
280 Mechanical De:ign of Process Systems

l/a" wen r.660, o.D. WEIGHTS OF PIPING MATERIALS

z
F f'^
t+,!
z HJ
3 -4L.
E:::t
F
ttl
n_Lt
{- i--r
\LJ
Tenrpcraturc Range "F

Nom. Thick.,In.
Ma,gnesia
! Calcium
! Silicate

o
z
uon

Fiber-
Sodium

Boldface type is s'eight in

ffi pounds. Lightface type benerth
weight
insulation.
is weight factor Jor

I effi
z Insulation thicknesses and
weights are based on average
conditions and do not constitute
a recommendation for specinc
fs-is$ thicknessesof ma,terials- Insula-
tion weights are based on 85%
! T:lii--qF magnesia and hydrous calcium
silicate &t 11 lbs/cubic foot. The
.-al listed ihicknesses and i{eights of
z /A combination covering are the
6ums of the inner layer ol dia-
4 tomaceous earth at 21 lbs/cubic
foot and ihe outer laycr at
11 lbs/cubic foot.
,N
7 /> Insulstion weights include al-
Iowances for wire, cement, csn-
vas, bands end peint, but not
speeial
- surface finishes,
To find the weight of covering
on flanges, valves or fittings,
1.<3 multiply the weightfactor by the
werghl per loot ol coverrng used

@l[' )
on strargnt prpe.
Valve weights are approxi-
mate. lVhen possible, obtain
$'eights from the manufacturer.
Cast iron velve weiqhts arc for

+€ flanged end valves; sGel weights

for weldins end valves.
.All flanged fitting,
rc
flanged
valve and flange weights include
the Drooortionrl weiqht of bolts
or si,udi: to make up all joinl,s.
* 16 lb cu. ft. density.
 Appendix C: Properties of Pipe 281

WEIGHTS OF PIPING MATERIALS r.eoo" o.D. l/2" Ywn

Schedule No. 40 80 160
Wall Designation srd. XS xxs
L Lic kness-In. .145 .200 .28r .400
A
Pipe-Lbs/Ft 3.63 4.86 6.41
lVater-Lbs/Ft .88 ,77 .61 .41

fl.2
IJJ L.R. 90' Elbow
.E 1.1 1.{ 1.8

n
z^"{"u
S.R. 90' Elbow
.6
.3
.8 1

E
E
{_O L.R. 45' Elbow .2 .2

r-i\
(, F!-+ Tee .6 .6
3.1
.6
3.7
.6

e /.,e^ Lateral 1.3

5.4
1.3
.6 .7 1.2
Lt_! Reducer .2 t t
(----1--l
\IJ c"p .3
.5
.3
.7

Temperature Range 'tr' t00-1c9 200-299 300-309 400-499 500-599 600-699 700-799 300-s99 c00-3c9 1000-1009 1100-1200

\om. Thick., In. 1 1 r% 2 2 2r/6 2% 2% 3 3 3

2 Lbs/Ft .84 .84 1.35 2-52 3.47 3.47 3.47 4.52 4.52 4.SZ

Nom. Thick.,In. 2)i 214 2% 3 3 3

N Combina-
z Lbs/Ft 4.20 4.20 4.20 5.6t 5-62 5.62

Fiber- \om. Thick., In. I 1 r% lr/4 2 2 2rz 2% 3 3

Sodium Lbs/Ft 1.07 1.07 1.07 1.E5 1.85 3.50 3.50 4.76 4,16 6.16 6.16
Cast Iron Steel
Prc-rsure Raiing Boldface tlpe is rfeight in
psr 125 250 150 3C0 400 600 900 1500 2500
oounds. Lichttace
- hDc bencath
Screwed or l9 3l ivcight rveight' iactor lor
sffi$ Slip-On
3.5 7 8 9 9
1.5
19 is
insul:rtion.

:ffi \Yelding Neck

9 t2 t2 19
1.5
l9
l9
1.5
l9
34
1.5
3l
Insub.tion ihickncsses
*eights arc based on average
conditioris and do not constitute
D recommendation for specific
and

ss]s Lap Joini

E 9 9
1.5 thicknessesof m$terials. lnsula-
tion Neights are bcsed oD 8570
7 9 10 t0 l9 19 3l
d}.'.=N! Blind 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 3,?il*'11 ll'9"lxli:l:","'.*'"is,3
,a .'11 10 23 26 46 rd sscights
listed thiclinesscs cn(l cights of
I / ,tJ S.R. 90" nlbow 3.8 3.9 combin.tion covering ing are the
sums of t,he inner lrver of dir-
13 tomaceous earth at 2l lbs:
lbsr'cubic
cubic
L.R. 90' Elbow fooi and the outcr :cr lD,l'er 5t
lD,J'er 5n
e,\
z t44\ 45" Elborv
9 l1
3.4 3.5
23 39
11 lbs/cul)ic foot.
bs includc al-
Insulltion weights
lo$lnccs for 'iviro, ccmenl.
ccment. ctn-
t7 20 30 70 vcs, bllncls {Lnd plint,
rint, but not
tc lF -ll Tee 5.6 5.8 6 strccial
- sulf.rce linishcs.
hcs.
lt of covcring
To find the rvcight
flanged l3onnet 70 t25 on tlonlles, vxlvcs or fittiogs,
fittitrgs,
1=<l Gxte 6.8 .1.5 multipll; tlic wciFht frctor
fr, tor bv the
\\cighi t)cr foot of covcring uscd
:ovcring'uscd
Flanged Bonneb 45 170 on stftLisht lliDc.
* k33
40
Clobe or Angle 5 Vxlvc- \\(iihts rrc
arc apptori-
:rlrptori-
-obtlin
matc, Whcn Dossiblc,
siblc, obtoin
ll0
3uu Irlanged Bonnet
Check
30 4D rvoights from thi mtnufacturcr.
irnufarcturcr.
'eights rre for
Cast iron vtlve weights
lllnged cnd vrlves; stccl \eights
J<[J Itressure SeaI
Rorrret-Crie 1.9
42 42 for rveldine cnd valvcs.
.\ll flriised fitting,
;ing, flanged
flanged
.ights include
valve rnd 1|rngc ivcights includc
Pressurc Seal
FSO Bonnet-Globe the l,rorntlion l N(iglrt ol l)olts
cight of
up:rll
l)olts
or sluds to m.tku up :rll ioints.
ioints,
' 16 lb cu. ft. density.
242 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

2" ptpn zs. B, o.D. IVEIGHTS OF PIPING MATERIALS

!r

u'N

u,r'
z
Ih
d-J.-t
-r--r-\
z
/>
fin
{_L_!

Temperature Range oF

Magnesia
z Calcium
F
5 Combina-
tron
z
Fiber-
Sodium

Boldface tyDe is weisht in

pounds, Lighifbce type bdneath
Nr$ weigit. b weight factor
lnsutailon.
for
Insulation thicknesses and
z
+fi$ weights are based on average
conclrtrons and do not constitute
N*s & recommendation for soecific
thicknesses of materials. I_nsula-
iioo veights are based on 85/o
cr.i-s magnesia and hydrous calcium
silicate at 11 lbs/cubic foot. The
/A,
listed thicknesses and weishts of
z /a) combination coverinc are the
sums of the inner laler of dia-
,-61 tomsceous earth at 2l lbs/cubic
foot and the outer layer at
,N 1l lbs/cubic foot.
z /D , Insulaiion weights include al-
lowances Iol wlre, cemen!, can-
vas, bands and oaint. but not
IN' '{I special surface finishes.
To 6nd the weieht of coverinc
on flanses. valvds or fittinssi
1.<l multiply tlie weight factor by tIe
weight.per foot of covering used

't
@
rfl
on-slr&lghl prpe.
valve wergnF are approxl-
mate. When possible, obtain
weights from th; msnuiacturer.
[],._/ Cast i.on valve weights are for
flanged end valves: sGel weiehts
+<t for ielding end vaives.
All nsnsed fittios. flanced
valve and flange weigF* inclide
FsO the prcportional weight of bolts
or 6tuds to make up all joints,
' 16 lb cu. It. density.
 fr

Appendix C: Properties of Pipe 283

WEIGHTS OF PIPING MATERIALS 2.87s" o.D. 2/2" Ywn

A
u-r'
7
F w
{T\
z E'
-l -/.>\
F--1
' /-A
q-!_,

\]J
Temperature Range "F

Magnesia
z Calcium
o

Combina-
f tron
z
Fiber-
Sodium

Boldface type is s'eight in

ffi pounds. Lightface type beneath
weight
insulation.
is weight factor for
Insulation Lhicknesses and
z
$q1$ weights are based on average
conditions and do not constitute
a recommendation for specific
Nl-s$ thicknesses oI materiels- Insula-
tion weights ere based on 85/6
N magnesio and hvdrous calcium
silicate at ll lbs/cubic foot. The
.-al listed thicknesses end rveights of
z combination covering are the
T.A sums of the inner laver of dia-
A
a-4
tomaceous eerth at 21 lbs/cubic
foot and the outer b,yer at
1l lbs/cubic foot.
,N Insulation weiqhts include al-
z L4 lowancesfor rvird, cement, can-
vas, bonds and peint, but not
special
- surf&ce linishes,
To find the weighi of covering
.|-{ on flanges, valves or fittings,
multiply the ileight factor by the
weight per foot of covering used

'l
@
flr)
on straight pipe.
Valve 1Aeights are approxi-
mate. Whe[ possible, obtain
weights fron the manufscturer.
Cast iron velve weiqhts sre for
flanged end valves; sGeI *eights
+<i for welding end valves.

+ 16
t4
lb cu. lt. density.
All flanged fitting, flanged
valve ond fiange iveights include
the proportional \ieight of bolts
o! studs to make up &ll joints,
284 Mechanical Design of Procesr Systems

3" B.boo' o.D. WEIGHTS OF I'IPING N{ATERIALS

"t"" Schedule No. 40 EO 1C0
Wall Dcsignation std. xs xxs
Tlrick ness-In . .216 .300 .438 .600
Pipe-Lbs/Ft 7.54 10.25 14.32 t8.56
\1'xter-Lbs/Ft 3.20 2.86 2.35 l.E0
4.6 8.4 lo.7
W L.R. 90' Elbow .8
6.1
.8 .8 .8

|4 {I/
zr\{it
E
S.R.90'Elbow

L.R. 45' Elbow

.5

.3
.5

.3
4.4
.3
5.4
.3

: {1\
r.'.'g Tce
7.4 12.2 14.8
3 .8 .8 .8 .8

rl F4q l9
Lsteral 1.8
3.7 4.7
(-r__) Rcducer .3 .3 .3 .z

\JJ cup .5
.1.8
.5 .5
3.7
.5

'li nrpcrrlur. ncngc'F 100,14r 200-:0c 300-3c9 100-lm 500-599 600-699 700-7s9 800-80s 900-g?9 1000-1099 1100-r200

Magnesia
\orn. Thllk., In. I 1 1k 2 2 2% 3 3 3 3% 3%
? Calcir.rm LLs Ft t-25 2.08 3.01 3.01 4.07 5.24 s.24 5.24
Y Silicete
\ont.'.t'hick., IIL 2\ 3 3 3 3% 3%

z II-1i Ft 5.07 6.94 6.94 6.94 9.17 9.17

\om. TLick., In. 1 I 1 1rz 1tz 2 2 3 3 3% 3%

Fiber-
Sodium Ll's, Ft 1.61 1.61 1.61 2.74 3.9E 3.9E 6.99 6.99 8.99 8.99

Pressurc Rating t-cst lron Steel

psr 125 250 150 300 400 600 900 1500 2500 Boldface iype is u'eight in
pounds. Lightface type bene3th

rffi
O r-Fn
Screwed
Slip-On
ot 9 17 9
1.5
tl
t7 20
1.5
20
1.5
6l

6l
102

ll3
$eieht is weight fachor for
insul&tion.
Insulation thicknesses and
? s{ ils Welding Neck 1.5
19
1.5 1.5 1.5
38
1.5 1.5 1.5 weighis are based on ave.age
average
.onditions and do not constitute
nstttule
9 19 l9 36 60 99 a recommendetion for specific
sPecific
N-i.s l,ap Joint 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 thicknesses of materials. Insula-
Insule-
l0 l9 l0 20 24 24 38 6l r05 tjon Neights are based on>n 85%
857a
qF{i.llqn Blind 1.5 1.5 1.5 macnesia and hvdrous calcium

26 46 32 53 67 98 r50
"ili;r. 't l1 lhs/crrhin foot
rot. The
listed thicknesses and $eights
ights of
o

2 l^a S.R- 90' Elbow 3.9 4 3.9 4.1 4.3 4.6 rre th
cornbination covering are the
sums of the inncr layer of dit
dia-
E /'11
L.R. 90' Elbow
30
4.3
50
4.3
40
4.3
63
4.3
tomrceous earth at 21 lbs/cubi
)s/cubic
tvcr at
Ioot and the outer laJcr a

B,N
u /9N 45" Elbow
41
3.6
2E 46 60
3.8
93
3.9
135
4
11 lbs,lcubic foot.
Insulation rveights includel rL-
al
for \rire, cenrent, crn
< .: lorvences
ves,.blnds and Irrrirrtr buL not
no
ti] 39 67 E1 102 l5l 23E
E BJ Tee 5.9 6 5.9 6 6.2 6.9 strccrcl
- surlace nnlsnes.
ll---J To hnd the Neight of covefnlg
coverinl
t55 260 410 on flanges, valves or fitting:
fittings,
{-<t Flanged Bonnet
Gate
66
7
70
I
125
1.8 5 5.5 multiply the Neight factor
welghl per loot ol coverlng
b\ the
)r bv th
rng usei
usect

,k€ tr'langed Bonnet

Globe or Angle
Flanged Bonnet
7.2
46
t2l
100
60
4.3
60
95

70
t55
1.8
r20 t50
495

440
on straight pipe.
Valve weights are approxr-
spproxi
mate. When possible, obtain
obtair
acturef.
weights from the ma,nufacturer.
j r\J Check 7.2 +.4 4.8 4.9 5.n Ls are for
Cist ilon valve weiehts fo
flansed end valves; steet. weights
weight
+<t Pressure Seal
Bonnet- Cate
208
3
235
for weldine end valves.
All flrnged 6tting,
rc
flanged
flange.
Pressure Seal r35 180 valve and llanse rleiqhtss include
includ
3 of bolts
the proportionlel \r eight.of bolt
Bonnet-Globc or studs to mirl(e uP all Il joints.
Jorntt
* 16 tb cu, ft. densitY,
 -

Appendix C: Properties of pipe 28.tt

WEIGHTS OF PIPING MATERIALS 4.ooo'o.D. 3/2" ewr.

