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Postcollisional tectonics and seismicity of Georgia

Article  in  Special Paper of the Geological Society of America · January 2017

DOI: 10.1130/2017.2525(17)

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The Geological Society of America

Special Paper 525

Postcollisional tectonics and seismicity of Georgia

Shota Adamia
V. Alania
N. Tsereteli
O. Varazanashvili
N. Sadradze
M. Nodia Institute of Geophysics, I. Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, 1 Alexidze Street, 0171, Tbilisi, Georgia

N. Lursmanashvili
Department of Geology, I. Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, 1 Chavchavadze Avenue, 0169, Tbilisi, Georgia

A. Gventsadze
M. Nodia Institute of Geophysics, I. Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, 1 Alexidze Street, 0171, Tbilisi, Georgia

ABSTRACT

During the Oligocene, marine Tethyan basins were replaced by euxinic basins,
which are considered to represent the beginning of syncollisional development between
the Arabian and Eurasian plates in Georgia. Ongoing collision during Miocene–
Pleistocene times caused inversion of topography such that fold-and-thrust moun-
tain belts of the Great and Lesser Caucasus, and the intermontane foreland basins in
between the two mountain belts, were formed where intra-arc and back-arc basins
had been. Analysis of seismic sections showing growth strata in intermountain fore-
land basins indicates that the thrust system in Georgia was active ca. 4 to 3.5 Ma.
Beginning in the late Miocene, coeval with molasse deposition in the foreland
basins, subaerial volcanic eruptions occurred, characterized by intensively frac-
tionated magma of suprasubduction-type calc-alkaline series from basalts to rhyo-
lites. Outcrops of the magmatic rocks are exposed along the boundaries of the main
tectonic units of the region. Pyroclastic rocks of the first volcanic stage (Goderdzi
Formation) contain Upper Miocene–Lower Pliocene petrified subtropical wood and
other floral remnants. Marine deposits of the Goderdzi Formation are represented by
sandy diatomite, which hosts Upper Miocene nanoplankton.
In addition to volcanism, earthquakes indicate active tectonics in Georgia.
Some of the major earthquakes have proven to be devastating; i.e., the Racha earth-
quake of 29 April 1991, with Ms = 6.9, was the strongest ever recorded in Georgia.
The fault plane solution data for 130 earthquakes show that the territory of Georgia
is currently under latitudinal compression, longitudinal extension, and an overall
crustal thickening.
A complex network of faults divides the region into a number of separate blocks.
The boundary zones between these terrains represent maximum geodynamic activity.

Adamia, S., Alania, V., Tsereteli, N., Varazanashvili, O., Sadradze, N., Lursmanashvili, N., and Gventsadze, A., 2017, Postcollisional tectonics and seismicity of
Georgia, in Sorkhabi, R., ed., Tectonic Evolution, Collision, and Seismicity of Southwest Asia: In Honor of Manuel Berberian’s Forty-Five Years of Research Con-
tributions: Geological Society of America Special Paper 525, p. 1–38, doi:10.1130/2017.2525(17). © 2017 The Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.
For permission to copy, contact editing@geosociety.org.

1
 spe525-17 1st pgs page 2

2 Adamia et al.

Three principal directions of active faults compatible with the dominant, near N-S
compressional stress produced by northward displacement of the Arabian plate can
be distinguished: one longitudinal, trending WNW-ESE or W-E, and two transver-
sal, trending NE-SW and NW-SE. The first group (WNW-ESE), the so-called “Cau-
casian” strike, is composed of compressional structures, including reverse faults,
thrusts, thrust slices, and strongly deformed fault-propagation folds. The transver-
sal faults are also mainly compressional structures, but they contain considerable
strike-slip components as well. The tensional nature of submeridional faults is associ-
ated with intensive Neogene–Quaternary volcanism in the Transcaucasus. The NE-
SW left-lateral strike-slip faults are the main seismoactive structures in the western
Transcaucasus, while right-lateral strike-slip faults are developed in the southeastern
Transcaucasus. Considerable shortening and deformation of Earth’s crust have taken
place via compressional structures, as well as lateral tectonic escape. The geometry of
the tectonic features is largely determined by the wedge-shaped rigid Arabian block
(indentor) and by the configuration of the oceanic-suboceanic lithosphere (resistant
domains) of the eastern Black Sea and south Caspian Sea, all of which cause bending
of the main morphological and tectonic structures of the region around the indenting,
resistant domains.

