PAMANTASAN

NG LUNGSOD NG VALENZUELA
PROF. RUNNEL SANTOS BAGUIOET
MODULE: ETHICS


UNIT 1

TOPICS TO BE COVERED
A. MORAL STANDARDS
B. MORAL DILEMMAS
C. THREE LEVELS
OF MORAL DILEMMAS
D. FREEDOM AS FOUNDATION
OF ETHICS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Differentiate between moral and non-moral standards.
2. Recognize and recall a moral experience.
3. Detect a moral dilemma.
4. Identify the three levels of moral dilemmas.
5. Explain why only human beings can be ethical.

QUESTION: WHEN DO WE SAY THEN THAT AN ACT IS MORAL OR NON-MORAL?

In many parts of the world, the issue of legalizing euthanasia, also called as assisted suicide,
has gone through major debates questioning the morality of the act. There are some
countries which has so far legalized assisted suicide. However, it is yet to be seen whether
euthanasia will become a law in the Philippines

On November 2017, The Australian state parliament of Victoria, has legalized voluntary
euthanasia after 20 years (McGuirk, 2017). State Premier Daniel Andrews, a euthanasia
advocate after his father died of cancer in 2016, called on the reform as compassionate.

ETHICS: KEY CONCEPTS

According to the Handbook of Clinical Neurology (2013), voluntary active euthanasia is the
administration, by the physician, of a lethal agent (or the administration of a therapeutic
agent at a lethal dose), actively permitted by the patient, with the intent to cause the latter’s
death, for the purpose of relieving intolerable, intractable, and incurable pain.

Physician-assisted suicide is the doctor’s deliberate assistance in implementing
a patient’s suicide plan.

ETHICS: KEY CONCEPTS

QUESTION: Is it morally right to end the life of an individual, even by just
administering what the patient so wishes?

If so, where then is the morality of the act? Moral and ethical principles and standards are
challenged if not questioned in dilemmas such as this, as social dynamics have led many to
become more accepting and understanding of personal decisions in light of moral issues.

WHAT ARE MORAL STANDARDS?

In making moral decisions, what standards are we supposed to follow? Who made these
standards? Will following these standards make us all ethically moral? These are but a few
questions that need to be answered as we are compelled to abide by ethical principles
daily.

The rightness or wrongness of an act makes us, willingly or unwillingly, confront the
morality of our decisions. It is significant, therefore, that we analyze carefully, not only the
motive of our actions, but to be certain that our actions are indeed keeping up with the
ethical values that we have.

At the forefront of this discussion is the value that we give to moral standards which serve
as our guide to the rightness of our behavior. We are tied to some sets of moral standards
that we bring with us as we make moral decisions. These standards serve as our compass, a
sort of light in our path, keeping us on our toes, thus, allowing us to check if our actions
behooves ethical and moral ideals.

The question of what is morally right and wrong has hounded man throughout history. We
allowed ourselves to be judged by standards that we have imposed upon ourselves. In our
attempt to perfect our actions, and live in peace with our fellows, and with nature, we
deemed it necessary to create ethical standards that will surmise whether our actions are
good, and of the greatest virtue, or if we have been outrightly missing the mark.

WHAT ARE MORAL STANDARDS?

MORALITY is the effort to guide one’s conduct by reason, that is, to do what there are the
best reasons for doing- while giving equal weight to the interests of each individual
who will be affected by what one does (Rachels, 2003).


ETHICS refers to the philosophical concept of morality, endeavors to understand moral
concepts and justify moral principles. It analyzes concepts such as right and wrong, and
seeks to establish principles of right behavior that may serve as guides to action for people
to follow (Pojman, 1992).




To analyze what is morally acceptable or not, it is significant to zero in on the definition of
morality, and the standards that point out whether an action is moral or not.

Mason (1996), describes that morality is achieved when a set of possible mores of any
social group are observed and achieved.

Mores (pronounced more-ays) are strongly held norms, which epitomize the deeply held
standards of what is right, and wrong (Stolley, 2005).

Moral standards are those ethical principles that we live by and believe. These are
important blueprints of our behavior, which we abide by daily, and are influenced by our
society, or by certain ethical universals.
QUESTION: ARE THERE UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLES WHICH SHOULD BE INVOKED BEFORE
MAKING, OR GIVING IN A MORAL ACT?

WHAT ARE NON-MORAL STANDARDS?

Non-moral standards are those unwanted principles, which are in opposition to everything
that we are expected to be and do. Likewise, non-moral standards are influenced largely by
the constructs prescribed in our society.

QUESTION: HOW DOES CULTURAL RELATIVISM AFFECT MORAL AND NON-MORAL
STANDARDS?

ONLY HUMAN BEINGS BELONG TO A CERTAIN STANDARD OF MORALITY

WHY IS IT THAT ONLY HUMAN BEINGS CAN BE ETHICAL?

“We are capable of making judgments about our own and other people's behavior, and have
the capacity consciously to change the way we behave and society as whole.”
-Guldberg (2011)

Hence, it is only us, humans, who are able to make moral choices, reflect, rethink, and re-
align our actions to what is morally and ethically acceptable. These choices are not inherent
in other living beings. Thus, we are in a very special position as we are given that innate
capability to make moral decisions.