Schedule No. 40 EO
Wall Dasignation srd. XS xxs
Thickness-In. .318 .636
Pip€-Lbs //Ft 9.tr t2.51 22.8s
Water-Lbs / Ft 4.28 3.85 2,53

6.4 8.7 l5.4

fr? L.R. 90' Elbow .9 .9 .9
4.3
ut {J-/ S.R. 90' Elbow
z^,
F [/) L.R. 45' Elbov
.6

4.4
.6

El#
: {l\ Tee
9.9
.9
t2.6
.9
20
.9

3 /)\ Lateral 1.8

26
1.4

/.-N
Irt Reduce!
3.1
.a .3
6.9
.3
2.t 2.a
cuP .6 .6 .6

Temperature Range 'F r00-199 200-209 300-399 400-499 500-599 600-699 700-799
800-899 900-999 1000-1099 1100-1200
agnesta
Nom. Thick., In. 1 1% 2 2% 2ti 3 3 3% 314 3%
: srlLcate Lbsi/Ft r.E3 1.83 3.71 4.EE 4.88 6.39 6.39 7.80 7.80 7.80
)mbina- Nom. Thick., In.
2% 3 3 316 3% 3%
6
z
tit Lbs/Ft 6.49 E.7l 8.7 | r0.6 r0.6 10-6
Nom. Thick., In. r% 1X
Fiber- 1 1 2 2 3 3 3% 3%
Sodium Lbs/Ft z.4l 2-41 3.65 5.07 5.07 E.66 8.66 r0.62 10.62
Pressure Rating Cast Iron Ste"l-_-
psr t25 250 150 300 400 Boldface _tvpe is *eighi in
,ffi Screwed
Slip-On
or 13 2l 13 21
600 900 r600 2500
Pounds. Llghtf:rce
lvelglrt.
msul& on.
is
t)pe benecth
\aeight fcctor for

itS l4 32 Insulation thicknesses and

3S4 Welding Neck 1.5 \eights are lssFd on averagc
" NIM Lap Joint
13 2l 26 26 a
condlt)ons xn.l Jo noI constiiute
recommendation for specific
1.5 1.5 thicknesses of rnetcriu,ls. I_nsrrh-
14 23 15 25 tion lveights are b:rscd on 8b7,
Efsfs$ Blind 1.5
35
m:rgnesir and hvdrous lrlcium
O ,'4 silicsle rt I I Ibs'cul,ic foot. The
2td
E-q
8.R.90'Elbow 4.L
49 82
4.3
listcd thickncsses :rnrl \.eiqhts of
combination coveriDg ar:e the
sums of the inner hier of dia-
40 62 54
L.R. 90" Elbow 4.4 4.4 4.4 tomil(eous e.Lrth at,21 lbs/cubic
Ioot and thc outer lll,!.er at
BN
O /. 3\ 45" Elbor
3l 5l 39 75 11 lbs:cubic foot.
Insulltion $eights inclutle al-
<.: 3.9 ,Iowances ioa wlre, cement, can-
E Ptn Tee
54
6
86
8.2
70
6
t33 vas, blncls &nd Dcint, but, not
6.4 spcciu.l surface fi nishes.
To firrd ihe $eigl,t of covering
Flanged Bonnct a2 t43 on llrnges, vxlves or
1"<3 Gste 7.1
90 155 180
4.8
360
5
5t0 fiftincs.
multit,lj thc $eight f"(bor l,v thc
Flanged Bonnet wuight per foot ol cov|jrinlj'usc(l
74 137
Globe or Angle
160 on straiqht DiDe.
7.7
HKP Fhnged Bonnet 125
Vxlvc \,eigl,ts rrc epprori-
ma,te. When possible. obtlin
fqJ 7.3 7.7
t2s rveights from th_e mtnuiacturer.
( ust iron v{Llvc Neiq}rts arc lor
+<t Pressure Seal
Bonnet-Gate
t40 | 295
2.5 | :.8
3E0 flangtd entl velvesistaci leishts
Ior rveldirrg end vdves.

l€ Pressure Serl
Bonnet-Globe
* 16 lb cu. ft. density.
3
,\ll fluhged fit tins, fllrnsc,l
vxlve xnd flxnge rrcigl'rs inclu,le
thc proporlional weight of bolts
or studs to mcke up:rll joints.
286 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

4" prcn 4.500' o.D. 1YEIGHTS OF PIPING MATERIALS

\\ attr-l-bs/I t

f'2
!x
tr2
o
z {,\
F t-i .t

z
{i\
HI
e-

\IJ
'l'cmtx,miurr lLrngc'Ir

Ilagnesia
z Celcium
o
F
I Coml)inl- Nom.'l'hick., In.
iion
z
Fiber-
Sodium

Boldface type is rveight in

pounds. Lightf:lce tl'pe benextlr
$'eight is weight lactor lor
insulation.
Insulation thicknesses end
l Stits weights are based on average
conditions and do not constitutc
a recommendation fol spccific
thicknesses of materials. Insull-
tion weights are based on 85t;
magnesia and hydrous calcium
silicate &t 11 ibs/cubic foot. The
listed thicknesses and \\'eights of
z combination covering are the
F /''ll sums of ihe inner layer of dia-
/A et 2l lbs,/cubic
tomaceous earth
foot and the oute! la\.cr at
,N 11 lbs/cubic foot.
7 /> Insulation weighL includc al-
lowances Ior uire, cement, can-
vas, bands and paint, but not
special
- surface finishes.
To find the weight of covering
on flanges, valves or fittings,
F{3 multiply the we;ght frctor by thc
Neight per foot of covering uscd

@ ,lr1
on straight, pipe.
Valve wcights arc approrii-
mcte. When possiblc, obtrin
lveights from thc manuf&cturer.
Cast iron valve lvcights &rc for

+€ flanged end valves; stecl \cights

for lelding cnd valves.

rc All fleriged fittins, flanged

valve rnd flange rvcights inciude
the proportional rveight ol bolts
or studs to make up all joiDts.
" 16 lb cu. ft. densitv.
 C

Appendix C: Properties of Pipe 287

WEIGHTS OF PIPING MATERIALS 5.563" O.D. 5" PtPe

(-!j
z |
F
w
fl-\
15.6 r7 .7

z
4'e.
B
,-'1-l
c_i_)
a-1--r

Tcmperature Range 'F

Fiber-
z Sodium
F
Combina-
tion
z
Magnesia
Calcium

BolJfrce type is rreight in

pounds. l,ighbf.lce tYpe beneeth
ffir$ $'eight
insul.rtion.
is weight lactor for

z lnsulation thicknesses and

s{lrs lreights rre
besed on everage
conditions and do not constitute
$sj-N$ a recommendotion for specific
thicknesses of m&teri3ls. Insuh-
tion weights :rre based on 85%
Els:i-:5$ magnesia and hvdrous calcium
silicate at 11 lbs/cubic foot. The
listcd thicknesses and \'eights of
z combination covering are the
F /11 sums of the inner layer of dia-
/r4 tomoceous earth at 2l lbs/cubic
Ioot and thc outcr l&r-er at
,N 1l lbs/cubic {oot.
z /> Insulotion l eights include al-
lorvances for {ire, cement, can-
vas, bands and p&int, but not
ti ll'
IH 'll special surfrrcc {inishes.

t{
To find the rveight of covering
on llanges, volvcs or fittings,
multitt]'thc wcight f$ctor by thc
\reight pcr foot of covoring used

@ on straight pipe.
Vdve rveights arc
mate. When possible, obtain
opproxi-
J
0 Flanged Bonnet
Check
weights from the manuflcturer.
Cast iton valve rveights are for
flonged end valves; steel rleights
++3 for welding end valves-

* 16
rc lt cu. ft. density.
All flangetl Iitting, flrnged
vslvc and flange weights include
the proportional weight of bolts
or studs to rnake up all joints.
288 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

6" ,t n 6.625. o.D. WEIGHTS OF PIPING X{ATERIALS

gJ-f
z
{n
a-1J

z
{1\
E:cl
E_=_=r
'
!._!____,

\t/Tcmpcraturc llange 'F

liom. Thick., In.
Ma,gnesia
2 Calcium
o
F
D
Combinl-
tion
z
tr'iber-
Sodium

Boldface iype is weight in

oounds. Liehtface tr.pe
' beneath
q eight is - weight iactor for
4q-x$ insulation.
Insulation thicknesses and
z sfil$ weights are based on average
conditions and do not constitute
a recommendation for specific
dN-s thicknesses of matedals. Insula-
tion weights &re based on 85%
{Jss;s magnesia and hvdrous calcium
s;liAte at 1l lbs/cubic foot. The
listed thicknesses and weights of
z #4l ,41
combina,tion covering are the
sums of the inner layer of dia-
tomaceous ea,rth at 21 lbs/cubic
foot and the outer layer at
11 lbs/cubic foot.
= ,N Insulation $eights include al-
z
/9s
Eq-A lowances for rriie, cement, can-
vas, bands snd paint, but not
lt' '{t sDecial
- surface finishes.
To find the $eight of covering
on ffanges, valves or 6ttings,
t{3 multipit the eight frctor b-\' the
u
!\eight per foot of covering used

3 @ on straight pipe.
Valve $eights are {rppror -
mate. When possible, obtain
ir) weights from the manufecturer.
Cast iron valve weights are for
flenged end valves; steel weights
+<i for selding end valves.
All ffanged titting, flanged

ffi vclve and flenge Neights in.lude

thc DroDortronal wcight of bolts
or studi to mrke ut rll joints.
* 16 lb cu. ft. densitJ'.
 il

Appendix C: Properties of PiP. 249

WEIGHTS OF PIPING MATERIALS 8.625. O.D. 8"

"r",

A
e,
T,Jr'
z
F
F uJ
z
{T\
r';J
,
lA
/t\
rFr

\iJ
Temperature Range 'F 1r00-1200

Magnesia
z Calcium
F
Combina-
2 tron

Fiber-
Sodium

Roldfrce tlpe is $eight in

ffi trounds. L;qhtfcce
ireiglrt. -;s
tvoe
' beneath
\rcight iacLor lor
2 Insulation thicknesses and
s{tlts rlcights cre brsed on rveruge
conditions cn.I do not corstitute
$s is a recommendation
thicknesses
for
of materills- Insula-
specific

tion \reights cre based on 85lo

!N magnesia and hydrous cslcium
siiicate at 1l lbs/cubic foot. The
z A listed thicknesses and leights of
combination covering are the
sums of the inner loyer of dia-
F
rA tomaceous eadh at 21 lbs/cubic
loot snd the outer lol er at
A
/>
1l lbs/cubic foot.
Insulation rveights include al-
z €ela lowances for uire, cement, can-
vas,.b!.nds ond paint, but not
sDectal
- surlace nnrsh€s.
To find the weisht of coverins
on flanges, vrlvis or fittings,
1-{3 multiply the \aeightf&ctor by the

t4s^ \Yeight.per foot of covering used

on strarqn! prDe,
Yalve rvciIhts cre appro\i-
mcte. l\rhcn possible, obtxin
\leights from th6 manuflcturer.
Cast ilon valve iveights ore for

+<t flanged end

All flanged
vrlves;stecl \\'eights
for \\elding enLl valves.
fittine, flanged
vslve and flongc Neights jnclude
FsO the proportionlrl lveight of bolts
* 16 lb cu. ft, density, or studs to make up all joints.
290 Mechanical Design of Process Systcms

10t'prpe ,o.zso" \VIJIGIITS OT PIPING I{ATDRI,\i,S

\\-rtcr-Lbs ' l' i

IA
(,
z //\
k w
{i\
E.-I
.l 4'd',

!-l_,
t,t!

Trmprrx6url 11''ra. "P

N'Iagnesia
z Calcium

Combina- \om. Thick., In.

uon

\om. TlLn k., I rr.

Fiber-
Sodium

Boldfcce type is neight in

ffi pounds. Lightfece t) pc benertll
$cight.
lnsut& on.
is $eight, Jsctor for
A,/TmA
z qIS Insulrt,ion thicknesscs and
I l\S We)ding Neck iveights arc based on avenge
conditions and do not constitute
N-ls a rccommendrtion for specific
thicknesses of matcdcls. Insul:r-
tion \ieiqhts are bascd oir E59.
ry--rp magnesii and hldrous calciuni
silicate at 1l lbs/cubic foot. The
listed thicknesses and $eights of
z combination covering are the
,--ll sums of the inner laler of dia-
F tomeceous earth at 21 lbs/cubic
foot and the outer laver s,t
11 lbs/cubic foot.
z
/> Insulation \Yeishts include al-
lowonces for rdr;, cement, cen-
tP ql vas, bands and paint, but not
special surlace frnishes,
To find the wejsht of coverine
on flonges, valvds or 6ttings]
J-<3 multipll bt the
the neight f:rctor
Neight per foot of covering used

'l
@ on strsight pipc.
|alve \rcishts ore luorori-
matc. \\'hcn- possil)le,
-;l)trirr
\r0iqhls from thc n)rnufscturcr.
ll.J Crrst iron rrlvc $cights rfe for

++l 13rngcd t'nrl \.l|lvcsi stccl Neights

fot l-clding end vrlves.

rc -\11 flrngcd fitting, fllnged

vslve and flcngc $eig)r1s inrlude
thc propottionul \eight of bolts
or studs to rn.rke up all joints.
* 16 lb cu. ft. densitl..
 Appendix C: Properties of Pipe 291

WEIGHTS OF PIPING MATERIALS rz.75o" o.D. 12" prpx

Schedule No. 20 30 40 60 80 r00 I20 140 160
Wall Designation std. XS
Thickness-In. .250 .330 .406 .500 .562 .687 I .843 1.000 1.125 1.312
Pipe-Lbs/Ft 33.36 43.E 49.6 53.5 65.4 73.2 8E.5 1t07.2 r25.5 r39.7 160.3
Wster-Lbs/Ft 5l.t0 49.7 49.0 48.5 47 .0 46.0 4,r.0 I 4r.6 39.3 37 .5 34.9

{? L.R. 90' Elbow

lr9 t57 375

nuj
4 S.R. 90" Elbow
80
3

104
2

7fh
F:- L.R. 45" Elbow
60
1.3
7a IEl
1.3
r32 167 360
7
- J,l

s
180 273
) Lateral 5.4 5.4
' 33 44 94
Reducer .7
30 38 t9
Crp
Temperature Range 'tr' r00-199 200-299 300-399 400-499 500-599 600-699 700-7s9 800-899 900-999 1000-1099
1100-1200
Nom. Tbick.,In. 1% 1% 2 2tz 3 3 3% 4 4% 4%
{-iryTiu
Y Silicate Lbs/Ft 6.04 6.04 E.13 10,5 12,7 15.1 t7.9 17.9 20.4 20.4

{ uomotna- Nom. Thick., In. 3 3% 4 4 4% 4%

7 tion
Lbs/Ft
z 17.7 2t.9 26.7 26-7 3r.l 31.1

Fiber- Nom. Thick.,In. 1% 1% lrl 1% r% 2% 2% 4 5

Sodiuo Lbs/Ft 5.22 14.20 14.20 24.@ a.g 32.& 32,&
Prcssure Rating
Cast lron r
psr 250 150 300 400 600 | 900 1500 2500 BoJdface t1'pe is rvciqht in
pounds. Lightfaco tlpe bencxth
Bs$ Screwed or
Slip-On
7L
t.5
137 l1() 164
1.5
26r
1.5
|
|
388
1.5
E20 l6u \reigl,f. js reight frctor for
ldsulallon.
!stu Welding Neck
88 163
1.5
2t2
1.5
272 |
1.5 I
434
1.5
843
r.5
1919
1.5
Insulrtion thickncsses and
neights are base<l on aver:rte
" Nls Lap Joint
164
1.5
t87 286 | 433 902 1573
conditions and do not constitule
& Iccommendatio4 fot
tliicknesses of materirls. Iirsul:r-
suecific

s\"ssF
96 177 11E 209 261 341 | 475 928 1775 tion Neighis are l,rsrd on E5%
1.5 | 1.5 mrgncsiu and hrdrous calcium
o ,-{t silicxte at lL lbs/'cubic loot. The
2Ld
,. Al
S.R. 90' Elbow
265 453
5.2
345
5
509 669 E15 1474
6.2
listed thickncsscs and Ncishts of
combinrtion covering aie the
sums of thc inner loier of dirr-
| lA L.R. 90' Elbow
375
6.2 6.2
485
6.2
624
6.2
l59E
6.2
tomlceous ctrth at 21 lbs/cubic

EA
z&4 45" Elbow
235
4.3
3E3
4.3 4.3
414
4.3
469
4.5
?0sI rr24
4.7 | 4.8
foot and thc outer la\'er at
11 lbsTcubic foot.
Insuhtion rvcights includc al-
,to\l'anccs lor $lrc, ccncnt, can-
dflq Tee
403 684 513 754
7.8
943
8.3
136 t
8.7 9.3
v:rs, hanrls lrnd Drint, but not
spccial surface firishes.
To lin,l bhc ur'rglrt of coveling
Flanqed BonDet on flxrgcs, vrlvcs or fittirrae.
1.{3 687
7.a
l29a
4
1015
5
1420 2155
7
2770 4650
8 mult;l'h tl,c \reiglrt i,, tul l,\.the
\\(iAht l)cr foot ol coverirrg uscd
*@ Flaneed Bonnet
Globi or Angle
80E
9.4
r200
9.5.
7r0
5
1410 on strrlalrt DrDc.
Vrtr e rrcights
m:*c. \1'herr possil'le,
rtc errnlori-
obt:rin
j rqJ
Flanged BoDnet
Check
674
9.4
I160
9.5
560 720 1410
7.2
2600
8
3370
8
r'cights from the m:rnuilrcturcr.
Crlst iron vtlye wciqlrts &rc lor
{={t Pressure Seal
Bonnet-Gate
1975
5.5
2560
6
45t5
7
flangctl end v0lves: stccl \eichts
Jor rrcltiine cnd vclves. -
.\lt flerrgcd fitting, fl:rnged
ts0 Pressure Seal
Bonnet-GIobe
vnlvc rn4 lixfigc \rcigirts include
thc proportionrl Ncight
or studs to make
lcight of bolts
mrkc up rll joints.
rrn all ininlq
' 16 lb cu. ft. den6rty,
292 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

14" ptnE 14" o.D. 1VEIGHTS 0F PIPING IIATERIALS

{?
z
|. fh
z
{t}
EJJ
t -=;t
/-\
\t/Temnr.r:1turc Rrngc 'F
Nlaguesia
2 Calcium
F
Conlbina-
Nom. Thick.,In.
tlon
z
Fibe!-
Sodium

tlpe is rrcight in
Boldlacc
ffi pouncls. Lightface tl'pe bencalh
$eight is \eight f.rctor tor
insulation.
z Insulation lhicknesscs and
6{rls $eights arc besed on
conditions and do not constitute
average

ds]s a recommendalion for spccilic

thicknesses of materials. Insula-
tion tieights al.e based on E5fi
Elsisp magnesia and hvdrous ralcium
silicate at 11 lbs/cubic foot. The
listed thicknesses and rveights of
z /A combination covering are thc
sums of the inner laver of dia-
|. ,-11 tomaceous e:rrth xt 2l lbs/cubic
// foot and the outer lal er et
11 lbs,/cubic foot.
,\ lnsulaiion weights include al-
I t& lorvances Ior uire, cement,
vas, bands and paini,, bui not
can-

D' .{ special surfece finishcs.