INTRODUCTION recent thermochronological data also show that rapid exhumation

Georgia, the westernmost part of the South Caucasus, is
characterized by diverse landforms. The main morphological
units of Georgia are the mountain ranges of the Great Caucasus
to the north, and Lesser Caucasus to the south, separated by the
Black Sea–Rioni (Kolkhis) and Kura (Mtkvari)–South Caspian
intermontane lowlands (Fig. 1).
The active tectonics of Georgia and adjacent areas of the
Black Sea–Caspian Sea region are due to their position in the
wide zone of the late Cenozoic continent-continent collision
between the Eurasian and Africa-Arabian plates. According to
geodetic data, the rate of this convergence is ~20–30 mm/yr,
of which some two thirds is likely taken up by the areas south
of the Lesser Caucasian ophiolite suture. The rest of the S-N–
directed relative plate motion has been accommodated in the
South Caucasus, chiefly by crustal shortening and deformation
(e.g., DeMets et al., 1990; Jackson and Ambraseys, 1997; Allen
et al., 2004; Reilinger et al., 2006; Forte et al., 2010). Tectonic
stresses induced by the northward motion of the Africa-Arabian
plate are absorbed to a considerable degree in the peri-Arabian
ophiolitic suture zone and in the Zagros fold-and-thrust belts.
North of these lineaments, the stresses are propagated toward
the central Caucasus–Georgia by means of relatively rigid tec-
tonic units.
Oligocene–Miocene paleotectonic reconstructions (e.g.,
Dercourt et al., 1986; Zonenshain and Le Pichon, 1986; Ada-
mia et al., 1990; Barrier and Vrielynck, 2008) suggest the post-
Eocene collision of the Africa-Arabian and Eurasian continents.
Thermochronological data support the topographic inversion
(uplift) and rapid exhumation of the Transcaucasus, Great Cau-
casus, and Lesser Caucasus in the late Cenozoic (e.g., Allen et
al., 2004; Vincent et al., 2005; Avdeev and Niemi, 2011). More
occurred in the southeastern Black Sea region during the middle
Miocene (Albino et al., 2014).
Due to the continental collision and resultant crustal strain
accumulation and large earthquakes, Georgia is one of the best
places for studying tectonic, seismologic, and morphologic pro-
cesses, which directly affect populations and economies. The
country has a long-term record of observations on seismic his-
tory and reliable assessment of seismic hazard and risk. Such
geohazards as coseismic faults and slope-driven rockfalls in
Georgia have been deciphered by archaeoseimological and his-
torical studies. Valuable information about strong earthquakes
in Georgia is available in seismological, historical, archaeologi-
cal, and geological sources and compiled in earthquake catalogs
(Earthquake Catalogue of Georgia and Adjacent Areas, 2012;
Zare et al., 2014). This paper offers an integrative and up-to-date
review of the postcollisional structures and seismicity of Georgia,
largely based on our own publications and studies, and focus-
ing on the Oligocene–Holocene kinematics of fold-and-thrust
structures and foreland basins, seismic faults and zonation, and
present-day geodynamics and lithospheric structure.
SYN- AND POSTCOLLISIONAL DEVELOPMENT
The Oligocene is considered to represent the onset of the
syncollisional stage in the tectonic development of Georgia and
the Caucasus, when the open marine basins of the Tethys gave
way to sedimentary euxinic basins (e.g., Milanovsky and Khain,
1963; Gamkrelidze, 1964; Dercourt et al., 1986; Adamia et al.,
1990, 2010a; Allen et al., 2004).
The collision between the Africa-Arabian and Eurasian
plates caused inversion of the topography, and two fold-and-thrust
belts of the Great and Lesser Caucasus, with an intermontane

Postcollisional tectonics and seismicity of Georgia
Figure 1. Physical map of the Black Sea–Caspian Sea region, where dark blue indicates oceanic crust of the Black and Caspian Seas (Adamia
et al., 2011).
depression in between, were formed where intra-arc and back-
arc basins had been. The following tectonic units are identified in
the territory of Georgia: (1) the Great Caucasus fold-and-thrust
mountain belt; (2) the Achara-Trialeti fold-and-thrust mountain
belt; (3) the Georgian block, buried under the Rioni and Kura
forelands; and (4) the Artvin-Bolnisi block. The Dzirula High
subdivides the foreland into two basins: the Rioni (Black Sea)
foreland in the west and the Kura (Caspian Sea) foreland in the
east (Fig. 2).
The Oligocene–Lower Miocene deposits in most of the Cau-
casus are the result of the accumulation of detrital and gypsiferous
sediments in semiclosed basins of the Paratethys (Jones and Sim-
mons, 1997). They are known as the Maykopian series (Figs. 3A
and 3B), the thickness of which reaches up to several kilometers
in the deepest parts of the intermontane basins. The Oligocene
rocks are represented by other facies locally (Gamkrelidze, 1964;
Yilmaz et al., 2001), including siliceous (opoka, spongolite in
the Dzirula massif) and marine terrigenous turbidites (Figs. 3C
and 3D), and continental coal-bearing deposits (central and east-
ern Achara-Trialeti). Accumulation of predominantly shallow-
marine, deltaic deposits and lagoon-lacustrine terrigenous clas-
tics with layers of organogenic carbonate rocks (coquina) lasted
spe525-17 1st pgs page 3
3
throughout almost the entire Miocene (Figs. 4A, 4B, and 4C). At
the end of the Miocene and in the Pliocene, the shallow-marine
environment was replaced by subaerial surroundings, and clastic
sediments become much coarser (conglomerates, olistostromes;
Fig. 4D). Marine sedimentation remained only within the area
adjacent to the Black and Caspian Seas.
Transcaucasian Foreland Basins
Rioni Foreland
The Rioni foreland (Fig. 2) is an active thin-skinned fold-
and-thrust belt. On a regional cross section, this belt consists of
upper and lower structural complexes. The upper structural com-
plex includes south-vergent fault-related folds (fault propagation
and fault-bend folds) and is made up of Cretaceous–Tertiary
strata. The lower structural complex is represented by duplexes
containing Middle–Upper Jurassic strata (Figs. 5 and 6A–6D).
Kura Foreland
The Kura foreland basin is separated from the Great Cau-
casus by the northern fold-and-thrust belt of the foreland (see
Fig. 2). The undeformed part of the Kura foreland basin is well
 spe525-17 1st pgs page 4

4 Adamia et al.

Figure 2. Schematic tectonic map of the eastern Black Sea, Georgia, and interpreted line-drawing seismic line A–A′ (Alania, 2012).
 spe525-17 1st pgs page 5

Postcollisional tectonics and seismicity of Georgia 5

Figure 3. (A–D) Oligocene–Miocene shallow-marine deposits of the Kura basin, Maykopian series: (A) thin-laminated
gypsiferous clays, (B) septarian nodules, (C) marine terrigenous turbidites, Tbilisi formation (view from the north, 2013),
with (D) olistostrome horizons, Tbilisi (view from the south, 2013).