H.E. Mason (1996), expounds that moral conflict is a fact of moral life. It is something that
we can never do away with. It is embedded in the crucial decisions that we make,
particularly in moments that we are faced with what is and what should be.
As moral as we want to be, our convictions are oftentimes challenged, and if not strong
enough, are dejectedly compromised. These challenges are products of the evolving values
and moral systems of our society. It is thus necessary that we are in-touch with the norms
in our society as it is mirrors the moral consciousness of the the people.

MORAL DILEMMAS

As Mason explains, we will experience a moral dilemma if we are faced with two actions, of
each of which, it would be correct to say in the appropriate sense of 'ought', that it ought to
be done, and both of which we cannot do.

QUESTION: WHAT ARE THE MORAL DILEMMAS THAT COLLEGE STUDENTS LIKE YOU
USUALLY ENCOUNTER?



 EUTHANASIA IN FOCUS

As defined, euthanasia exists to at least help a patient die a good death. Ezra (2006),
explained its three forms, with the assumption that the patient has an acute, terminal,
chronic illness that medical treatment cannot remedy or even cure.

QUESTION: IS IT MORAL TO END THE LIFE OF A PATIENT, WITH OR WITHOUT HIS OR
HER CONSENT? EXPLAIN.

THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMA IN THE WORKPLACE

INDIVIDUAL: The dilemma here is when the employee’s ethical standards are in
opposition to that of his or her employer, which could lead to tensions in the workplace.

ORGANIZATIONAL: Ethical standards are seen in company policies. Still and all, there
might be a gap between those who run the business whose ethical standards deviate from
that of the organization. This might cause ethical challenges and conflicts for those who are
working in the company.

SYSTEMIC: Here, ethics are predisposed by the larger operating environment
of the company. Political pressures, economic conditions, societal attitudes
and others can affect the operating standards and policies of the organization where it
might face moral dilemmas outside of the organization but within
the macro-society where it belongs.

QUESTION: SHOULD EMPLOYEES EXPERIENCING MORAL DILEMMAS AT WORK LEAVE
THEIR JOB NO MATTER HOW COMPENSATING THEY ARE FOR THEM?

Individual moral dilemmas are far more challenging as we are tasked to decide on the
morality of our actions. In order for us to manage ethical challenges, there is that need to
make sure that our decisions have been well thought out.




FREEDOM AS FOUNDATION OF ETHICS

“Autonomy” literally means giving the law to oneself, and our understanding provides laws
that constitute the a priori framework of our experience (Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy, 2016). This a priori knowledge is "prior to," or independent of, experience, but,
more importantly, identical for all human beings and not subject to change (Louden, 1992).
To explain his concept of autonomy or freedom as foundation of moral act, Kant pointed
out that moral rightness and wrongness apply only to free agents who have the capacity to
regulate their behavior and have it in their power, at the time of their actions, either to act
rightly or not. Hence, when we make choices, we must act "under the idea of freedom"
(Morality as Freedom, n.d.)







In making moral decisions, Immanuel Kant runs to human autonomy as the principal
foundation of morality. Free will then become the foundation of our moral act, which is
done also out of our moral responsibility.


Our understanding then, in hindsight, comes from reason, rather than experience. As for
Kant, autonomy-that is freedom, comes from obeying the law for the right reasons. We do
not act for self-serving interests but out of moral responsibilities (Nucci, 2014).

Hence, self-consciousness becomes the highest principle since it is (at least) the basis for all
of our a priori knowledge about the structure of nature (Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy, 2016).

However, freedom does not give us the ability to decide similarly. Our free will dictates that
we have differences in self-consciousness which makes it even more complicated to
entirely grasp Kant’s philosophical mooring. Rationality is not entirely the same for all of
us. That being said, it could not be our exclusive basis in making moral decisions. However,
it would be difficult to not use reason in making moral judgments as it is enlightening in
our reflections and introspections in doing the moral act itself.

QUESTION: WHAT IS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF FREEDOM IN MAKING MORAL
DECISIONS?

SUMMARY

Since not all people hold the same moral and ethical principles, we will eventually face
moral dilemmas. Nonetheless, it will always be reasonable to act on moral issues based on
our instinctive rationality, Still and all, we have our autonomy to decide on our own,
despite of the conflicting interests of the world forced on us.
















WORKSHEET 1.1

1. When do we say that an act is moral or non-moral?






2. Are there universal principles which should be invoked before making or giving in a
moral act?






3. How does cultural relativism affect moral and non moral standards?






4. Why is it that only human beings can be ethical?






5. Was there ever a time that you compromised your moral convictions? How did you
feel about it?









 6. What are the moral dilemmas that college students like you usually encounter?






7. Is it moral to end the life of a patient, with or without his or her consent? Explain.






8. Do you agree to any of these forms of euthanasia?






9. Should employees experiencing moral dilemmas at work leave their jobs no matter
how compensating they are for them?






10. Do you feel free in making moral decisions? Explain. What is the significance of
freedom in making moral?