To find the $eight of covering

+.{ on flanges, valves or fittings,

multipl] the \\'ejght facior by the
lYeight pcr foot oI covering used

@
r)
on straight, pipe.
Valve rveights are approri-
mete. When possible, obtain
scigbts from tha manufrcturer.
CasL ilon valve Neights are for
flanged end vrlvcs; steel *eights
+<t tor rYelding end valvcs.

rc All flanged frttiDg, flanged

vrlve end frcnge $rights include
the proportionri \rcighi of holts
or studs to meke up all joints.
* 16 lb cu. ft. density
 I

Appendix C: Properries oi Pipe 2gl

WEIGHTS OF PIPING MATERIALS ro'o.o. 16t' prpt

G
t4
n
L!_r'
z
F f>\
L4J

z
{l\
e4'4
B
r't\
!+i

f--.+--l

Temperature liange 'F 1100-1200

Xlagnesia
! Calcium
i Silicate
j Cornbina-
6 tion
z

Sodium

Bo i.lce t\.pe is rveielrt in

Se pounJs. Lightfi, ettpe benesth
rferqht is \\eislrt frctor fof
lnsul&lton.
z
s{-N Insulation thicknesses and
ireights .Ire bascd on avcrrge
Nis conditions and clo not consiir.u[e
a recommendrtion for succitic
thicknesses of materiais. Iirsul:r-
s\sf tion \\'eights are brsed on 859%
magnesil and hydrous cllciui

z d silicate rt ll lbs/cuLic [oot. 'Ihe

Iisted thicknesses and seights of
combrlctlon covering ace the
|.
A sums of the inner laier qI dia-
tomsceous eorth at 2l lbs/cubic
foot and the outer layer at
,N 11 lbs/cubic foot.
z !!!q _ Insuiation weights include al-
1 lovances Ior wirc, cem€nt, can-
vas,.bands and-' pxint, but not
specrat surlace hnlshes.
To_ find Lhe weight of covering
on llxngcs, vnlves or
1"<3 multipl] t|e
fittines.
weight flctor bl the

E
t
@
fi1
werght.pcr foot uf covcriDg uscd
on strxrqht DlDe,
Valve rri-iel,ts al,rrroxi-
^re 0l,tcin
m.Ltc. \\'hcn I'ossil)le,
weights from th_e manui:rciuror-
Cast iroD vrlve $cishts cre for
+<t flangcd cud valvesi stiel $eiehts

l4 for rvelding end v:rlves.

AII flrngcd fitting,
vclve and flxngc ncights i clude
the proportionrl weight of bolts
or studs to make up all joints.
frxnged

' 16 lb cu. ft. density.

294 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

18" prpo 18" o.D. WEIGI{TS OT' PIPING MATDRIALS

{.!-r'
z
F
F
f>\
a-+-!

z
{T\
I-5:I
B
-t\"
&\
\JJ
'fonrl)erllturc lhrlac'Ir
Magnesia
2 Calcium
o
F
Combin.r- .\oro. Thi, k.,ln.
f tron
z
Fiber-
Sodium

Soldface i,r'pc is rrcight in

ffi pounds. Ligbtl.rce
tcigl,t is scight factor
insulation.
tlpc

Insul&tion thicknesses and

benecth
for

z
stfN$ Fcights arc bascd on average
conditions and do not constitute
Nls c lecommcnd:ltion for
thickncsscs of mstcriols- Insuls-
tion $eights &re b:rsed on 85%
specific

qN rnagnesia and h)'drous calcium

silicate at 11 lbs/cubic foot. The
listed thickncsses and rveights of
7 combinction covcling arc the
F sums oI the inner layer of dia-
r7 tom&ceous clLrth at 21 lbs/cubic
foot and the outer laycr at
,N 11 ibs/cubic foot,
Insulqtion $'cights include al-
,]O$an(:os
z 4!44 1or \\-rre, cemcni, can-
.S ves,.1'ends and- pflint, but not
D', Slrcr-li1l sUl I3CC IlnlSnCS.
B--rl To find the rvcight of covering
on flrngr-s, valvcs or fittings,
multitilj the $ c;glrt fxctor by the
Neight t)cr foot of covering used

@ on.sirlrigLt pipe,
v srvc \{crgn[s crc apl)roxl-
mate. \Vhen possiblc, obtain
IU \\cights from the manuf&cturer.
Cast ilon velve \Yeights &re for

+<t flanged end valves; stecl weights

for u clding end valvbs.

rc All fl:rnged fitting, flanged

valve and fiange \\riHhts include
the proportion:rl \cight of bolts
or studs to make up all joints.
* 16 lb cu. ft. deDsity.
 Appendix C: Properties of Pipe 295

WEIGTITS OF PIPING ]TATURI,\LS zo" o.D. 20" ptpp.

Pipe-Lbs/ I t
$ atcr-l,bs,,lft

to
z f\
w
{l\
z L=I
F4'1
f-l
LJ-!

Tempcrriurc llrnge "F 1100-r200

Magnesis,
z Calcium

Combina-
!ton
z
Fiber-
Sodium

Roldfrce tvpe is \\'cight in

pounrls. Liglrtfrce t) po bcnerth
4dJ$ \\ciglrt. is Neiglrt flctor for
z
$fu Insulrtion thit knesses rnd
$cights rrc b.rscd on avcrrqe
curditions rLnd do not roD-qtituie
Njis l reconrmt'ntlrtiori for. spccific
thickncssrs ol nlrtolirls. Iirsula-
tion rveights ruc brscrL on 55.,1
qlss,rs rn:rgncsio :rnd hldrous rllrium
silicllte rrt 1l lbs ruhit foot. The
,-8. listc(l tl\i(,lincsscs r!n(l rvcislrts of
z /Ai comlrinotidl covoring rio the
A sums of the irrner l:uer of rlir-
tornsceous crrth rlt 21 lbs (ul)ic
Ioot .rnd thc outcr la|er rt
,N 11 ll)s'(ul)i0 foot.
hsu|rtion Noights irv.ludc r1-
z le-{ lorvlrnccs for ivir{], (cmont. (1!n-
vrs, brnds url prLint, but, not
sp(,( ill
su frlco {inishos.
To liud tho \\ c;ght of covcring
,rrr l1lLrrg' s, vrl!(s or fittirrgs,
rnLrltitlt tlrt $eielrt hrrtor l,r thc
leig[i lrcl foot JI coverirrA uscd
@
flr\
Flanged Bonnet
Globe or Angle
orr stlLlight l)il)c.
|itlvu $1 i{lrts rlc rr)r,ro\i-
nrxto. \\'lrrn possil,lc,
-ol,trin
n1'ights from thc nlxnulllcturcr.
OlL\t, irorr vxlvc NoigLts urc for
fllugctl cnrl v:rlvcs; stccl Neights
+<{ for lel<lins end vulvrs.

'
rc
16 Ib cu. ft. deDsity.
-\ll fitngcrl Iitting, ilrrngcd
vlllve &n(l llllngc ryci'alrts il)(ludc
thc prol)ortionrl \ycight of l)olts
or studs to mrke up ull joir)ts.
296 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

24" ptpB 24, o.D. \YItIGIII'S OF PIPING IIATEITL\LS

\\'rll Dcsigrr,rtiou

f,.d
1,!J

{G
z t\
t-
w
{i}
1_'*,.1
z
14'1
/i\
-t
Lr----t
i--t
\*t"J
'I-cnDer:lturc llcngc "F

Norn. TLick., In.

Magnesia,
z Calcium
9
Conrbine-
tiolr
z
Fiber-
Sodium

Boldfrre is weight in
ffi lleight.
,t\pe tJpe benexth
pounos, Lrgnlttce
is $eight factor for
Insulation thicknesses and
z
j
+r[1$ \reights are based on average
conditions &nd do not constituie
N+S a recommendction for specific
thicknesscs of msterials. Insule-
tion $cights are b.rsed on 857,
l:N magncsia and hydrous calcium
silicste rt 1l lbs/cubic foot. The
listed thicknesses and \eiqhts of
combination covering are the
sums of the inner laver of dia-
/14 tomaceous certh at 2l lbs/cubic
foot and the outer laver at
,N ll lbs/cubic foot.
z
/> Insulation *eights include al-
,loNMces 1ot wlre, cement, can-
l,, .{ vas, bands and paint, but not
D---S speciel surface finishes.

ffi
To find the geieht of coverins
on Banges, vrlvis or 6ttinss]
muJtipll the rreight factor by the
\aeiglrt.lrrr foot ol covering used

@
fi1
on sLrsrght DlDe.
\'Rlvt $ciehts rre annroxi-
mxtc. \\'hen- possiblc,
-obtain
\'eights from thi manuflcturer.
3 Cast iron valve \icights :rre for
frengcd end v:rlvcs, steeJ *eights
J-<t lor \reldrng end vslves.

rc A)l flerrged tittins, 63nsed

vxlve ar)d {lrngc seights include
thc proporiiunxl \reight of bolts
or sLuds to mekc up all ioints.
* 16 lb cu. ft. deDity.
 I

Appendix C: Properties of pipe E7

W!]I(;I]TS OF PIPING MATERIALS za" o.o 26tt prpt

fif
u-r'
7 h
IL4J
F
{l}
E=:l
F
-4\"
,TI
ri\
u/
r-r--r

Temperature Range 'F

llagnesi.r
Celcirrm
o
= irrltcate
F

A tion
3 ;r:r:::::
Fiber-
Sodium

Boldface tvDe is weisht in

pounds. Lighiface typ"e be-
ffi$ neath weight is weight factor
ror lnsulalron.
Insulation thicknesses and
weights are based on average
S{''l$ conditions and do not consai-
tute a recommendation for
specific thicknesses of mate-
N-l-s rials. Insulation weights ale
based on 85% masnesia and
d\slN|] hydrous calcium siiicate at 11
lbs/cubic foot. The listed thick-
/'41 nesses and weights of combi-

z
t4 nation covering are the sums
of the inner later of diatoma-
3 ceous ealth it 21 lbs/cubic
foot and the outer laver at
,N i1 lbs/cubic foot.
z aglg/> Insulation weiphts include
allowances for w_ire, cement,
canvas, bands and paint. but
B,s
Ht not special surface finishes.
To find the weiqht of cover-
ing on flanges, valves or fit-
F<] tings, multiply the weight fac-
tor by the weight per foot of

@
lll')
covering used on straiqht Dipe.
Valve weishts are aoorbii-
mate. When- possible. bbtain
weights from manufacturer-
Cast iron valve weights are
for flanged end valves: steel
+<f weights forweldinqendvalyes.
All flanged fittlng, flanged
valve and flange welghts in-
FqJ clude.the prolo.rtiohal weight
oI oorls or studs to make uD
* 16 lb cu. ft. densit\-. all joints.
298 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

28" prpn 28" o.D. WEIGHTS OF PIPING MATERIALS

ff
&?
f^
F w
z
{i\
E::I
F -4\.
t-t-!
f---Fr
\iJ
Temperature Range "F

trIxgnesia
Cclcium

Combina-
!ron

Fiber
Sodium

Boldface type is weight in

pounds. Lishtface tvDe be-
neath weigii is weighi'factor
ffi rot lnsulatron.
Insulation thicknesses and

& weights are based on average

conolllons and do not constl-
tute a recommendation for
Nis specific thicknesses of mate-
rials. Insulation weiphts are
based on 8570 masnesia and
EN hydrous calcium silicat4 at 11
lbs/cubic foot. The listed thick-
A nesses and weishts of combi-
nation coverind are the sums

#
z of the inner lafer of diatoma-
F ceous earth at 21 lbs/cubic
F foot and the outer laver at
11 lbs/cubic foot,
,N Insulation weiehts include
/9N allowances for wlre, cement,
z canvas, bands and paint.
-6nishes.but
D',
F-Jl'il
hot special surface
To find the weisht of covei-
ing on flanges, v-alves or fit-
tings, multiply the weight fac-
l"<3 tor by the weight per foot of

@
covering used.on straight pipe.
v arve welghts are approxt-
mat€. When possible, obtain
weights from manufacturer,
ll
m Cast iron valve weishts are
for flanged ehd valves; steel
+<i weightsforweldingend valves.
All flansed fittins. flansed

l 16
rcli cu. ft. density.
valve and-flanse wiiehts "in-
clude.the propo-!tional- wei ght
ol Dolts or studs to make ur)
all joints,
 if,

Appendix C: Properties of Pipre Ag

\ 'EIC I ITS ()F'PIPIN'; IIIATFIRTALS Bo'o.D. 30" "rpe

45

u-r'
z ! ii
z
{i\
lj:I
i .4\"

\tJ
-!----l

Temperature Range 'F

\Iagnesia
Calcium

Fiber-
Sodirrm

Boldface ti,pe is weight in

pounds. Lightface type be-
neath w€ight is weight factor
ffi IOr lnsulailon.
Insulation thicknesses and
weights are based on average
z
sf,J$ conditions and do not consti-
tute a recommendation for
Nl$ specific thicknesses of mate-
lials. Insulation vreights are
based on 85i. maqn-sia and
{f.,-::r:q} hydrous calcium siticate at 11
lbs/cubic foot. The listed thick-
nesses and weights of combi-
nation covering are the sums
of the inner layer of diatoma-
z 4l ceous earth at 21 lbs/cubic
F foot and the outer layer. at
1l lbs/cubic foot-
,\ Insulation weights include
allorvances for w-ire, cement,
7 canvas, bands and paint, but
B,s not special surface ffnishes.
To find the weight of cover-
ing on flanges, valves or fit-
tings, multiply the weight fac-
i;>t tor by the weight per foot of
covering used.on straight pipe.
u>
/ ltl
v alve werEhts are approxr-
mate. When possible,;btain
weights from manufacturer.
\ .ll, Cast iron valve weights are
for flanged end valves; steel
@t weights for weldingend valves.
All flanged 6tting, flanged
valve anO nanqe werghts rn-
clude,the proportionai- wei ght
e$-+ oI, oolEs or studs !o make up
* 16 lb cu. ft. density. alI Joln!s.
300 Mechanical Design of process Systems

32" prcn 82, o.D. WEIGHTS OF PIPING MATERIALS

{!-r'
z
F
I i)
{l\
L-Li
2

b E:-:t
f,t\
ri\
\tJ
Temperature Range .F

Magnesia
Calcium
Z Siliccte

l UOmOrna-
5 tion

Fib€r-
Sodium

Boldface type is weight in

pounds, Lightface type be-

ffi neath weight is weight factof

for insulation.
Insulation thicknesses and

$fu weights are based on average

conditions and do not consti-
tute a recommendation fo!
specifrc thicknesses of hate-
fs],m rials. Insulation weights are
based on 85% magnesia and
qJt.rrr.:qs hydrous calcium silicat€ at 11
lbs/cubic foot. The listed thick-
AI nesses and weights of combi-
/.4 nation covering are the sums

d
z of the inner lay€r of diatoma-
F ceous earth at 21 lbs/cubic
tr foot and the oute! layer at
11 lbs/cubic foot.

z
A
9.4
Insulation weights include
allowances for wire, cement,
canvas, bands and paint, but
D' .f not special surface finishes,
B_{i To find the weight of cover-
ing on flanges, valves or fit-
Fdl tings, multiply the weight fac-
tor by the weighi per foot of
covering used on straight pipe.
@ Valve weiEhts are approxi-
mate. When possible, obtain
weights from manufacturer.
D Cast iron valve weights are
for flanEed end valves; steel
+<i weights forweldingendvalves,
All flanged -fi tting, flanged

'
rc
16 lt cu. ft. density.
varve ano nange werEhts ln-
clude the proDortional weisht
of bolts o; stjuds to make-up
all joints.
 !r

Appendix C: Properties of Pipe 3Ol

WEIGHTS OF PIPING MATERIALS 84'o.D. 34" prpt

A
TJ-/
z
F
tr
b
{T\
z

F
//\"
E_=_=iI

"t\
\IJ
Temperature Range "F

Magnesia
Calcium

Fiber-
Sodium

Boldface type is weight in

pounds. Lightface type be-
neath weight is weight factor
ffi for insulation.
Insulation thicknesses
weights are based on average
and

2 conditions and do not consti-

3 stits tute a recommendation for
specific thicknesses of mate-
Sql-s$ rials. Insulation weights are
based on 85% magnesia and
hydrous calcium silicat€ at 11
N lbs/cubic foot. The listed thick-
nesses and weiehts of combi-
.-al nation coverine_ are the sums
/AJ of the inner laier of diatoma-
z ceous earth ai 21 lbs/cubic
t
F
AI foot and the outer layer at
/14 11 lbs/cubic foot.

z A Insulation weights include

allowances for u'ire, cement,
canvas, bands and paint, but
not special surface finishes.
|i'a To find the weight of cover-
ing on flanges, valves or frt-
+.{ tings, multiply the weight fac-
tor by the weight per foot of
covering used on straight pipe.