observed in Azerbaijan and easternmost Georgia (Forte et al.,
2010). Forte et al. (2010) suggested that the Kura fold-and-thrust
belt has locally accommodated 30%–40% of Arabia-Eurasia con-
vergence since the Pliocene and is currently the main locus of
crustal shortening within this region. It is notable that reorganiza-
tion of tectonics plates started at ca. 5 Ma, when the Arabian plate
pushed hard against the Eurasian plate, thus significantly increas-
ing the topographic uplift and denudation in the region (Hovius
et al., 2001; Allen et al., 2003, 2004; Vincent et al., 2007, 2011;
Avdeev, 2011; Avdeev and Niemi, 2011). The period 5–3 Ma
coincides with the culmination of the Zagros fold-and-thrust belt
and the rapid subsidence of the south Caspian Sea and Rioni-
Kura foreland basins (Devlin et al., 1999; Forte et al., 2010; Ada-
mia et al., 2010a; Albino et al., 2014).
According to different models of the kinematics and defor-
mation regimes of the Kura foreland fold-and thrust-belt, it is
divided into thin-skinned, thick-skinned, and strike-slip com-
pressional-transpressional units (Kopp and Kudrin, 1980; Kopp,
1981; Tevelev, 1990; Nemčok et al., 2013). Our own structural
analysis here is based on an interpreted seismic reflection profiles
across the Kura foreland (Alania, 2012; Alania et al., 2015).
The timing of folding in the Kura foreland is constrained
by the Middle Miocene coarse-grained deposits (Chokrakian,
ca. 15 Ma) unconformably overlying the Maykopian Formation
(Oligocene–Lower Miocene). The geometry of the growth strata
is well observed on seismic profiles of the whole study area, even
though there are only a few fragments of growth strata geometry
visible in outcrops (Figs. 7A–7D, 8, 9A, and 9B).
Interpreted seismic profiles from the Azerbaijanian part of
the Kura fold-and-thrust belt reveal that compressional deforma-
tion started in the middle Miocene, and the following structures
and relationships are observed: (1) asymmetric structure in the
Middle and Upper Miocene and Pliocene strata and an increase
of formation thickness to the north; (2) some regional stages of
the Pliocene, Upper Miocene, and Middle Miocene unconform-
ably overlying the Maykopian Formation over the whole width
of the Kura valley. Interpreted seismic profiles as well as oil
well data from the western part of the Kura foreland fold-and-
thrust belt (eastern Georgia, Kartli basin) show that synorogenic
stratigraphic series were involved in the thrusting and consist of
Middle–Upper Miocene shallow-marine thick continental sedi-
ments of Sarmatian–Meotian–Pontian formations (C–C′, Fig. 8).
 spe525-17 1st pgs page 6

6 Adamia et al.

Figure 4. (A–D) Miocene and Pliocene lagoonal and subaerial deposits of the Kura basin. (A) Lower Miocene deltaic
deposits, Uphlitsikhe formation (42°00′N, 44°15′E, view from the south, 2012); (B) Middle Miocene limestones, Onise
formation (42°00′N, 44°17′E, view from the south, 2012); (C) Upper Miocene lagoon-lacustrine terrigenous clastics,
Eldari formation (41°20′N, 45°20′E, view from the south, 2012); and (D) Miocene–Pliocene subaerial clastics: conglom-
erates, sandstones, etc., Dusheti formation (41°50′N, 45°10′E, view from the southwest, 2012).

In the frontal part of the Achara-Trialeti fold-and-thrust belt, two
different thrust systems are identified: an upper thrust sheet and a
lower duplex (Figs. 10, 11, and 12).
Alazani Piggyback Basin
The Mesozoic and Paleogene strata underlying the Ala-
zani basin (see Figs. 2 and 8) represent the frontal part of the
Great Caucasus fold-and-thrust belt in the middle Miocene.
The thrust front became less active in the late Miocene (Sar-
matian). According to seismic profiles, forms characteristic of
growth strata are not observed in the Sarmatian, which over-
lie Mesozoic rock with a major unconformity. The “tempo-
rary” passive tectonics of the frontal areas could have been
caused by activation of old, so-called out-of-sequence thrust-
ing. According to this model, the south-vergent thrusts of the
frontal part of the Great Caucasus Southern Slope zone were
exhumed and eroded in the middle and late Miocene. Devel-
opment of the Alazani piggyback basin started in the Pliocene,
due to activation and southern displacement of its frontal part.
Formation of the Kakheti Ridge and its antiformal stake took
place in the Pliocene (Alania, 2012). North-vergent thrusting
occurred at the end of the Pliocene on the Mesozoic wedge
(Didi Shiraki back thrust) that separated the Alazani and Shi-
raki piggyback basins (see Fig. 8). Considering the geome-
try of the growth strata on seismic profile B–B′, horizontal
displacement on the Mirzaani ramp anticline (Fig. 13) in the
Pliocene–Pleistocene was ~8.3 mm/yr. This amount is only
for a single thrust displacement.
Magmatic Activity
From the late Miocene until the end of the Pleistocene, and
coeval with formation of molasse troughs and accumulation of
coarse molasses, the central part of the foreland witnessed vol-
canic eruptions mainly in subaerial conditions. Volcanic high-
lands and plateaus were formed in southern Georgia, in the
Kazbegui and Keli (Fig. 1) areas in the Georgian Great Cauca-
sus (Figs. 14A–14D). Two distinct stages of volcanic activity
 Postcollisional tectonics and seismicity of Georgia

Figure 5. Geological map of the Rioni foreland and seismic profiles of the Urta anticline (black circles are wells).
spe525-17 1st pgs