@ Valve weights are approxi-

mata. When possible, obtain
weights from manufacturer.
a Cast iron valve weights are
for flanged end valves; steel
weights lor weldingend valves.
+<i All flanged fitting, flanged

r
rc
16 lb cu. ft. deDsity.
valve and flange weights in-
clude,the proportional weight
oI Dolrs or stucts to make uD
all joints.
302 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

36tt prpo s6, o.D. WEIGHTS OF PIPING MATERIALS

Water-Lbs/Ft

f.; L.R.90' Elbow

{t/
/\
F
I tt
tr
{}
dJ
; 44"
L_r-!
\tJ
Temperature Range "F

Ilrgnesir
Crlcilrm.
z
F
J Com
!ton
z
Fiber-
Sodirm

Boldface type is weight in

pounds. Lightface type be-
neath weight is weight factor
ffi IOr lnsulatron_
Insulation thicknesses and
.,r,eights are based on average
6{-,l$ conditions and do not consti-
tute a recommendation for
specific thicknesses of mate-
N*S rials. Insulation weights are
based on 85% rnagnisia and
$:T,\1I hyd.ous calcium silicate at 11
ibs/cubic foot.The listed thick-
.4
/.4
nesses and weights of combi-
nation covering are the sums
of the inner layer of diatoma-
/.--tl ceous earth at 21 lbs/cubic
F foot and the outer layer at
11 lbslcubic foot,
,\ Insulation weights include
allowances for wire, cement,
z canvas, bands and paint, but
ll' 'rl
F--+l
not special surface finishes.
To find the weight of covet-
ing on flanges, valves or fit-
tings, multiply the weight fac-
Fd3 tor by the weight per foot of
coveri ng used.on straight pipe.
F{] v arve wergnrs are approxl-
mate. When possible, obtain
weights from manufacturer.
fi^l Cast iron valve weiqhts are
for flanged end valveis; steel
+<l weights forweldingend valves.
All flanged fitting, flanged
valve ano nange werghts rn-
clude the proportional weieht
FsO of. bolts oi siuds to make'up
all lolnls.
 304 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Alphabetical Conversion Factors

TO CONVERT I NTO MULTIPLY 8Y TO COI{VERT ll{T0 MULTIPLY BY
A Btu/hr Sran-cal/sec 0.0700
Abcoulomb Statcoulombs 2.998 x l0'o Btu/hr horsepoweahrs 3.929 x 10-.
Sq. chajn (Gunters) t0 Btu/hr watts 0.2931
Rods 160 Btu/min toot-lbs/sec 12.96
Acre Square links (Gunters) lx1O5 8tu/min hoasepower 0.02356
Hectaae or Btu/min kilowatts 0.01757
sq. hectometer .4047 Btu/man watts 17.57
acres sq feet 43,560.0 Btu/sq ft/min watts/sq in.
sq meters
o.t22l
4,O47. Bucket (Br. dry) Cubic Cm. 1.818 x 10
acres
acres
sq mrles 1.562 x l0 ' bushels cu ft 1.2445
sq yards 4,840, bushels cu in.
acre-feet 2,t50.4
cu feet 43,560.0 bushels cu meters 0.03524
acre'feet ga ons 3.259 x 105 bushels liters
amperes/sq cm 35.24
amps/sq In. 6.452 bushels pecks
amperes/5q cm 4.0
amps/sq meter l0l bushels pints (dry) 64.0
amperes/sq In. amps/sq cfi 0.1550 bushels quarts (dry)
ampetes/sq rn. 32.0
amps/sq meter 1,550.0
amperes/sq meter amps/sq cm 10.
amperes/sq mete. anps/sq in. 6.452 x 10 .
ampere,hours coutonbs 3,500.0
arnpere-hours faradays 0.03731 Calories, gram (mean) 8.T.U. (mean)
ampere-turns grlberts
3.9685 x 10-:
1.257 Candle/sq. cm Lambeds 3.142
ampere-turns/cm amp-turns/ In. 2.540 Candle/sq. inch Lamberts
ampere-turns/cm .4470
amp{urns/meter 100.0 centares (centiares) sq meters 1.0
ampere-turns/cm Salberts/cm t.257 Centigrade Fahrenheit (C'x9/5)+32
ampere.turns/in. amp-turns/cm 0.3937 centigrams grams 0.01
ampere-turns/ In, amp-turns/meter 39.37 Centiliter ounce ftuid (US)
ampere-lurns/tn, .3382
grlberts/cm 0.4950 Centiliter Cubic inch .6103
ampere-turns/metet amp/Iurns/cm 0.01 Centiliter drams
ampere-turns/meter 2.705
amp{urns/in. o.0244 centiliters liters 0.0r
ampete-tufns/metel gilberts/cm 0.o1257 centimeters feet
Angstrom unit
3.281 x 10-'
tncn 3937 x 10-' centimetels inches 0.3937
Angstrom unit Meter I x l0-r' centrmeters kilometers 10- 5
Angstrom unit Micron or {Mu) 1x 10-. centimeters meters 0.01
Acre (US) .0247 | centimeters miles 6,214 x LO-r
sq. yards 119,60 centameters millimeters 10.0
ates acreS o.02471 centimeters m ils
ares sq meters 100.0 centimetels yards l-094 x 10-I
Astronomical Unit Kilometers 1.495 x 10 centimeteFdynes cm-8rans 1.020 x l0-'
Atmospheres Ton/sq. inch .007348 centimeteFdynes meter-kgs 1.020 x 10-.
atmospneres cms of mercury 76.O centimeter-dynes Pound-feet 7.376 x 10 |
atmospheres ft of water (at 4"C) 33.90 centimeter-grams cfi-dynes 980.7
atmospheres in. of mercury (at 0.C) 29.92 centimetergrams meter-kgs 10 -5
atmospheres xgs/ sq cm 1.0333 centrmeter-gfams pound{eet 7.233 x l0-5
almospheres kgs/sq meter 10,332. centjmeters of mercury atmospneres 0.01316
almospheres Pounds/sq in. 14.70 centrmeters of mercury feet of water 0.4461
atmospheres tons/sq ft 1.058 centimeters of mercury kgs/sq meter 136.0
centimeters of rnercury pounds/sq ft
centimeters of mercury Pounds/sq in. 0.1934
B centameters/s?c teet/min 1.1969
Barrels (U.S., dry) centimeterc/sec leet/sec 0.03281
cu, Inches 7056. centimeters/sec
Earrels (U,S., dry) quarts (dry) kilometels/hr 0.036
105.0 centimeters/sec
Barrels (U.S., liquid) ga ons knots 0.1943
barrels (ojl) gallons (oil) centimeterc/sec meters/min
42.O centimeters/sec
oars atmospheres 0.9869 m iles/hr o.02237
bars centimeters/sec fiiles/min 3.728 x 10-.
oynes/sq cm 106 centimeterc/sec/sec
Dars kgs/sq meter feet/sec/sec 0.03281
1.020 x 10. centimeters/sec/sec
bars pounds/sq ft kms/hrlsec 0.036
2,089, centimeters/sec/sec
bars pounds/sq in. meters/sec/sec 0.01
14.50 centimeters/sec/sec
Batyl Dyne/sq. cm. miles/hrlsec o.02237
1.000 Chain Inches
Eolt {US Cloth) Meters 792.0O
BTU Chain meters 20.12
Liter-Atmosphere 10.409 Chains (surveyors'
8tu ergs 1.0550 x 10'o
8tu or Gunter's) yards 22.OO
loot-lbs 77a.3 circular mils
Btu gram-caiones sq cms 5.057 x l0-.
btu circular mils sq mils 0.7854
hofsepower-hrs 3.931 x 10 | Circumference Radians
Btu joules 1,054.8 circular mils
8tu sq inches 7.854 x 10-'
krlogram,calories o.2520 Cords
Btu cord feet 8
xrogram-rheters r07.5 Cord feet
Btu cu. feet
krlowatt-hrs 2,928 x lO-. Coulomb
Btu /hr foot-pounds/sec
Statcoulombs 2.998 x 10
o.2162 coulombs laradays 1.036 x 10-!
 L

Appendix D: Conversion Factors 305

(Continued). Alphabetical Conversion Factors

TO CONVERT INTO MUI.TIPLY BY CONVERT
TO INTO MULTIPLY BY
coulomb9/sq cm coulombs/sq in. degrees/sec radians/sec 0.01745
coulombs/sq cm coulombs/sq meter 101 degrees/sec revolutions/min 0.1667
coulombs/sq in. coulombs/sq cm 0.1550 degrees/sec revolutions/sec 2.778 x LO .
coulombs/sq in. coulombs/sq meter dekagrafis gGms 10.0
coulombs/sq meter coulofibs/sq crh 10-. dekaliters liters 10.0
coulombs/sq meter coulombs/sq in. 6.452 x 10-' dekameters metets 10.0
cubic centimeters cu feet 3.531 x 10 5 Drams (apothecaries'
cubic centimete6 cu Incnes 0.06102 or troy) ounces {avoidupois} 0.r371429
cubac centimeters cu mete6 10-6 Drams (apothecaries'
cubic centimeteas cu yards 1.308 x 10-. or troy) ounces (troy) 0.125
cubic centimeters gallons (U. S. liq.) 2.642 x 10-. Drams (U.S.,
cubic centimeters liters 0.001 fluid or apoth.) cubic cfi.
cubic centimeters pints (U.S. tiq.) 2.113 x 10-l olams grafis 1.7718
cubic cent;meters quats (U.S. liq.) 1.057 x 10-' drams grains 27.3437
cubic leet bushels (dry) drams ounces 0.0625
0.8036
cubic feet cu cms Dyne/cm Erglsq. millimete. .01
cubic feet cu inches -24320.O
|,728.O
oyne/sq. cm. 9.869 x 10-'
cubic leet cu meters 0.02832
Dyne/sq. cm. Inch of lVercury at 0'C 2.953 x l05

cubic teet cu yards 0.03704

Dyne/sq. cm. Inch of Water at 4'C 4.015 x l0 .
cubic feet gallons (u.S. liq.) dynes grams 1.020 x 10-r
7.44052
cubic feet liters 2432 oynes joules/cm l0-'
cubic feet pints (U.S. liq.) dynes joules/meter (newtons) l0- 5
59.84
cubic feet quarts (U.S. liq.) dynes kilograms 1.020 x 10-.
29.92 poun0a t5
cubic feet/min dynes 7.233 x 10-,
cu cns/sec 472.0 pounds
cubic teet/min gallons/sec dynes 2.248 x lO 6
o.1247 oynes/sq cfi oars
cubic teet/min liters/sec 10_6
0.4720
cubic feet/min pounds of water/min 62.43
cubic feet/sec million gals/day 0.646317
cubic feet/sec Sallons/min 448.831
cubic inches cu cms Etl um. 114,30
cubic inches cu feet 5.787 x l0-. Erl tncnes 45
cubic inches cu metets 1.639 x 10-s
cubic inches tncn
cu yards 2.I43 x 10-5 Em, Pica
cublc inches gallons um, .4233
4.329 x t0-3
cubic inches lite.s 0.01639
Dyne
Btu
- cm/sec 1.000
cubic inches mal-feet
9.480 x 10-r'
1,061 x 105 erg5 dyne-centrmeters 1.0
cubic inches pints {U.S. tiq.) 0.03463
cubic inches quarts tU.S. liq.) erg5 foofpounds 7.367 x 10-i
o.ot132 ergs 0.2389 x 10-'
cubic meters bushels (dry) 28.38 ergs gram.cmS 1.020 x 10-:
cuDrc meters cu cms 106
cubic meters horsepower-hrs 3.7250 x 10-la
cu feet 35.31
cubic meters cu inches 61,023.0
ergs loules 10 r
cubic meters cu yards
kg-calories 2.389 x l0 -rr
1.308
cubic rneterc kg-meters 1.020 x 10 |
eallons (U.S. liq.) 264.2
cubac meters laters r,000.0
ergs kilowatlhrs O.2J78x IO tt
cubac meters pints (U.S. liq.) 2,113.0
ergs watt'houts 0.2778 x 10 -'o
cuorc meters quarts (U.S. liq.) Btu/min 5,688 x 10 '
r,057. ft-lbs/min
cubic yards cu cms 4.427 x lO-6
7.646 x 105
cu feet 27.O
ft-lbs/sec 7.3756 x l0-l
horsepo\der 1.341 x l0-ro
cu inches 46,656.0
cuFic yards cu meters o.7646
kg-calories/min 1.433 x 10 -,
cuorc yatos kilowatts 10- r0
Sallons (U.S. ljq.) 202.O
cubic yards liters 764.6
cuDrc yards pints (U.S. liq.) 1,615.9
quarts (U.S. ljq.) 807.9
cubic yards/min cubic ftlsec 0.45 farads mrcrofarads 106
cubic yards/min gallon5/sec 3.367
cubic yards/min Faraday/sec Ampere (absolute) 9.6500 x lcr.
lrters/sec 12.7 4 faradays ampere-hours 26.80
faradays coulombS 9.649 x lcr.
Fathom Nleter 1.828804
fathoms feet 6.0
0 leet centimeters 30.48
{eet krlometers 3.048 x l0-r
Dalton Gram 1.650 x 1.0-r. feet meters 0.3048
days seconds 86,400.0 feet mrles (naut,) 1.645 x 10-.
decrgrams grams 0.1 feet miles (stat.) 1.894 x 10 .
deciliters Irers 0.1 feet millimeters 304.8
oecrmeters meterS 0.1 teet m ils 1.2 x I Cl.
degrees (angte) qua0ranr5 0.01r1t feet of water armospneres 0.02950
degrees (angte) raclrans 0.01745 feet of water rn, of mercury 0.8826
degrees (angle) Seconos 3,600.0 feet of water kgs/sq cm 0.03048
306 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