7
page 7

8 Adamia et al.
Figure 6. (A) Seismic lines location map; (B) uninterpreted line-drawing profile 07–84–11 of Urta anticline (TWT(S)—two-way traveltime in s);
(C) interpreted line-drawing profile 07–84–11 and (D) legend.
are apparent: (1) the late Miocene–early Pliocene; and (2) the
Pliocene–Quaternary (Fig. 15).
The late Cenozoic collision between Eurasia and Africa-
Arabia was coeval with the Neogene–Quaternary subaerial vol-
canic activity that occurred from the Middle East through the
Caucasus to southern Russia. Outcrops of these magmatic rocks
are exposed along the boundaries of the main tectonic units of
the region (Fig. 16). In Turkey, they make up two sublatitudi-
nal branches. The northern branch roughly coincides with the
Izmir-Ankara-Erzincan suture (Tethys) and the southern one
with the Antalya (Pamphylian)–Bitlis suture (Neotethys; e.g.,
Altiner et al., 2000; Okay, 2000; Robertson, 2000; Stampfli,
2000; Barrier and Vrielynck, 2008). In the Lesser Caucasus,
syn- and postcollisional magmatic rocks outcrop along the
Sevan-Akera ophiolite suture and, in northernmost Iran, along
the Alborz magmatic belt (Shamanian et al., 2009; Jamali et
al., 2010; Moghadam and Stern, 2014). The southern magmatic
branch of Turkey extends into Iran between the Bitlis-Zagros
spe525-17 1st pgs page 8
and Khoy-Van sutures (Adamia et al., 1980, 2011, 2014) and
forms the Urumiyeh-Dokhtar magmatic arc (Davoudzadeh,
1997; Shamanian et al., 2009; Moghadam and Stern, 2014).
Sublatitudinal branches of syn- and postcollisional magmatic
rocks are gathered in the region of Lakes Van and Urumiyeh
(Van triangle or Van knot; Adamia et al., 2004). From here, the
submeridional branch of Neogene–Quaternary volcanic rocks
runs northward, forming the East Anatolian, Armenian, Azer-
baijanian, and South Georgian (Javakheti) volcanic highlands
and chains of extinct volcanoes. The northernmost relatively
short sublatitudinal (WNW-ESE) branch of syn- and postcol-
lisional magmatic rocks located in the central segment of the
Great and North Caucasus is connected to the boundary of the
Mesozoic–early Cenozoic back-arc basin with a paleo–island-
arc (Adamia et al., 2008, 2010b).
According to Lordkipanidze et al. (1989), the Upper
Miocene–Pleistocene volcanic rocks of the transverse Van–
Transcaucasian uplift belong to the calc-alkaline basalt–
 spe525-17 1st pgs page 9

Postcollisional tectonics and seismicity of Georgia 9

Figure 7. (A) Unconformity of Meotian-Pontian (m-p)/Upper Sarmatian, Shiraqui formation (Upper Sarmatian [U. Sarm], ca. 10 Ma) strata
(Kura foreland); (B) unconformity of Maykopian (MKP, Oligocene–Lower Miocene)/Middle Miocene (Chokrakian) strata (Kura foreland),
Eldari formation; (C) unconformity of Upper Miocene (m-p)/Pliocene (Akchagilian [Ak], ca. 3–5 Ma) strata (close to Georgia-Azerbaijan bor-
der); (D) unconformity of Pliocene (Ak)/Pleistocene (Apsheronian [Ap], ca. 1.5 Ma) strata (close to the eastern part of the Georgia-Azerbaijan
border), Alazani formation (Alania et al., 2015).

10 Adamia et al.
Figure 8. Location of the seismic profiles on the geological map of southeastern Georgia. Ak—Akchagilian; Ap—Apsheronian.
andesite–dacite–rhyolitic series, with andesites and dacites as
the dominant types. Volcanic rocks of the Great Caucasus (Keli,
Kazbegui in Georgia) are regarded to be hybrid, originated from
mixing of mantle-derived tholeiitic melted in situ palingenetic
felsic upper-crustal melt.
Biostratigraphy and Chronostratigraphy
Pyroclastic rocks of the first volcanic stage (Goderdzi For-
mation) in the vicinity of the Goderdzi Pass (see Fig. 15) contain
petrified subtropical wood (Fig. 17A) and other floral remnants
(Fig. 17B), which date the rocks as Upper Miocene–Lower Plio-
cene (Uznadze, 1946). K-Ar dating has confirmed the late Mio-
cene age of the tuffs (Aslanian et al., 1984).
Within the Akhaltsikhe depression (Chobareti village), we
found marine deposits of the Goderdzi Formation beneath the
commonly distributed continental sediments in this area. The
marine sediments are represented by sandy diatomite, which
hosts nanoplankton index species (Amaurolithus primus) of the
CN9b subzone, which dates the sediments as Upper Miocene
(Figs. 18A–18H).
spe525-17 1st pgs page 10
The Akhalqalaqi Formation is widespread on the south
Georgian highland (Javakheti). Basaltic (doleritic) lavas are the
dominant rock units. In some places, they contain lacustrine,
alluvial deposits and pyroclastic rocks.
The age of the lower part of the Akhalqalaqi suite has been
identified on the basis of mammalian fauna as Upper Pliocene–
Pleistocene. The 40Ar/39Ar age of the dolerites is supported by
the faunal data (ca. 1.8 Ma; Djaparidze et al., 1989). In lacus-
trine sediments (Dmanisi), there remnants of hominids have been
found and identified by L. Gabunia et al. (1999) and A. Vekua
et al. (2002) as the representatives of Homo ergaster georgicus.
The complex of fossils defines the age of enclosed rocks as
Eopleistocene, corresponding to the Apsheron regiostage of the
Caspian Basin regional scale (see Fig. 15), which is correlated
to the upper part of the Villafranchian regiostage of the Medi-
terranean area. Magnetostratigraphic investigations carried out
during the last two decades in Georgia have recognized all the
known standard paleomagnetic chrons and subchrons, Brunhes,
Matuyama (with Jaramillo, Cobb Mountain, Olduvai, Reunion 2
and Reunion 1 subchrons), within the late Miocene–Quaternary
sequence of volcanic rocks. This places the basalts of Patara
 spe525-17 1st pgs page 11

Postcollisional tectonics and seismicity of Georgia 11

Figure 9. (A) Uninterpreted and (B) interpreted seismic profile JKX-97–12 (Alania et al., 2015). TWT(S)—two-way
traveltime in s.

Figure 10. Geological cross section C–C′ of the frontal part of the eastern Achara-Trialeti fold-and-thrust belt (ATFTB) and Kura foreland fold-
and-thrust belt (Alania et al., 2015). Location is shown on Figure 8. K—Cretaceous; P—Paleogene; E—Eocene; L. Miocene—Lower Miocene;
M. Miocene—Middle Miocene; S (Sarmatian)—Upper Miocene; m-p—Upper Miocene (Meotian–Pontian).
 spe525-17 1st pgs page 12

12 Adamia et al.

Figure 11. Geological cross section D–D′ of the Kura foreland fold-and-thrust belt (Alania et al., 2015). Location is shown in Figure 8. S—Upper
Miocene (Sarmatian); m-p—Upper Miocene (Meotian-Pontian); Ak-Ap—Upper Pliocene–Lower Pleistocene (Akchagilian-Apsheronian);
DSBT—Didi Shiraki back thrust.

Figure 12. (A) Uninterpreted (fragment) and (B, C) interpreted (balanced model) line-drawing profile E–E′; see Figure 8 (Alania et al., 2015).
TWT(S)—two-way traveltime in s.

Postcollisional tectonics and seismicity of Georgia
Figure 13. Sequential evolution of the Alazani and Didi Shiraki piggyback basins across line F–F′; see Figure 8 (Alania et al., 2015).
Dmanisi at the top of the Akchagilian regiostage, ca. 1.8 Ma
(Djaparidze et al., 1989; Fig. 15).
Geochemistry
Postcollisional volcanic complexes in the Javakheti High-
land located immediately the north of the volcanic plateaus
of central Anatolia and Armenia (Fig. 19) are represented
by well-differentiated basalt-rhyolite series and occupy the
transitional field between calc-alkaline and tholeiitic series
(Figs. 20A and 20B). This trend is characteristic for the entire
set of Neogene–Quaternary volcanic suites. Variations of
major-element oxides versus MgO display a continuous frac-
tionation trend (Fig. 21).
Trace-element geochemical patterns (normalized to
primitive mantle [PM]) for the Goderdzi, Akhalqalaqi, and
Abul-Samsari volcanic suites show smooth distribution
spe525-17 1st pgs page 13
13
curves, moderate fractionation of light (L) to heavy (H) rare
earth elements (REEs), and moderate accumulation of REEs
from basic to high-silica constituents (Figs. 22A–22C). Nor-
malization values for REEs and multi-element plots for all
suites are from Sun and McDonough (1989). Extended multi-
elements patterns (normalized to mid-ocean-ridge basalt
[MORB]) of the Goderdzi, Akhalqalaqi, and Abul-Samsari
volcanic suites show clear negative Nb and Pb anomalies
and low Ni concentrations. Moderate accumulation of trace
elements from magnesium to high-silica differentiates is
also manifested (Figs. 22D–22F). The Th/Yb versus Nb/Yb
and Th/Yb versus Ta/Yb diagrams for Miocene–Quaternary
volcanic rocks indicate their suprasubduction type of volca-
nism (Fig. 23). Thus, the basic geochemical features of the
Neogene–Quaternary formations remain generally similar
for Goderdzi, Akhalqalaqi, and Abul-Samsari volcanic rocks,
indicative of a similar origin.
 spe525-17 1st pgs page 14

14 Adamia et al.

Figure 14. (A–D) Neogene–Quaternary extinct volcanoes of Georgia. Great Caucasus: (A) Mkinvartsveri (Kazbegui)
extinct volcano, view from the east, 2010 and (B) Guadauri lava flow, view from the west, 2014; Javakheti Highland;
(C) Biketi extinct volcano, view from the east, 2011 and (D) Khrami doleritic lava flow, view from the east, 2013.

EARTHQUAKE SOURCES AND ACTIVE FAULTS
Mapping of Earthquakes
The southern Caucasus is an earthquake-prone region where
devastating earthquakes have repeatedly caused significant loss
of lives and damage to infrastructure and buildings. Two devas-
tating earthquakes have occurred in the region during the past
27 yr. The first one was the Mw 6.9 Spitak earthquake on 7
December 1988 in Armenia, at the Georgian-Armenian border
(Figs. 24A and 24B). The earthquake became widely known due
to the immense human casualties it caused—no less than 25,000
people were killed, some 500,000 were left homeless, and prop-
erty damage was estimated at about US$8 billion (Cisternas et
al., 1989; Shebalin and Borisov, 1989; Adamia et al., 1995). The
second large seismic event was the Mw 6.9 Racha earthquake on
29 April 1991 (Figs. 24C and 24D). Its epicenter was located in
the Southern Slope zone of the Great Caucasus in the environs of
Oni, Ambrolauri, and Sachkhere (Borissoff and Rogozhin, 1992;
Triep et al., 1995; Fuenzalida et al., 1997). This earthquake, the
strongest ever recorded in Georgia, took about 100 human lives
and caused great destruction within densely populated areas. The
main shock was followed by numerous aftershocks, which lasted
for several months, the largest ones of which were Ms = 5.4 on
April 29, Ms = 5.3 on May 3, and Ms = 6.2 on June 15, caus-
ing additional damage (Gabsatarova et al., 1992; Borissoff and
Rogozhin, 1992; Triep et al., 1995). (Magnitudes of aftershocks
were estimated directly from surface waves, Ms; see Table 1.)
Data on the Racha aftershocks for a month period (May 15–
June 15) reveal a few clusters of shocks (Adamia et al., 1995),
trending respectively to W-E 270°, WNW 290°, and NW 310°
(Fig. 25). The focal mechanisms were studied for 57 shocks of
energy class >11 (magnitude 4 and larger). Most of them show
that nodal planes were orientated to WNW or NW. Stability in
the orientation corresponding with the trend of the major struc-
tures gives the basis for choosing them as the acting focal planes
(Fuenzalida et al., 1997; Triep et al., 1995). All the shocks were
shallow, with focal depth varying from 2 to 32 km, with the
majority in the range of 10–22 km. The depth of the main shock
is estimated to be at 6 km (Earthquake Catalogue of Georgia and
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Postcollisional tectonics and seismicity of Georgia 15