(Continued). Alphabetical Conversion Factors

TO CONVERT I r'lT0 MULTIPLY BY TO CONVERT INTO MULTIPLY gY

feet of water kgs/sq meter 304.8 g.ains {troy) grains (avdp) 1.0
feet of water pounds/sq ft 62.43 grains (troy) grams 0.06480
feet of water poLrnds/sq in. 0.4335 grains (troy) ounces {avdp) 2.0833 x 10-1
leet/nin cms/sec 0.5080 grains (troy) pennyweight (troy) 0.04167
feet/min feet/sec 0.01667 grains/l.J.S. gal parts/million 17.118
teet/min kms/hr 0.01829 Srains/U.S. gal pounds/million gal 142.86
feet/ rn in meters/min 0.3048 graans/ lmp. gal parts/million 14.286
feet/ rnin miles/hr 0.01136 Srarns dynes 980.7
feet/sec cms/sec 30.48 grams grains 15.43
feet/sec kms/hr 1.097 grams joules/cm 9.807 x 10-!
teet/sec knot5 0.5921 Srams joules/rneter (newtons) 9.807 x 10-r
feet/sec meters/min 14.29 Srams kilograms 0.001
feet/sec miles/hr 0.6818 Srarns milligrams 1,000.
leet/sec miles/min 0.01136 grams ounces (avdp) o.03527
leet/sec/sec cms/sec/sec 30.48 grams ouhces (troy) 0.03215
feet/sec/sec kms/hrlsec 1.097 Srams poundals 0.07093
feet/sec/sec meters/sec/sec 0.3048 Srams pounds 2.205 x 10-r
feet/sec/sec miles/hrlsec 0.6818 grarns/cm pounds/inch 5.600 x 10-l
feet/ 100 feet per cent graoe 1.0 grams/cu cm pounds/cu ft 62.43
Foot - candle Lumen/sq. meter 10.764 grams/cu cm pounds/cu in 0.03613
Btu r.286 x 10 l grams/cu cm pounds/mil-foot 3.405 x 10-'
foofpounds ergs 1.356 x 107 grams/ liter graans/gal 58.417
foot-pounds gram-calories 0.3238 Srams/ liter pounds/ gal 8.345
np-nrs 5.050 x l0 ' grams/ liter pounds/cu ft 0.062427
foofpounds joules grarns/liter parts/mallaon 1,000.0
foot.pounds Kg-ca{ones 3.24 x 10-. grams/sq cm pounds/sq tt 2.0481
foot-pounds kg-meters 0.1383 gram'calofle5 8tu 3.9683 x 10-!
foo!pounds kilovr'att-hrs 3.766 x 10 , Sram-catofles ergS 4.1868 x l0'
foot'pounds/ min Btu/min 1.286 x 10 ! gram-calories foot-pounds 3.0880
foot-pounds/ min foot-pounds/sec 0.01667 gram-catofle5 horsepower-hrs 1.5596 x 10 .
toot-pounds/min 3.030 x 10 -' gram-calones kilowatt-hrs 1.1630 x l0-.
toofpounds/min kg-calories/ min 3,24 x 10 . gram-calo es watt-hrs 1.1630 x l0-3
foot-pounds/man kilowatts 2.260 x lO- 5 gmm-calories/sec Btu/hr t4.2a6
foot-pounds/sec 8tu/hr gram-centimeters Btu 9.297 x 10 .
foot.pounds/sec Btu/min o.o7717 gram-centimeters ergs 980.7
foot-pounds/sec horsepower 1.818 x 10-' gram-centimeters joules 9.807 x l0-!
{oot-pounds/sec kg'calories/man 0.01945 gram-centimeters kg-cal 2.343 x 10-r
foot-pounds/sec kilowatts r.356 x 10-' gram-centimeters kg-meters l0 -5
Furlongs miles (U.S.) 0.125
furlongs rods 40.0
turlongs feet 660.0
H
Hand Cm. 10.16
necrares 2.47 |
hectares sq feet 1,076 x 10'
gallons cu cms 3,785.0 hectograms grams 100.0
Sallons cu feet 0.1337 hectoliters liters r00.0
Salrons cu inches 231.0 hectometers meters 100.0
gallons cu meters 3.785 x 10-' hectowatts watts 100.0
Sallons cu yards 4.951 x 10-1 hennes mrllihenries 1,000.0
gallons liters 3.785 Hogsheads {British) cubic ft. 10.114
gallons (liq. Br. Imp.) gallons (U.S. !iq.) 1.20095 Hogsheads (U.S.) cubic ft. 8.42184
gallons (U.S.) gallons (lmp.) 0.83267 Hogsheads (U.S.) Sallons (U,S.)
gallons of water pounds oJ water 8.3453 horsepower Bt!/min 4?.44
gallons /m in cu ft/sec 2.228 x lO- I
gallons/min ho15epower foot'lbs/ min 33,000.
liters/sec 0.06308 horsepower foot-lbs/sec 550.0
gallons / m in cu ftlhr 8.0208 horsepower (metric) 0.9863
horsepower
gausses lines/sq in. 6.452 (542.5 ft lb/sec) (550 ft lb/sec)
gausses weoers/sq cm 10 | horsepower horsepower (metric) 1.014
gausses webers/sq in. 6.452 x 10-l (550 ft lb/sec) (542.5 ft lb/sec)
gausses webers/sq meter 10-. horsepower kg-calories/min 10.68
gilberts ampere-turns 0.7958 horsepower kilowatts 0.7 457
gilberts/cm amp-turns/cm 0.7958 horsepower watts 7 45.7
gilberts/cm amp{urns/jn 2.021 horsepower (boiler) Bt!/hr 33.479
gilberts/cm amp{urns/meter 79.58 horsepower {boiler) kilowatts 9.803
Gills (Britash) cubrc cm. t4?.07 norsepower-nrs Btu 2,547.
gills liters 0.1183 norsepower-nts ergs 2.6845 x 10r'
gills pints (liq.) 0.25 norsepower-nrs loot-lbs 1.98 x 1Cl'
Grade Radian .0t571 horsepower-hrs gram-calories 641,190.
G€ins drams (avoirdupois) 0.035s7143 norsepower-hrs joules 2,684 x 10.
 1|

Appendix D: Conversion Factors T7

(Continued). Alphabetical Conversion Factors

TO CONVERT t1{T0 i,ULTIPLY BY TO CONVERT INTO MULTIPLY 8Y

kilograms/sq cm inches of mercury 24.96

horsepower-hls kg.calories 641.1
2.737 x LA
kalograms/sq cm pounds/sq ft 2,048.
horsepowet-nls kg-meters
kilowatt-hrs o.7457
kilograms/sq cm pounds/sq in. 14.22
horsepower-hrs
4.167 x 10-t
kilograms/sq heter atmospheres 9.678 x l0-'
hours days
5.952 x 10-t
kilograms/sq meter bars 98.07 x 10 '
houls kilograms/sq meter feet ot water 3.281 t 10 1
Hund.edvreiShts (long) pounds 112 kilograms/sq meter inches of mercury 2.896 x 10-1
Hundredweights (long) tons (long) 0.05
kilograms/sq meter pounds/sq ft 0.2048
Hundredwei ghts (short) ounces (avoirdupois) 1600
kilograms/sq rneter pounds/sq in. 1.422 x 10 t
Hundredweights (short) pounds 100
kgs/sq meter lcl'
kilograms/sq mm
Hundredweights (short) tons (metric) 0.0453592
Hundredweights (short) tons (long) 0.0446429 kilogram-calories Btu 3.968
kilogram-calories foot-pounds 3,088.
kilogram-calories hp-hrs 1.560 x l0 I
I kilogram-calories joules 4,185.
inches centimeters 2.540 kilogram.calories kg-meters 426.9
inches meters 2.540 x 10-r kilogram-calories kiiojoules 4.186
inches miles 1.578 x 10-, kilogram-calories kilowatt-hrs 1.163 x 10-'
inches millimeters 25.40 kalogram meters Btu 9.294 x l0 I
inches mtls I,000.0 kiiogram meters ergs 9.804 x 10t
inches yards 2.778 x lo-1 kilogram meters foot-pounds 7,233
anches of mercury atmospneres 0.03342 kilogram meters joules 9.804
inches ol mercury feet of water 1.133 kilogram meters kg-calories 2.342 x 1O-'
inches of
mercury kgs/sq cm 0.03453 kilogram meters kilowatt.hrs 2,723 x lO'.
inches of
mercury kgs/sq meter 345.3 kilolines maxwells 1,000.0
inches of
mercury pounds/sq ft 70.73 kiloliters liters 1,000.0
inches of
mercury pounds/sq in. o.4912 kilometers centimeters lot
inches of water (at 4'C) almospneres 2.458 x 10 I kilometers feet 3,281,
inches ot wate. (at 4'C) inches of mercury 0.07355 kilometers inches 3.937 x 1Cl.
inches of water (at 4'C) Kgs/sq cm 2.540 x 10-1 kilometers meters 1,000.0
inches of water (at 4'C) ounces/sq In. 0.5781
kilometers miles
pounds/sq ft 0,62f 4
inches oI water (at 4'C) 5.204
inches of water (at 4'C) pounds/sq in. 0.03613 kilometers millimeters lO
lnternational Ampere Ampere (absolute) .9998 kilometers yards 1,094.
International Volt Volts (absolute) 1.0003 kilometers/hr cms/sec 27.74
lnternational volt Joules (absolute) 1-593 x 10- " kilometers/hr feet/min 54.68
lnternational volt JOUIeS 9.554 x 10' kilometers/hr feet/sec 0.9113
kilometers/hr knots 0.5396
) kilometers/hr merets/ fltn lt.t /
JOules Btu 9.480 x 10-' kilometers/hr miles/hr 0.6214
joules ergs 107 kilometers/hr/sec cms/ sec/ sec zl,Ia
joules foot-pounds 0.7376 kilometerc/hr/sec ft/sec/sec 0.9113
joules kg-calories 2.389 x l0-' kilometers/hrlsec meters/sec/sec 0.2718
joules kg-meters 0.1020 kilometers/hr/sec mifes/hrlsec 0.6214
ioules watGhrs 2,778 x lO-' kilowatts Btu/min 55.92
iouies/cm grams 1.020 x 10. kilowatts foot-lbs/min 4,426 x W
joules/cm dynes 10t kilowatts foot-lbs/sec 737.6
joules/cm joules/meter(newtons) 100.0
joules/'cm poundals 723.3
kilowatts horsepower 1.341
joules/cm pounds 22,44
kilowatts kg-calo.ies/min 14.34
kilowatts watts 1,000,0
kilowatt'hrs Btu 3,413.
K kilowatt-hrs ergs 3.600 x 10rt
kilograms dynes 980,665. kilowatt-hrs footlbs 2.655 x 106
kilograms grams 1,000.0 kilowatt-hrs gram-calories 859,850.
kilograms joules/cm 0.09807 kilowatt-hrs horsepower-hrs 1.341
kilograms joules/meter(newtons) 9.8Q7 kilowatt-hrs joules 3.6 x lcl.
kilograms poundals 70.93 kilowatt-hrs kg-calories 860.5
kilograms pounds 2,205 kilowatt-hrs kg-meters 3.671 x lot
kilograms tons (long) 9.842 x 10-l kilowatt-hrs pounds of water
kilograms tons (short) 1.102 x !0 ' evaporated from and
kjlograms/cu meter grams/cu cm 0.001 at212'F. 3.53
kilograms/cu meter pounds/cu ft 0.06243 kilowatt-hrs pounds of water raised
kilog.ams/cu meter pounds/cu in. 3.613 x l0-' tuon62'to272'F. 22.75
kilograms/cu meter pounds/mil-foot 3.405 x l0-'o knots teet/hr 6,080.
kilograms/meter pounds/ft 0.6720
t(hots kilometers/hr 1.8532
KaloSram/sq. cm, Dynes 980,665
kilograms/sq cm atmospheres 0.9678 xnols nautical miles/hr 1.0
kilograms/sq cm leet of water 32.81 knots statute miles/hr 1.151
308 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

(Continued). Alphabetical Conversion Factors

TO CONVERT INTO MULTIPLY 8Y TO CONVERT INTO MULTIPLY BY

knots Yards lhl 2,027. microhms ohms 10-.

KNOIS feet/sec 1.689 m icroliteIs liters 10-.
Microns meters 1x 10-.
L miles (naut.) feet 6,080.27
miles (naut.) kilometers
league miles (approx.) 3.0
Light year Miles 5.9 x l.0r: miles (naut,) meteas 1,853.
Ljght year Kilometers 9.46091 x 101! miles (naut.) miles (statute) l.l.516
lines/sq cm 8aus5e5 1.0 miles (naut.) yaros 2,027.
lines/sq an. Sausses 0.1550 miles (statute) centimeters 1,609 x l0'
lines/sq in. 1.550 x 10-r males (statute) feet
lanes/sq in. webers/sq in. l0-l miles {statute) Inches 6.336 x 10
lines/sq in. webers/sq meter 1,550 x 10-' miles (statute) kilometerc r.509
links {engineer's) tncnes 12.O miles (statute) metels r,609.
links (surveyor's) Inches 7.92 miles (statute) males (naut.) 0.8684
liters bushels (U.S, dry) 0.02838 miles (statute) yaros 1,760.
lrterS cu cm 1,000.0 miles/hr cms/sec 44.70
Iiters cu feet 0.03531 miles/hr teet/min 88.
liters cu inches 6r.02 miles/hr feet/sec 1.467
liters cu meters 0.001 miles/hr kms/ht l.609
Ite15 cu yards 1.308 x l0-! miles/hr kms/min o.o26a2
liters gallons (U.S. liq.) o.2642 miles/hr knots 0.8584
lrters pints {U.S. liq.) m iles/hr rfieters/min 26.42
liters quarts (U.S. laq.) 1.057 miles/hr miles/min
liters/min cu ftlsec 5.886 x 10-' miles/hr/sec c|hs/sec/sec 44.70
liters/rhin gals/sec 4.403 x r0 ' miles/hr/sec feet/sec/sec 1.467
lumens/sq ft foot-candles 1.0 rniles/hrlsec kms/hrlsec 1.609
Lumen Spherical candle power .079s8 males/hr/sec meters/sec/sec 0.4470
Lumen Watt .001496 niles/ min cms/5ec 2,642.
Lumen/sq. ft. Lumon/sq. meter 10.76 miles/ m in teet/sec 88.
lur foot'candles 0.0929 miles/min kms/min 1.609
miles/min knots /rn in 0.8684
miles/min miles/hr 60.0
M
mil-feet cu inches 9.425 x 10-.
kilolines 0.001 milliers kilograms 1,000.
l0-. Millim;crons meters 1x 10-t
megarnes 1C|' Milligrams gra ins 0.01543236
megohns mrcrohms 10r' milligrams Srams 0.001
megohms ohms 1oi nilligrams/liter parts/million 1.0
rneters centimeters 100.0 millihenries henraes 0.001
meters feet 3.281 millilite|s liters 0.001
meters tnches millimeters centimeters 0.1
meters kilometers 0.001 millimeters leet 3.281 x 10-t
meters miles {naut.} 5.396 x 10-' millimete6 inches 0.03937
meters miles (stat.) 6.214 x 10-' millimeterc kilometers l0-.
meters millimeters r,000.0 millimeters me(ers 0.001
meters yards 1.094 millimeters m rles 6.214 x 10-'
meters varas 1.179 millimeters m rls
meters/min cms/sec millirneters yards 1.094 x 10-!
mbterc/min teet/min 3.28r million Sals/day cu ttlsec 1.54723
meters/min teet/sec 0.05458 m ils centimeters 2.540 x 10-'
meters/man kms/hr 0.06 lnils feet 8.333 x 10-!
meters/man knots 0.03238 rTr tls IncneS 0.001
meters/min males/hr 0.03728 mils kilometers 2.540 x 10-3
melers/sec feet / min 196.8 mils yaros 2.778x 1O-,
fieters/sec feet/sec 3.281 miner's inches cu ft/min 1.f,
meters/sec kilometers/hr 3.6 Minims (British) cuDtc cm. 0.059192
meters/sec kilometers/min 0.06 Manims (U.S,, fluid) cubtc cm. 0.061612
me(ers/5ec miles/ hr minutes (angles) deSrees 0.01667
melers/sec miles/min 0.03728 minutes (angles) quaorants 1.852 x 10-.
meters/sec/sec cms/sec/sec 100.0 minutes (angles) radians 2.909 x l0-r
meters/sec/sec ft/sec /sec minutes {angles) seconds 60.0
meters/sec/sec kms/hrlsec myr;agrams kilograms 10.0
met€rs/sec/sec miles/hr/sec 2.237 mytrameters kalometers 10.0
meteFkilograms cmdynes 9.807 x 1CP mynawattS kilo,,ratts 10.0
meterkilograms cm-8lams 105
meterkilograms pound-feet
N
mrcrotarad farads l0-.
micrograms Srams nepers decibels
mtcronms meEonms Newton Dynes 1x105
 Appendix D: Conlersion Factors 309