Figure 15. Upper Miocene–Pleistocene volcanic rocks in the stratigraphic schemes of the Mediterranean and Black Sea–Caspian Sea regions
(Haq and Eisinga, 1987; Remane et al., 2006; Yilmaz et al., 2001), where dark gray—Goderdzi suite, light gray—Akhalqalaqi suite.

Adjacent Areas, 2012). Structurally, the epicenter region rep-
resents a boundary zone between two main tectonic units: the
Great Caucasus fold-and-thrust mountain belt in the north, and
the rigid Georgian block in the south. The northern periphery of
the Georgian block is dissected by a system of active W-E– and
NW-SE–trending faults, which are grouped in two clusters of
thrusts and reverse faults with different vergences (see Fig. 25).
The overwhelming majority of strong shocks (including the main
shock) were associated with the southern branches of these seis-
moactive structures.
The complex network of faults permits the Caucasian region
to be divided into a number of separate blocks of different orders,
varying from each other by their dimensions, genesis, and geo-
logic nature. Geological and paleomagnetic data provide evi-
dence that these terranes, before being accreted together into a
single complex of fold-and-thrust belts, underwent long-term and
substantial horizontal displacements within the now-vanished
oceanic area of the Tethys. The boundary zones between these
terrains represent belts of intense tectonic, volcanic, and seismic
activities. The main part of the seismically active faults repre-
sents the boundaries of the main tectonic units of Georgia and
hosts the foci of strong earthquakes. Figure 26 shows the map
of active faults and seismicity for the entire country of Georgia
(Adamia et al., 2008; Varazanashvili et al., 2011).
The earthquake catalogue used in this publication covers
the period from ancient times up to 2012. Magnitude values
correspond to the magnitude of surface waves (Ms) and were
calculated either from macroseismic data (for historical earth-
quakes) or instrumentally, i.e., directly from the observations
or correlation between Ms and another type of magnitudes. For
 spe525-17 1st pgs page 16

16 Adamia et al.

Figure 16. Distribution of the syn- and postcollisional magmatic (effusive and intrusive) rocks and their spatial relationship with the boundar-
ies of the main tectonic units of the Black Sea–Caspian Sea region (e.g., Okay, 2000; Robertson, 2000; Altiner et al., 2000; Yilmaz et al., 2001;
Yilmaz and Adamia, 2001; Adamia et al., 2011, 2014).

Figure 17. (A, B) Miocene–Pliocene flora of the Goderdzi Formation in petrified trunk of Corniferae, view from the
south, 2010.
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Postcollisional tectonics and seismicity of Georgia 17

Amaurolithus primus

Triqurtrorhabdulus farnsworthii Scyphosphaera flobulata

Scyphosphara? sp. Reticulofenestra doronicoides

Figure 18. (A–H) Marine nanofossils from lower level of the Goderdzi Formation: (A, B) index species of CN9b,
(C–H) species of CN9b (dated by T. Gavtadze in Sadradze, 2015). Magnification ×1200.

earthquakes with Ms < 3.5, correlation between Ms or energetic
class K was used (Rautian et al., 2007). The historical part of the
catalogue (prior to 1900) included only relatively moderate and
strong earthquakes, i.e., Ms ≥ 3.8, and discrimination between
these events was difficult to make. For this period, average esti-
mation error for earthquake epicenters is 25 km, although for
some of them, it is ~10 km (Varazanashvili et al., 2011). In Geor-
gia, the instrumental period started around 1900, after which all
events with Ms > 4.0 and Ms ≥ 2.9 are listed in the catalogue.
The part of the catalogue showing earthquakes with Ms > 4.0 is
relatively complete. Average estimation error for the time span
of 1900–1960 is ~15 km. After 1962, due to the installation of
dense network of seismic stations in Georgia, it became possible
to register earthquakes with Ms ≥ 2.9. Therefore, the catalogue is
practically complete for the period 1962–2012, and the average
estimation error for their location is 15 km. The errors recalcu-
lated recently show 2 km deviation (Zare et al., 2014).
Kinematics of Active Structures
As a result of the continuing northward push of the Africa-
Arabian plate in post-Oligocene times, the Caucasus region,
including Georgia, has become an intracontinental mountain belt,
with active structures and topography (high mountain ranges of
the Great and Lesser Caucasus, intermontane lowlands of the
Transcaucasus, and volcanic highlands) intensely being devel-
oped since the late Sarmatian (7 Ma). The postcollisional sub-
horizontal shortening of the Caucasus is estimated at hundreds
 18
Adamia et al.

Figure 19. Location and number of samples from the Javakheti Highland of South Georgia on the geological map (Sadradze, 2015).
spe525-17 1st pgs
page 18
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Postcollisional tectonics and seismicity of Georgia 19

Figure 20. (A) Classification of late Miocene–Quaternary volcanic units of the Javakheti region on the total alkali (wt%)
vs. SiO2 (wt%) plot (Le Bas et al., 1986). Abbreviations: B—basalt, BA—basaltic andesite, TB—trachybasalt, BTA—
basaltic trachyandesite, A—andesite, TA—trachyandesite, D—dacite, TD—trachydacite, T—trachyte, R—rhyolite,
IB—alkaline/subalkaline (Irvine and Baragar, 1971), Ku—alkaline/subalkaline (Kuno, 1966). (B) Plot of Al2O3 (wt%)
vs. normative plagioclase composition (Irvine and Baragar, 1971; Sadradze, 2015). CA—calc-alkaline; Th—tholeiitic.

of kilometers (Barrier and Vrielynck, 2008; Meijers et al., 2015).
Such a considerable shortening of Earth’s crust has occurred in
the region through different ways: (1) compressional deforma-
tion by folds and thrusts, reverse faults, and nappes; (2) warping
and displacement of crustal blocks by uplift and subsidence; and
(3) lateral tectonic escape.
The geometry of tectonic deformation in the region is
largely determined by the wedge-shaped rigid Arabian block
intensively indenting into the relatively mobile area (e.g., Jack-
son and Ambraseys, 1997; Okay and Şahintürk, 1997; Yilmaz
et al., 1997; Ambrseys and Jackson 1998; Berberian and Yeats,
1999; McClusky et al., 2000; Koçyiğit et al., 2001; Allen et al.,
2003; Vincent et al., 2005). All structural-morphological lines
have a clearly expressed arcuate northward-convex configuration
reflecting the contours of the Arabian block (Axen et al., 2001;
Allen et al., 2003; Reilinger et al., 2006). However, farther north,
the geometry of the fold-and-thrust belts becomes somewhat dif-
ferent; for example, the Achara-Trialeti structure trends E-W (see
Figs. 1 and 2). The Great Caucasian fold-and-thrust belt extends
in a WNW-ESE (300°-120°) direction, while the chains of Neo-
gene–Quaternary volcanoes in the Lesser Caucasus are oriented
in a submeridional (N-S) direction, which is also in compliance
with the general NNE-SSW subhorizontal compression of the
region. Submeridional compression reaches its maximum within
the central segment of the Caucasus, along a line running through
the central part of the Transcaucasus. This line actually represents
the watershed between the basins of the Black Sea and southern
Caspian Sea. Westward of this line, compression is replaced by
tension caused by the escape of central Anatolia, where the terri-
tory of the Black Sea is experiencing weak submeridional com-
pression. Apparently, the same conditions also exist eastward of
the line of maximal compression in the territory of the Kura fore-
land and Talysh in southeastern Caucasus (Koçyiğit et al., 2001;
Adamia et al., 2008; Varazanashvili et al., 2011).
Crustal data from the southern and middle Caspian Basin and
easternmost pre-Caucasus (e.g., Tskhakaya, 1962; Godzikovs-
kaya and Reysner, 1989; Earthquake Catalogue of Georgia
and Adjacent Areas, 2012) reveal a deep-seated zone of stress
and strain (Leonov et al., 2001), a zone of mantle-earthquake
sources that dips beneath the eastern Caucasus (Allen et al.,
2003; Kovachev et al., 2006; Mellors et al., 2012). The oceanic-
suboceanic lithosphere of the eastern Black Sea and southern Cas-
pian Sea apparently forms resistant domains, around which the
main morphological and tectonic structures bend (Fig. 27). Since
the late middle Miocene, a new tectonic regime has emerged,
as the westward translation of Anatolia (e.g., McKenzie, 1972;
Jackson and Ambraseys, 1997) is accommodating most of the
Arabia-Eurasia convergence, thus precluding efficient northward
stress transfer (Albino et al., 2014).
Three principal directions of active faults compatible with
the dominant near–N-S compressional stress produced by north-
ward displacement of the Arabian plate can be distinguished in
the region: one longitudinal WNW-ESE or W-E and two trans-
versal NE-SW and NW-SE (Fig. 26). The first group of struc-
tures, the so-called NW-SE “Caucasian” strike, is represented
by compressional structures such as reverse faults, thrusts, thrust
 20
Adamia et al.

Figure 21. Variation of major-element oxides vs. MgO for Neogene–Quaternary volcanics (Sadradze, 2015).
spe525-17 1st pgs
page 20
 Postcollisional tectonics and seismicity of Georgia

Figure 22. (A–F) Geochemical patterns for Pliocene–Quaternary volcanic suites. (A–C) Rare earth element (REE) distribution diagrams (normalized to primitive mantle [pm]) for
Goderdzi, Akhalqalaqi, and Abul-Samsari suites. (D–F) Extended multi-elements patterns (normalized to mid-ocean-ridge basalt [morb]) for Goderdzi, Akhalqalaqi, and Abul-
Samsari suites (Sadradze, 2015).
spe525-17 1st pgs

21
page 21
 spe525-17 1st pgs page 22

22 Adamia et al.

Figure 23. (A) Th/Yb vs. Nb/

Yb (Pearce and Peate, 1995) and
(B) Th/Yb vs. Ta/Yb (Pearce, 1983)
diagrams for the Upper Pliocene–
Quaternary volcanic suites of the
Javakheti Highland (Sadradze,
2015). MORB—mid-ocean-ridge
basalt; OIB—oceanic-island basalt.
VAB—volcanic-arc basalt; SHO—
shoshonitic; CAB—calc-alkaline
basalt; IAT—island-arc tholeiite;
WPB—within-plate basalts; ALK—
alkaline; TH—tholeiitic.