(Continued). Alphabetical Conversion Factors

TO CONVERT MULTIPLY BY TO CONVERT INTO MULTIPLY 8Y

0 pounds (troy) ounces {avdp.)

pounds (troy) ounces (troy) 12.0
OHlvl (lnternational) OHIVI (absolute) 1.0005
10-, pounds (troy) pennyweights {troy) 240.0
ohms megohms
10. pounds (troy) pounds (avdp.) 0.a22457
ohms mrcrohms
16.0 pounds (troy) tons {long) 3.6735 x 10-r
ounces drams
grains pounds (troy) tons (metric) 3.7324x 1o-'
ounces (troy) 4.1143 x 10
grams 2a349527 pounds tons (shoft) '
ounces pounds of water
pounds 0.0625 cu feet 0.01602
ounces pounds of water 27.64
ounces ounces (troy) 0.9115 cu Inches
tons (long) 2.790 x l0-5 pounds of water ga Ions 0.1 198
ounces
tons (metricJ 2.835 x 10 5 pounds of water/man cu ltlsec 2.670 x 10-r
ounceS
(fluid) cu inches 1.805 pound-feet cm-dynes 1.356 x 10'
ounces pound{eet
(fluid) liters o.02957 cm-grams 13,825.
ounces meter-kgs 0.1383
ounces(troy) grains 480.0
(troy) grams
pounds/cu ft grams/cu cm 0.01602
ounces 31.103481
pounds/cu tt kgs/cu meter t6.02
ounces{troy) ounces (avdp.) 1.09714
pounds/cu 10-'
(troy) pennyweights (troy) 20.0 ft poun0s/cu rn, 5.787 x
ounces pounds/cu ft pounds/mil{oot 5.455 x 10-'
ounces(troy) pounds (troy) 0.08333
pounds/cu an. gms/c(1 cm
Ounce/sq. inch 0ynes/sq. cm. 4309
ounces/sq rn. pounds/sq in. 0.0625
pounds/cu in. kgs/cu meter 2.768 x l0'
pounds/cu in. pounds/cu ft 1,724.
pounds/cu in. pounds/mil{oot 9.425 x 10 6
P pounds/ft kgs/meter 1.488
Parsec Miles 19 x 10u pounds/ in. gms/cm 178.6
Patsec Kilometers 3.084 x 10rr pounds/mil-foot gms/cu cm 2.306 x 1Cr6
parts/million grains/U.S. gal 0.0584 pounds/sq ft almospneres 4.725 x lO-'
parts/mill,on grains/lmp. gal 0.07016 pounds/sq ft feet of water 0.01602
parts/million pounds/million gal 8.345 pounds/sq ft inches of mercury 0.01414
Pecks (British) cubic inches 554.6 pounds/sq ft kgs/sq rneter 4.882
Pecks (Britash) liters 9.091901 pounds/sq ft pounds/sq in. 6.944 x 10-!
Pecks (U.S.) bushels pounds/sq rn. atmospheres 0.06804
Pecks (U.S.) cubic inches pounds/sq in. 2.307
Pecks (U.S.) liters 8.809582 pounds/sq in. inches ot mercury 2.036
Pecks (U.S.) quarts (dry) 8 pounos/sq In. kgs/sq meter 703.1
pennyweights {troy} graans 24.O pounds/sq in. pounds/sq ft 144.0
pennyweights {troy) ounces (troy) 0.05
pennyweights (troy) grams
pennyweights {troy) pounds (troy) 4.1667 x 10-r o
pints (dry) cu rnches quadrants (angle) deg/ees 90.0
pints (liq.) cu cms. 413.2 quadrants {angle) minutes 5,400.0
pints (liq.) cu feet 0.01671 quadrants (angle) rad ra ns 1.57I
pints (liq.) cu inches 24.47 quadrants (angle) seconds 3.24 x 105
pints (liq.) cu mererS 4.732 x 10-' quarts (dry) cu Inches 67.20
pints (liq,) cu yards 6.189 x 10-' quarts (1,q.) cu cms 946.4
pints (liq.) ga||ons 0.125 quarts (liq.)
pints (liq.) cu feet 0.03342
liters o.4732 quarts (laq.)
pints (liq.) quarts (liq.) 0.5 cu rnches
Planck's quanturn 6.624 x 10-11
quarts (liq.) cu rneters 9.464 x l0-.
rotse
Erg -
second
Gram/cm. sec. 1.00
quarts (liq.) cu yards 1.238 x 10-!
quarts (liq.) 8aIons o.25
Pounds (avoirdupois) ounces (troy) 14.5833
quarts (liq.)
poundats dynes t3,826. liters 0.9463
p0unoals grams 14.10
pounoars joules/cm 1.383 x 10-1
pounoats joules/meter (newtons) 0.1383 R
poundats kilograms 0.01410 .ad ians degrees
pounoars pounds 0.03108 radtans mrnutes 3,438.
pounds drams radians quaoran(5 0.6366
pounds dynes 44.4823 x lcl' radians seconds 2.063 x 105
pounds grains 7,000. radians/sec
pounds grams radians/sec revol!tions/min 9.549
pounds joules/cm 0.04448 radians/sec revolutions/sec 0.1592
pounds joules/meter (newtons) 4.448 radians/sec/sec revs/min/rnin 573.0
pounds krlograms 0.4536 rao rans / sec/ sec revs/min/sec 9.549
pounds ounces 16.0 radians/sec/sec revs/sec /sec 0.1592
pounds ounces {troy) 14.5833 revolutions 360.0
pounds pounoars 32.t7 revoru!ons quadranls 4.0
pounds pounds (t.oy) 1.21528 tevolr.rtions radtans 6.2a3
pounds tons (short) 0.0005 revolutions/min oegrees/ sec 6.0
pounds (troy) grarns 5,760. revolut,ons/min €dians/sec 0.1047
pounds (troy) grams 373.24177 revolutions/min tevs/sec 0.01667
310 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

(Continued). Alphabeticel Conversion Factors

IO CONVERT INTO MULTIPLY BY TO CONVERT INTO MULTIPLY 8Y

revolutions/rhin/min radians/sec/sec 1.745 x l0 l square mils 6.452 x 10-'

revolutions/min/min revs/min/sec 0.01667 square mrls sq inches 10 -6
a€volutions/min/min revs/sec/sec 2.778x lO-. square yards actes 2.066 x 10-a
revolut'ons/sec oegrees/ sec 360.0 square yaros sq cfis 8,361.
revolutrons/sec radians/sec 6.283 square yards 9.0
revolutions/sec revs/mrn 60.0 square yards sq inches
revolutions/sec/sec radians/sec /sec square yards sq meters 0.8361
revolutions/sec/sec revs/min/min 3,600.0 square yards sq males 3224 x 1O-,
revolutions/sec/sec revs/min/sec 60.0 square yards sq millimeters 8.361x 10'
KOO Chain (Gunters)
Rod I\reters 5,029
Rods (Surveyors' meas-) yaros T
rcds feet 16.5
temperature absolute temperature ('C) 1.0
('c) +213
Scruples grains 20 temperature temperature ('F) 1.8
seconds (angle) 2.778 x 10-.
("c) + 17.78
seconds (angle) minutes 0.01667 temperature absolute tenperatlre ("F) 1.0
('F) +460
seconds (angle) quadrants 3.087 x 10-. temperature (" F) -32 temperature ('C)
seconds (angle) radrans 4.848 x 10-6 (long)
tons kilograms 1,016.
Slug Kilogram 14.59 tons (long) pounds 2,240.
Slug Pounds 32.17 tons (long) tons (short) 1.120
Sphere Steradians (metric)
tons kilograms 1,000.
square centimeters ci.cular mils 1.973 x 10r (metric) pounds
tons 2,205.
square centimeters sq feet 1.076 x l0-r (short)
tons kilograms 907.1848
square centimeters sq inches 0.1550 tons (short) ounces 32,000.
square centtmeters 0.0001 tons (short) ounces (troy) 29,156.66
square centimeters sq mrles 3.861 x 10 rr
tons (short) pounds 2,000.
square cenrmelers sq millimeters 100.0 tons (short) pounds {troy) 2,430.56
square centameters sq yards 1.196 x l0-. tons (short) tons (long) o.a92a7
square feet actes 2.296 x \o-' tons (short) tons (metric) 0.9078
square feet circular mils 1.833 x l0! tons (short)/sq tt kgs/sq meter 9,765.
tons (sho.t)/sq ft pounds/sq in. 2,000.
square feet 5q crhs 929.O
tons of water/24 hrs pounds of water/hr
square feet 144.0 gallons/min
tons ol water/24 hrs 0.16643
square feet sq merers 0.09290 tons of water/24 hrs cu ft/ hr 1.3349
5q mles 3.587 x 10-r
sq millimeters 9.290 x rd
square feet sq yards 0.1111
square Incnes circular mils 1.273 x 106
square Inches sq cms 6.452
Inches sq feet 6.944 x 10-! Volt/ inch .39370
square
Inches sq millimeters 645.2 Volt (absolute) Statvolts .003336
square
square Inches sq mrls 106
square Incnes 7,716 x I0 '
square kilometers acres 247.1 w
square kilometers sq cms 1otr
5quare kilometers sq ft 10.76 x 106 watts Btu/hr 3.4r29
square kilometers sq Inches 1.550 x l0' 8tu/min 0.05688
square kiiometers 106 ergs/sec 107.
square kilometers sq miles 0.3861 foot-lbs/min 44.27
square kilometers sq yards 1.196 x 106 fooflbs/sec 0.7374
square meters acres 2.471 x 10 ' watts norsepower 1.341 x l0-'
square meters sq cms l0 horsepower (rnetric) 1.360 x 10-!
square metets sq feet 10.76 kg-calories/min 0.01.433
square meteas sq rncnes 1,550. kilowatts 0.001
square meters sq mrles 3.861 x l0-' Watts (Abs.) B.T.U. (mean)/min. 0.056884
square meters sq millimeters 10. Watts (Abs.) joules/sec. 1
sq yards 1.196 watt-hours Btu 3.413
square miles acres 640.0 watfhours erSs 3,60 x l0ro
sq feet 27.88 x 106 watt-hours foofpounds 2,656.
square rniles sq xms 2.590 watt-hours Eram-caloneS 859.85
square miles sq meterc 2.590 x 106 watt-hours norsepower-has 1.341 x l0-1
sq yards 3.098 x 106 watt-hours kilogram-calories 0.8605
square millimeters circular mils 1,973. watt.hours kilogram-meters
square millimeters sq cms 0.0I watt-hours kalowatt-hrs 0.001
square millimeters sq {eet 1.076 x l0-r Watt (lnternational) Watt (absolute) 1.0002
square millimeters sq Inches 1.550 x 10-l webers maxwells lo
square mils circular mils 1.273 webers kilolines l0'
I
Appendix D: Conlersion Factors 311

Synchronous Speeds

Frsoucncy x 120
Synd'ronout Spced : N;;|T;G;-

FNEOUENCY TREOUENCY

50 Gyclo 50.y.ls 60 .ycl. 50 cy.lo

2 3600 3000 1500 12 't71.1 112.9

lg00 t 500 750 11 r 63.6 136.4

1200 | 000 500 15 t 56.5 t 30.1

8 900 750 375 18 t50 t2s

t0 720 600 300 50 141 t20

l2 600 500 250 r 38.5 rr5.4

l1 514.3 128.6 214.3 51 | 33.3 lll.t

t6 450 375 187.5 56 t 2s.6 t07.t

t8 400 166 -7 5S 121.1 103 .5

20 360 300 150 60 t20 100

272.7 136.4 62 l l6.l 96.8

2l 300 250 t25 61 1r2.5 93.7

276.9 230.8 It5,4 66 | 09. I 90.9

257 .1 211.3 | 07.1 68 t 05.9 88.2

30 210 200 100 70 r02.9 85.7

225 93 -7 72 100 83.3

31 2 .8 176.5 71 97 .3 8l,l
35 200 166.7 76 91.7 78.9

38 189.5 t57.9 78.9 92.3 76.9

,t0 180 t50 80 90 75

Courtesy Inge$oll-Rand Co.

 312 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Temperature Conversion

NOIA Thc c.ntlr .olsm'| of .'rmbcrt in boldl.ce r.ter3 to the tempe.ot'rre i. degree3, €irher Cenriorodc or fohre.heir, which ii i! dcti..d ro convcrt into th.
othe. .col.. lf .o.v.dine from Fohrenh.it ro Ce.ligrode degreei, lhe equivolen. tempe.oture will be found in rhe tefr coiumn, whit€ if Gonve.ri^s trom d.er.er
Cenligrodc to desrc$ Fohrenhi.t, th. on.wer wi be found in thc cotumn on rhe righr.

Cenligrod. C.ntisrode Cenligrode C.nti9.od. Fohr.6h.it

-273.t7 -159.f -20.6 -5 23.0 ll.l 32 125.6 5a.t t30 266

-268 -,150 0 32.0 11.7 53 t27.1 f35 275
-267 -aao 54 t29.2 60.0 lfo 281
-257 -,r30 I 12.8 55 l3l .0 62 .8 ra5 293
-25l -a20 -16.7 2 r 3.3 55 132.8 65.6 t50 302
-216 -ato -16. 1 3 37 .1 68.3 t55 3l I
-210 -a00 -t5.6 a 39.2 l3 .9 57 13,(.6 71.1 t50 ?20
-231 -390 -15.0 4r.0 t1.1 58 r36. a
-t1.t 6 t2.g 15.0 59 138.2 73.9 t65 329
-3!0 7 11.6 15.6 60 | 40.0 t70 338
-3t0 ! 46.1 r 6.l 6r t41.8 79.1 175 317
-2t8 -360 16.7 52 113.6 s2.2 tt0
-212 -350 -t2.8 9 14.2 17 .2 63 115.4 85.0 tt5
-207 -ta0 -12.2 t0 50 .0 t7 .8 5a 117 .2 a7.g t90 371
-20 | -330 11.7 tl 5r.8 90.6 t95
-196 -320 -Ll t2 53.6 18.3 55 149.0 93.3 200
-190 -3to -10.6 t3 55.1 18.9 55 r50.8 96.r 205 40t
-10.0 t4 57 .2 19.4 5f t52.6 98 .9 2t0 410
-184 -300 -9.1 t5 59.0 20.0 58 l s4 .,( t00.0 212 all
-179 -290 -8 .9 l5 60 .8 20.6 69 155.2 r02 215 119
-173 -2ao 2t .l 70 158.0 r04 220 12e
-r69 -2It 459.1 -8.3 tf 62.6 2t .7 7l 159.8 107 225 t37
-r68 -2r0 -151 t8 61.1 72 161 .6 I t0 230 116
-162 -260 -136 l9 66.2 lt3 233
-157 -250 5.7 20 68.0 22.8 ,3 163.4 116 2ao 161
-l5l -240 -100 2l 69.8 23.3 165.2
-5.6 7t.6 23.9 75 167.O rl8 2tl5 t73
-116 130 ?3 73.1 2a.1 75 |68.8 t2l 250 192
-t10 -220 -361 -1.1 24 75.2 25.0 170.6 121 255 ,a9l
-r31 -2to -316 25.6 78 172.1 127 7.50 500
-129 -200 75 77 .O 26.l 79 171.2 t29 265 509
-t23 -190 -310 25 78 .a 26.7 EO t76 .O 2fo 5t8
-l l8 -t!0 80.6 r35 2f5 527
-l t2 -r70 -271 2a 82 .1 27 .2 EI 't77 _g r38 2t0 536
-107 -t60 -256 -l .7 a9 81 .2 27 .a a2 t79.6 r4I 245
86.0 28.3 E3 r8l ,1 r43 290
-tol -r50 -236 -{.6 3l a7 .a 28.9 l4 r83.2 l,a6 295 563
-96 -rao -220 o.0 89.6 29 .1 65 185.0 t,a9 300 572
-90 -t30 -202 30.0 86 186.8 t5{ 3t0 590
-81 -t20 -t81 0.6 9l .,( 30.6 a7 r 8s.6 r60 320 608
-79 -rr0 -166 t.l 34 93.2 3t .l 88 | 90.1 166 330 626
-73.3 r00 -ta8.o 35 95.0 171 340 611
-67.8 -90 -t30.0 36 96.8 31 .7 89 192.2 177 350
-62.2 30 -l 12.0 2.a 37 98.6 32 .2 90 194.0
3l | 00 .,( 32.8 9l 195.8 t82 360 680
-59,a -lt -t03.0 3.9 39 102.2 92. 197.6 t88 370 698
-70 -91 .0 1.1 40 | 0,( .0 33.9 93 | 99.4 193 3t0 716
-53 .9 -65 -85.0 31.1 94 201 .2 r99 390 731
-51 .l -60 -76.0 5.0 {t 105.8 35.0 95 203.0 201 400
18.3 -5t -67 .0 5.6 12 147.6 35.6 95 201.8 2t0 at0 770
-15.6 50 -58.0 6.I a3 | 09.1 216 420
-12.8 -{5 -19.0 6.7 44 ln.2 36. I 97 206.6 221 430 806
-10.0 -{0 -40 .0 7.2 45 113.0 9E 208.1
7.5 15 111.8 37 .2 99 210.2 727 :lao 821
-35 -31 .0 8.3 47 1 16.6 37 .8 t00 212.0 ,150 812
3,t.a -30 8.9 48 1 18.1 40.6 105 460 860
-31 .7 25 -13.0 43.3 l|0 230 213 1fo 878
-20 -,(.o 9.4 a9 120 .2 46.1 5 239 219 aEo 896
-26.1 -I5 10.0 50 122.0 48.9 t20 215 251 a90 914
-23.3 -10 .4.0 t0.6 5t t 23.8 51 .7 r25 257 260 500 932
forhulot ol thc right moy olro be urcd
conyerling Centi!.odc or tohrcnh€ir Des,ee3 c€.r.. .c = j er + rot
-ro Dcsr€e3 Fohr., .F : ! r. + rot -.0
inlo the orhcr i.ole.,
9
= | et-r'r c +32
Dcaree! Kelvin, "K:oC + 223,2 Desre.. non&lne, 't :of +159.7

Courtesy Ingersoll-Rand Co.

 Appendix D: Conrersion Facrors 313
Altitude and Atmospheric Pressures

Ke/'q
Hs Abr. Hg Ab3. PSIA

-5000 -1526 77 25 903 .7 17.18 .229

,{500 -t373 75 21 35.00 889.0 17.19 .209
-1000 -1220 73 23 31.12 871.3 I6.90 .188
-3500 -1068 7l 33.84 859.5 r6.62 .169
-3000 -9r5 70 21 33.27 845. t | 6.3,r . r19

-2500 -763 58 20 32.70 830.6 t6.06 .129

2000 6t0 66 t9 32.11 816 .1 15.79 . t09
-t500 -,f58 61 l8 3l .58 802.1 r5.51 .091
-t000 -305 l7 3t .02 l5 .23 .071
-500 6l t6 30.t7 773.9 11.96 .o52

0 0 59 29.92 760.O r4.696 .0333

500 t53 57 t1 716.3 11.43 .0t5
r000 28.86 733 .O 14.16 .956
t500 158 12 28.33 719.6 13 .91 .975
2000 6t0 52 t1 27 .82 706.5 | 3.66 .960

2500 763 50 l0 27.32 693.9 t 3.41 .943

3000 915 a8 9 26.82 681 ,2 r 3.17 .926
3500 1068 t7 26.33 668.8 | 2.93 .909
4000 1220 15 7 25.84 6s6.3 l2.69 .892
,1500 1373 13 5 25.37 611.1 t2.t6 .876

5000 0.95 1526 {t 21.90 632.s 12.23 .860

6000 l I l83l 3S 3 23.99 609.3 .78 .828
7000 1.3 2136 34 I 23.t0 586.7 rL3,( .797
8000 1.5 2111 3l I 22.23 561.6 l0 ,91 .767
9000 '| .7 2716 2l .39 513.3 10.50 .738

10,000 I _9 3050 23 -5 20.58 522.7 t0.10 .7to

15,000 2.a -t4 r6.89 A29 .0 8.29
20,000 3.8 610? 13.76 319.5 6.76 .A7 5
25,000 1.7 7628 -30 .12 2A2 .l 5.46 .38,(
30,000 5.7 9153 18 -11 8.903 226.1 1.37 .307
35,000 6.6 1O,67i 66 7 .060 't79 .3 3.17 .2A1
40,000 7.6 12,2O1 -57 111 .2 2.73
45,000 8.5 t3,730 -70 -57 1.375 t.l ?.t5 .r5l
50,000 15,255 -70 -57 3.111 87 .5 r .69 . 9
55,000 10 .4 t6/81 2.7t2 68.9 .0935

60,000 .4 18,306 -57 2.135 51.2 | .05 .0238

70,000 | 3.3 2t,357 -55 1.325 .651 .0458
80,000 15.2 2A,108 62 52 18.273 | 2t.0 .,(06 .0285
90,000 17.1 27,159 -57 -59 5.200-' .255 .o179
t00,000 t8.9 30,510
_26
-16 3.290-' 8.36
:!: ot t,
120,000 22.8 36,612 I .358-r 3.,(5
1,{0,000 26.6 12/11 I -t6 5 .917-7 t.5l
160,000 30.4 18,8t 6 28 2./16-7 ft gt-t
180,000 31.2 51,918 t9 1.284-' 3.26-I
200,000 37 .9 61,o20 -3 -t9 5.816-r | .48-I
720,O00 1t .7 67,122 11 12 2.523 ' 6.A1-'
240.000 45.5 73,221 86 66 9.955-. 2.53 '
260,000 19.3 79,326 t29 -90 3.513-r 8.92-!
2S0.000 53.1 85,128 I 1.{3-r 3.67-'
300,000 56.9 91,530 -88 3.737 ' 9.19.
,{00,000 75.9 122,010 | 6.3 7 l .60-'
| ---l--
|
500.000 91.8 152,550 t.1-, 3.56-6
l,{ r 83,060 5.9-.
600,000
800,000
I
r52 211,080 - |I - | .6-r
1.50-6
,r.06-'
1,000,000 189 --
305,100 -- - 5.1-' 1.30-t
-
1,200,000 224 366,t 20 2.0-, s.08 r
t,400,000 266 127,110 8.2-r0 2.08-l
1,600.000 30,{ ,{88.t60 3.8 10 9.65-'
r.800.000 312 5!9,r80 | .8-ro 1 .57-'
2.000,000 610,200 L 2-r' 2.31-e

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Mechanical Design ol Procesr Sysrems

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Index

ACI bearing strengths, 180 concrete modulus of elasticity of, 186

American Institute of Steel Construction. See AISC. concrete and steel, relative strength of, 186
Anchor bolts gusset plates, 188* 189
analysis, preloaded bolt, 184, 186 k-factor, offset, 188
bolt area, required, 184 steel, modulus of elasticity, 187
bolt loads, allowable, 187 steel-concrete moduli ratio, 186
bolt load, minimum required, 184 tension on gross area, 187
bolt spacing, 186 torque, anchor bolt, 189-190, 229
common types of, 190 Bernoulli equation, 2
large bolts, undesirability of, 184 Bingham, 6-7
loading force, distribution of, 186 Boundary conditions for saddle plate design, 178
loadings induced on, 184 Buckling coefficients for saddle plate design, 175-178
lubricant, 190
philosophy, design, 184 Centroid, section,212
size and number, 228 Circumferential stress, moment, 170
stress in, 184, 186 Codes, vessel
tension on gross area, 187 differences in, 159
torque, anchor bolt, 189-190, 229 foreign, 159
ASME Piping Codes Cold-spring,49
ASME 831.1, 48 Colebrook equation, 4. Also see Friction factors.
ASME 831.3, 48 Compressible flow
ASME B3I.4, 48 adiabatic flow, 2
ASME B3I.5, 48 compressibility effects, 24
.ASME 831.8,48 introduction to, l-2, 24
ASME Section IlI, 48. Also see Pressure vessels. isothermal flow 1
for piping, 48 modulus, bulk compressibility, 24
for pressure vessels, 48 non-steady flow, 24
ASME Section VIII, Division II sound, velocity of, 24
for piping, 48 steady flow, 24
Aspect ratio, 85 Concrete mixes for baseplate design, 186-187
Concrete modulus of elasticity, 186
Baseplate design, 186-189 Conical sections, 199, 224
anchor bolt size range, 186 Cost-plus contractor, 183
bearing pressure on, 189 Creep,49
concrete foundation for, 186 Critical damping factor, 202, 2O4
concrete mixes, 186, 187 Critical pressure, 83

315
316 Mechanical Design of Process Systems

Critical temperature, 83 Heads

Critical wind velocity, 236 manufacture of, 160
thickness of, 160
Damping coefficient, 2OZ 2M Heat transfer
Deflections, windt 199-2Ol , 242 control mass, 115, 131
Degree of freedom, 201 control volume, 115, 13l
Discontinuity, 236 electrical tracing, 103
Drag, 195,203 Fourier number, 151
Ductile materials, 50, 52 Grashof number, 132, 134, 153
Dynamic magnification factor, 201-204 in jacketed pipe, I 12- I l5
Dynamic response, 200 LMTD (log mean)
chart for, 114
EJMA. Sze Expansion joints, bellows. definition of, I 14
Electrical tracing, 103 Nusselt number, 132, 134, 153
Equivalent length, 2 in pipe shoes, 135- 136
Expansion joints application of, 156
bellows, corrugated, 77 heat balance for, 136
gimbal joint, 79 temperature distribution in, 136
hinged joint, 78-79 in pipe supports, 133
inJine pressure balanced, 79 in piping
multi-ply, 80 temperature distribution in, 134
pipe span, allowable, 78 typical applications of, 133- 134
pressure thrust, 78-79 Prandtl number, 112, 139-140
single ply, 80 in process systems, 103
standards of the Expansion Joint Manufacturers in residual systems
Association (EJMA), 80 applications of, 132
stiffness, rotational, 78 deflections, thermal, 134-135
stiffness, translational, 78 overall heat transfer coefficient, 134
tie rods, 78-79
reasons for, 78 tubular tracers. See Tracing.
universal joint, pressure-balanced, 78 in vessel skirts
application of, 152- 154
Fanning equation, 3 coefficients of, 132
Fluid Mechanics, piping. See Hydraulics. convection, significance of, 133
Fourier number, l5l free convection, 133
Friction factors, 4 rate of, 133
Colebrook equation, 4 temperature, distribution oI, 132- 133
laminar flow, 4 Heat transfer design example, 148-150
Moody friction factors, 4 static analysis, i48- 150
Prandtl solution, 5 transient analysis, 150- 152
turbulent flow, 4 Heisler's chart, l5l
von Karman solution, 5 Hesse formula, 82
Horizontal pressure vessels
Gimbal joint, 79 saddle bearing plate design, 180
Grashof number, 132, 134, 153 ACI bearing strengths, 180
Gusset plates, 188-189 bearing plate thickness, 180
Gust (wind) effects, 194-196, 236-237 factor of safety for, 180
Guy wires, 249 saddle plate buckling analysis, 251 252
saddle plates
Head-*T co'\J 'rv 5oo r{ 'll"i, ' application of , 249 -252
foot of, 2 boundary conditions for, 178
pressure, I buckling coefficients for, 175- 178
static, I design of, 174- 179
velocity. See Velocity head. effective area, 174, 178
 l:;:..

effective width, 113, 178, l'79 yield-pseudoplastic, 6 7

horizontal reaction, 119, 252 piping, reasonable velocities in, 25
stiffener plates, I74, 179 problem formulation, 24
STTESS two-K method, 8,21
criterion for residual, 178 viscosity,24-26
elastic buckling, 179
inelastic buckling, 179 Incompressible flow. See Hydraulics.
U.S. Steel design method, 174-179 Internal pressure, 159- 160
web plates, 174
wear plate requirements, 215 Jacketed pipe
Zick analysis, 166, 215 annulus, hydraulic radius for, 112
bending moment diagram, 167 applications of, l12-115, 139 140
constant, circumferential bending moment, 170 details of, 104-106, I 12-l l3
introduction to, 166 expansion joints for, 105- 106
saddle supports, location, criteria for, 172 heat transfer, I 12- I l5
shear stress, 171 coefficient, film, I l2
shell coefficient, overall, 112
stiffened by head, 171 rates of, I 12- 115
unstiffened, saddles away from head, 17l pressure drop in, I l5- I 17
stiffening rings, 172, 174 rules of thumb for, 103
STTESS versus traced pipe, 103- 106
allowable compressive, 166 Joints. expansion. See Expansion joints.
circumferential compressive, l7 I Laminar flow, 4. Also see Friction factors.
circumferential at horn of saddle, 17l Lumped-mass approach, 204-205
head used as a stiffener, 171 Lump-sum contractor, 183
"Hot-spring," 49
Hydraulic radius, Maximum allowable working pressure, 160
definition of, 2i Mitchell equation , 210, 212
tabulated values, 24 Moments
Hydraulics equations for, 198
basic equations, I of inertia, for tube bundle, 222-223
Bernoulli equation, 2 wind-induced, 198
modified form of, 3 Moody friction factors. See Friction factors.
compressible flow Myklestad method, 200-201
adiabatic flow, 2
compressibility effects, 24 Non-Newtonian fluids. See Hydraulics.
introduction to, l-2, 24 Nusselt number, 132, 134,153
isothermal flow, I
modulus, bulk compressibility, 24 Ovaling, 205, 208
non-steady flow, 24
sound, velocity of, 24 Pipe loops, 59-68
steady flow, 24 Pipe lug supports , 70-12, 98-99
incompressible flow, 1 Pipe materials
non-Newtonian fluids ductile materials, 50, 52
Bingham,6-7 non-ductile materials, 50
introduction to, 5-7 plastic deformation, 50 52
Metzer and Reed, 7 stress-strain curves, 50-51
pseudoplastic, 6-7 Pipe shoes, heat transfer in, 135-136
rheological constants, 8 Pipe supports, heat transfer in, 133
rheopectic,6-7 Piping codes. See ASME.
thixotropic, 6 7 Piping expansion joints. See Expansion joints.
time-dependent, 6-7 Piping mechanics
time-independent, 6-7 anchor, pipe, definition, 58
viscoelastic, 6-7 API,47
318 Mechanical Design of Process Systems
equipment nozzle loads, 94
extraneous piping loads
"cold spring" for, 80
vibration
applications for, 100- 101
natural frequency of beam elements, 86
vortex shedding, 83,87
resonance,83
Reynolds number, 195, 200, 2Ol, 236
Strouhal number, 84-85
vortex force, 83
vortex streets, 83
flexibility (compliance) matrix, 53
flexibility method, 59-68, 8l
advantages of, 53, 68
application of, 95-98
"hot-spring," 49
nozzle flexibility factors,
angle of twist, 70
circumferential, 70
longitudinal, T0
Oak Ridge Phase 3 Report, 70
rotation deformation of, 70
rotational spring rate, 70
pipe loops, 59-68
pipe lug supports , 70-72, 98-99
pipe restraints
moment restraints (MRS), 5'7 -59,
rotational 58, 68
translational,58,68
pipe roughness, 5
prpe stress
circumferential bending/membrane, 7l
"cold-spring," 49
creep,49
"hot-spring," 49
internal pressure, circumferential stress, 49
longitudinal stress, 49
pipe weight, bending stress, 49
pressure, 72
prestressed piping, 80
primary stress, 49-50, 72
range, allowable, 42
residual stress, 5l
secondary stress, 49-52, 72
self-spring,49
"shakedown," 52
thermal expansion, 49
torsional or shear stress, 49
self-spring,49
shear flow, 58-59
spring supports, 72, 75, 76
guided load column, 72
jamming of, 77
stiffness
beam element, 54
concrete,69
matrix,53-54
method,8l
advantages,53,68
applications of, 88-94
piping elements, 55-56, 69
translational, 54
Pipe Stress. See Piping mechanrcs.
Piping systems
adiabatic process, 83
API 520 Pafi 2, 82
ASME 31.I, 82
critical pressure, 83
critical pressure ratio, 83
critical temperature, 83
Hesse formula, 82
impulse-momentum principle, as applied to a pipe
elbow, 8l
nozzle correction factor, 82
nozzle discharge coefficient, 82
nozzles,83
Prandtl number, ll2, 139-140
Pressure vessels
ASME Section VIII Division I, 160
77 , 88-94 components, 159- 160
design, philosophy of, 159
external pressure, 160
heads, 160
horizontal
saddle bearing plate design, 180
saddle plate buckling analysis, 251-252
saddle plate design, 174- 179
application of , 249-252
boundary conditions for, 178
buckling coefficients for, 175- 178
effective area, 174, 178
effective width, 173, 178, 179
horizontal rcaction, 179, 252
stiffener plates, 174, 179
stress, criterion for residual, 178
stress, elastic buckling, 179
stress, inelastic buckling, 179
U.S. Steel design method, 174-179
wear plate requirements, 215
web plates, 174
Zick analysis, 166, Zl5
bending moment diagram, 167
compressive B-factor, 174
constant, circumferential bending moment, 170
head used as stiffener, 171
saddle support location, 172

shear stress in head/shell, 171
shell
stiffened by head, l7l
unstiffened, saddles away from head,
stiffening rings, 172, 174
stress, allowable compressive, 166
stress, circumferential con.rpressive, 171
stress, location of, 168- 169
tangential shear, 167- 171
wear plates, 171- 172
internal pressure
component thickness, 159
maximum allowable working pressure, 160
quality of welds, 159
upset conditions, 160
vertical
anchor bolts
analysis, preloaded bolt, 184, 186
bolt area, required, 184
bolt loads, allowable, 187
bolt load, minimum required, 184
bolt spacing, 186
common types of, 190
large bolts, undesirability of, 184
loading force, distribution of, 186
loadings induced on, 184
lubricant, 190
philosophy, design, 184
size and number, 228
stress in, 184, 186
tension on gross area, 187
torque, anchor bolt, 189-190, 229
ANSr-1982,215
baseplate design, 186- 189
anchor bolt size range. 186
bearing pressure on, 189
concrete foundation for, 186
concrete mixes, 186, 187
concrete modulus of elasticity of, 186
concrete and steel, relative strength of, 186
. gusset plates, 188- 189
k-factor, offset, 188
steel, modulus of elasticity, 187
steel-concrete moduli ratio, 186
stress, compressive, on concrete, 188
thickness, baseplate, 188
centroid, section,212
combined loads on, 181
compression plate, 189
cone, truncated, equivalent radius for, 214
conical head, equivalent radius for,214
conical sections, equivalent radii for,224
earthquake, See Seismic design.
loads, wind and seismic, 190-191
b"l- ! 319
moments
equations for, 198
of inertia, for tube bundle, 222-t3
171 pressure sections, centroids of, 198
vectors, section force, 198
wind-induced, 198
wind pressure, distribution of, 198
section properties of, 181
seismic analysis of, loads, combined, 190-l9l
seismic design
baseplate design, 238
coefficients, Mitchell, 210, 213
coefficients, structure type, 210
criteria, quasi-static, 210
criteria,238
Mitchell equation, 2lO, 2lZ
compared to Rayleigh equation, 237 -238
occupancy importance factor, 210
period
characteristic site, 238
numeric integration of vibration, 238-239
of tower, 210, 2lZ
Rayleigh equation, 212
compared to Mitchell equation, 237 238
seismic zone factor/map, 210-211
site structure interaction factor, 210, 212
equation for, 212
shear forces
earthquake force, total, 212
lateral force, equation for, 212
vertical distribution of, 212
seismic moments, equation for, 212
skirt design, 238
structural period response factor, 210
Uniform Building Code, 209 210
self-supporting, 180
skirts
controlling criteria for, 184
design of, 183, 185
cost-plus contractor, 183
Iump-sum contractor, 183
stress equation, 183
supports, 183, 185
thichess, 183- 184
stress, bending, 181
combined loading, 181
compressive B factor, l9l
compressive, leeward side, 181
discontinuity, 236
elements in, 182
tensile, windward side, l8l
vacuum, 183
towers
centroids, section, 230-231
32O Mechanical Design of Process Systems

definition of, 181 mode shapes, 200

equivalent circle method, 214 Myklestad method, 200, 201
section moment of inertia, 241-243 ovaling,205
skirt and baseplate destgn, 228-229 natural frequency of, 205
anchor bolts, 228 vibration due to, 208
anchor bolt torque, 229 wind velocity, resonance, 208
compression ring thickness, 229 period of vibration, 234-235, 248
skirt thickness, 229 phase angle, 202
weld size, minimum for skirt-to-base plate, Rayleigh equation, ZOO, 201, 204, 205
229 resonance,236
skirt detail, 230 Reynolds number, 195, 20O,201,236
stress, discontinuity soil types, 204
criteria foq 2 14 stresses, dynamic, 236
for conical sections, 214 tower
stresses, wind section, 226-228 fluid forces on, 203
transition piece, 241, 243-244 model for, 201-202
vibration ensemble, 216 moment disrribution in, 205
of lumped masses, 232, 246 stiffness, 205
wind deflections vibration ensemble, 209
modes of, 199 of lumped masses, 232
schematic diagram of, 201 vibration, first peak amplitude, 200
superposition, method of, 199 vortex shedding, 199
wind ensemble, 242 vortex strakes, 249
vibration, wind-induced wind tunnel tests, 236
angular natural undamped frequency, 205 wind analysis of, loads, combined, 190-191
applications of, 232-236, 241-249 wind design speed
area-moment method, 205-207 ASA 58.1-1955, 194
conjugate beam. See Area moment. ANSI-A58.1-1972, 192
controlling length, 203 basic wind pressure, 192
critical damping factor, 202, ZO4 effective velocity pressure, 192
critical wind velocity, 208-209 , 236, 248,249 gust response factor, dynamic, 192
total wind force, 209 ANSI A58. 1- 1982, 196, 236-237
Zorilla criteria, 209 effective velocity pressure, 192
damping coefficient, 203 gust response factor, 192
damping ratio, 202-203 importance coefficient, 192
degree of freedom, single, 201 velocity pressure coefficient, 192
differential equations for, 201-2OZ wind speed, variation of, 192
dynamic magnification factor, 201-202, 2O3, wind tunnel tests, 192
2M centroid of spandrel segment, for wind section,
dynamic response, 200 218
example of, 232-236 coefficient, drag, 195
first period of, 204 structural damping, 217
force amplitude, 235 conical sections, 199
force amplitude, dynamic, 200 constant exposure category, 195
forced vibration theory, 200 cross-sectional area, effective, 217
frequency cylinder, pressure fields around, 196
natural,248 equivalent diameter method, 236-237
ratio,202 vs. ANSI-A58. 1- 1982, 236-237
vortex shedding, 208, 248 exposure lactor. 196
guy wires, disadvantages of, 249 fatigue failure, 198
Holzer procedure, 200 flexible structures, defined, 197
lock-in effect, 200 gust duration, 196
logarithmic decrement, ZO3-204 vs. gust diameter, 197
lumped mass approach, 204-205 gust frontal area, 196

gust response, dynamic, 194
gust response factor, 195, 196,217,236-231
gust size, 196
isopleths, 192- 193
Kutta-Joukowski theorem, 195
loading analysis, quasi-static, 196
logarithmic law, 192
parabolic area, centroid of, 219
parabolic function, 194
peak values, types of, 196
power law, 192
probability of exceeding. 196
response spectra, 198
return period, 192
similarity parameters, 195
structure size factor, 196, 197
surface roughness, 195
tower
cross-sectional areaof, 198
fluid force exerted on, 194-195
gust velocity vs. structural response, 197
natural frequency of, 197
wind area section properties, 219
wind force distribution, 218
wind distribution
parabolic, 194, 218-219
triangular, 194
wind load
applications of, 215-231, 241-245
equivalent static, 195
mean, 195
weld size, skirt-to-base plate, 189
welding, joint efficiencies for, 161-165,172
Zick analysis, 166, 215
bending moment diagram, 167
compressive B-factor, 174
constant, circumferential bending moment, 170
head used as stiffener, l7l
saddle support location, 172
shear stress in head/shell, 171
. shell
stiffened by head, 171
unstiffened, saddles away from head, 171
stiffening rings, 172, 174
stress, allowable compressive, 166
stress, circumferential compressive, 171
stress, location of, 168- 169
tangential shear, 167- 171
wear plates, 171- 172
in, 132-135
Residual systems, heat transfer
in piping, 154- 155
Reynolds number, 195, 2OO, 2Ol, 236
drag coefficient vs., 203
ii
l:r.= r
Newtonian fluids, 21, 30,32 41. 1,19-l{l"t. l-!:.
145,147
non-Newtonian fluids. See Hydraulics.
Non-Newtonian fluids.
Strouhal coefficient vs., 85
vortex shedding, for, 83-85
Saddle plate design, 174- 179
application of , 249 -252
boundary conditions for, 178
buckling coefficients for, 175- 178
effective area, 174, 178
effective width, 173, 178, 179
horizontal react\on, 179, 252
stiffener plates, 174, 119
stress, criterion for residual, 178
stress, (in-) elastic buckling, 179
U.S. Steel design method, 174-179
wear plate requirements, 215
web plates, 174
Seismic design
baseplate design, 238
coefficients, Mitchell, 210, 213
coefficients, structure tYPe, 210
criteria, quasi-static, 210
compared to wind, 238
Mitchell equation , 210, 212
compared to Rayleigh equation, 231-238
moments, equation for, 212
occupancy importance factor, 210
period, characteristic site, 238
period, vibration
numeric integration of, 238 239
tower,210,212
Rayleigh equation, 212
compared to Mitchell equation, 231-238
seismic zone factor/map, 210, 2ll
shear forces
earthquake force, total, 212
lateral force, equation for, 212
vertical distribution of, 212
site structure interaction factor, 210, 212
equation for, 212
skirt design, 238
structural period response factor, 210
Uniform Building Code, 209-210
Skirts, 185
controlling criteria for, 184
cost-plus contractor, 183
design of, 183
lump-sum contractor, 183
stress equation, 183
supports, 185
thickness, 183- 184
322 Mechanical Design of process Systems

Strouhal number, 84 heat transfer, rules of, 107

Reynolds number vs., 85 modes of heat transfer, 107
vibration, vortex shedding, 84-85, 200, 20g outside film coefficient, 107
Supports, 72,75,76. Also see p\ping mechanics. overall heat transfer coefficient, 107
procedure for design, 107
Thermal design. See Heat transfer tie rods, 78-79 of vessels and equipment
Towers agrtators
centroids, section, 230-231 film coefficients for, 143
definition of, l8l use of, 115
equivalent circle method, 214 applications of, 130, 140- 148
section moment of inertia, 241-243 film coefficient, vessel-side, 147
skirt and baseplate design, 228-229 heat duty of, jacketed heads, 146
anchor bolts, 228 heat transfer coefficients, reasonable values of,
anchor bolt torqte, 229 130
compression ring thickness, 229 transient, I l5
skirt thickness, 229 criteria for, 115
weld size, minimum for skirt{o-base plate, 229 importance of, 130
skirt detail, 230 internal baffle plates, heat duty of, 144
stress, discontinuity jacketed walls, heat transfer film coefficient, 145
criteria for, 214 jackets, types of, 115, l28,13l
for conical sections, 214 non-Newtonians, use of, 146
stresses, wind section, 226-228 plate channels, equivalent velocity of, 147
transition piece, 241, 243t244 reasons for, 115
vibration ensemble, 216 Turbulent f|ow, 4 - Also see Friction factors.
of lumped masses, 232, 246
wind deflections of Velocity head
modes of, 199 introduction,3,8
schematic diagram of, 201 method,3
superposition, method of, 199 two-K method, 8, 21
wind ensemble, 242 values of, 9-20, 21, 22-23, 30-32
Tracing Vessels. See Pressure vessels.
of pipes Vibration, wind-induced
applications of,
136- 139 angular natural umdamped frequency, 205
condensate return for, I l0 applications of , 232-236, 241 -249
condensate load, determining, 1l I area-moment method, 205-207
guidelines for, 110-l ll conjugate beam. See Area moment.
spargers, 1l I controlling length, 203
separation keys, I l1 critical damping factor, 202, 204
typical layout, 111 critical wind velocity, 208-209 , 236, Z4g-249
water hammer, 11 I total wind force, 209
hot oil, application of, 137-139 Zorilla criteria, 209
steam, application of, 136-137 damping coefficient, 203
versus jacketed pipe, 103- 106 damping ratio, ZO2-203
with heat transfer cement, 106, 109- I 10 degree of freedom. single. 201
advantages, 106 differential equations for, 201,202
procedure for, 109 dynamic magnification factor, 201 -202, 203, ZO4
film coefficient, natural convection, 108 109 dynamic response, 200
heat balance for, I l0 example of, 232-236
heat transfer rates of, I l0 first period of, 204
without heat transfer cement, 106-109 force amplitude, 235
advantages of, 106 force amplitude, dynamic, 200
disadvantages of, 106 forced vibration theory, 200
equivalent insulation thickness, 107 frequency
heat balance fog 107 natural,248
 ,!i

lri:r

sust response factor. 192

ftIio, 202 irpottun." coefficient. 192
vortex shedding, 2O8' 248
velocitv pressure coefficient, 192
wires, disadvantages of' 249
-suyi{olzer procedure, 200
wind speid, variation of' 192
wind tunnel tests, 192
lock-in effect, 200 : i -r
centroid of spandrel segment, for wind section'
losarithmic decrement, 203 -204
coefficient, drag, 195
lumfed mass aPProach, 204-205 structural damPing, 217
mode shapes, 200
conical sections, 199
Myklestad method, 200, 201
constant exposure category, 195
ovaling,205 cross-sectional area, effective, 217
natuial frequencY of. 205
cvlinder, pressure fields around, 196
vibration due to, 208
equivaleni diameter method, 236-237
wind velocitY, resonance, 208
vs. ANSI-A58.1- 1982, 236-231
period of vibration, 234-235, 248
exposure factor, 196
ohase angle, 202
fatigue failure, 198
ilayleigh-equarion. 200. 201. 204 ' 205
fle;ble structures, defined, 197
resonance,236 gust duration, 196
Reynolds number, 195, 200, 2O1' 236
vs. gust diameter, 197
soil types, 204 gust frontal area, 196
stresses, dYnamic, 236
tower
iurt t.rpon.., dYnamic. 194
fluid forces on, 203 iurt ,.tpont" factor. 195. 1c0.217.236-237
gust size, 196
model for, 201-202
isopleths, 192- 193
moment distribution in, 205
Kuna-Joukowski Theorem. 195
equations for, 205
loading analysis, quasi-static, 196
stiffness,205
losarithmic law, 192
vibration ensemble, 209
paiabolic area, centroid of, 219
of lumped masses, 232 parabolic function, 194
vibration, first peak amplitude' 200
peak values, tYPes of, 196
vortex shedding, 83-87' 199
power law, 192
vortex strakes, 249
probability of exceeding, 196
wind tunnel tests, 236
iesponse sPectra, 198
Viscosity, 24-25
return period, 192
von Karman solution, 5
similarity parameters, 195
Vortex shedding,83-87
structure size factor, 196' 197
aspect ratio, 85
surface roughness, 195
cylinders,83
tower
damping vs. amPlitude, 87 of, 198
cross-sectional area
guidelines for, 85
mode shaPes, 85
fluid force exerted on, 194-195
gust velocity vs. structural response' 197
reduced damPing, 85
iatural frequencY of, 197
wind area section Properties, 219
Weld sizes
wind force distribution, 218
recommended values, for Plates, 71
wind distribution
skirt to baseplate, 189
parabolic, 194, 2t8-219
Welding, joint efficiencies for, 161-165, 172
triangular, 194
Wind design sPeed
wind load
ASA 58.1-1955, 194
applications of, 215-231, 241-245
ANSI A58.1-1972
equivalent static, 195
basic wind Pressure, 192
mean, 195
effective velocitY Pressure, 192
qust response iactor. dynamic. 192
ANsl A58. l-1982, t96, 236-231 Yield, 159
octahedral shear stress theory, 236
effective velocitY Pressure, 192
324 Mechanical Design of Process Systems
Zick analysis, 166, 215
bending moment diagram, 167
compressive B-factot 174
constant, circumferential bending moment, 170
head used as stiffener, l7l
saddle support location, 172
shear stress in head/shell, 171
shell
stiffened bv head. l7l
unstiffened, saddles away from head, 171
stiffening ings, 172, 174
stress, allowable compressive, 166
stress, circumferential compressive, 171
stress, location of, 168- 169
tangential shear, 167- 171
wear plates, l7l-172