Figure 24. (A–D) 1988 Spitak and 1991 Racha earthquake damage. (A–B) Photos of Spitak from December 1988 by
C.J. Langer/U.S. Geological Survey and G. Sobolev/Academy of Sciences of U.S.S.R. (C–D) Racha, town of Sachkhere,
apartment block and medieval church (photos by Adamia, 1991).
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Postcollisional tectonics and seismicity of Georgia 23

slices, and strongly deformed fault-propagation folds. The trans-

versal faults are mainly compressional structures but also have a
TABLE 1. [[Table title?]] considerable strike-slip component. The tensional nature of the
No.
Lat Long Depth
Year Mw submeridional faults is evidenced by their association with Neo-
(°N) (°E) ([[units?]])
gene–Quaternary volcanism in some areas of the Transcaucasus.
45 42.3 43.0 12 1908 5.3
194 42.3 43.3 5 1991 5.0 The NE-SW left-lateral strike-slip faults are the main seismoac-
200 42.3 43.8 2 1991 5.3 tive structures in the western Transcaucasus, while right-lateral
196 42.3 43.8 14 1991 5.1
197 42.4 43.8 10 1991 5.1 strike-slip faults and fault zones are developed in the southeast-
158 42.5 43.3 5 1971 5.1 ern Transcaucasus. Crustal blocks to the west of the submeridi-
159 42.5 43.5 8 1971 5.1 onal line across the Javakheti Highland have experienced west-
191 42.4 43.7 12 1991 6.9
199 42.4 43.7 0 1991 5.1 ward lateral escape (Koçyiğit et al., 2001; Adamia et al., 2008),
198 42.4 43.8 16 1991 5.3 whereas those eastward of this line do not display ESE-directed
9 42.7 43.1 15 1350 7.0
117 42.7 43.3 25 1953 5.2
lateral escape motion.
32 42.6 43.4 5 1902 5.1 The Caucasus region has also been considered to be an
192 42.5 43.6 5 1901 5.8 example of indentation tectonics (e.g., Jackson and Ambraseys,
1997; Koçyiğit et al., 2001). The proposed Borjomi-Kazbegui
sinistral fault is considered to be the western boundary of the

Figure 25. Geological map showing active faults (red lines), Mw ≥5 earthquake locations (blue boxes), numbers, and parameters (Table 1)
for the Racha region (Adamia and Gujabidze, 2004; Earthquake catalogue of Georgia 1250BC-2014; Zare et al., 2014). Symbols of the
lithostratigraphic units: Y1—Upper Paleozoic granitoids; hs—Hettangian–Aalenian terrigenous turbidites; p—Pliensbachian slates and
basalts; ta—Toarcian–Aalenian terrigenous turbidites; bj—Bajocian volcanic rocks; bb—Bajocian–Bathonian terrigenous turbidites; ct—
Callovian–Tithonian carbonate turbidites; K1—Lower Cretaceous limestones; K2—Upper Cretaceous carbonate turbidites; K—Cretaceous
deposits; e3—Upper Eocene terrigenous clastics; m2—Middle Miocene volcanic rocks; s1—Sarmatian (Upper Miocene) molasse; plq—
Upper Pliocene–Quaternary lava flows; q—Quaternary deposits.
 spe525-17 1st pgs page 24

24 Adamia et al.

Figure 26. Map of active faults (red line) in Georgia and the epicenters of historical and instrumental earthquakes (Koçyiğit et al., 2001;
Adamia and Gujabidze, 2004; Adamia et al., 2008; Varazanashvili et al., 2011; Earthquake Catalogue of Georgia and Adjacent Areas, 2012;
Zare et al., 2014).

actively indenting wedge (Philip et al., 1989; Rebaï et al., 1993).
According to these authors, the fault penetrates the entire crust as
well as the Moho surface and represents a left-lateral strike-slip
fault, where its western block has been displaced ~90 km south-
westward during the last 5–3.5 m.y. (Philip et al., 1989), after the
formation of the main structural units of the Caucasus, including
the Great Caucasus, Georgian block, and Achara-Trialeti fold-
and-thrust mountain belt. The fault slip rate has been estimated as
1.8–2.5 cm/yr (Philip et al., 1989). However, improved seismic
network density has not detected seismicity on the proposed Bor-
jomi-Kazbegui fault. These new observations call into question
the very existence of the fault, and along with this, the tectonic
model of the region incorporating such a major crustal structure.
To clarify this, multidisciplinary research, including geomor-
phological, geological, geodetic, and geophysical methods, was
carried out along the proposed Borjomi-Kazbegui fault (Kraso-
vec et al., 2007; Adamia et al., 2009, 2011; Martin et al., 2012;
Lursmanashvili, 2013). Precise global positioning system (GPS)
instrumentation was used to map multiple local geologic and
geomorphologic markers across the proposed line of the fault,
while gravimetric and magnetic surveys were used to map the
deeper structures. The results showed no evidence of strike-slip
faulting. Local marker beds such as lithologic contacts, structural
units, Quaternary lava flows, and diabasic sills continue uninter-
rupted across the proposed fault line (Fig. 28). Gravimetric and
magnetic data also showed no discontinuity across the proposed
fault (Martin et al., 2012). In addition, the geophysical data
obtained during the Soviet period agrees with these new results
(Krasovec et al., 2007; Martin et al., 2012). Current field observa-
tions support a model in which active shortening in the Borjomi
and Kazbegui regions is accommodated predominantly by thrust
faulting (Lursmanashvili, 2013).
It is very important to emphasize that there is no geological
map of the region, edited before or after publication by Philip
et al. (1989), that shows the existence of the so-called Borjomi-
Kazbegui sinistral fault (e.g., 1:1,000,000 scale maps of Mai-
min et al., 1982, Adamia et al., 2010c; 1:500,000 scale maps
of Nalivkin, 1976, Yilmaz et al., 2001, Gujabidze, 2003, Ada-
mia and Gujabidze, 2004; 1:250,000 scale map of Yilmaz et al.,
2001; 1:200,000 scale maps of Kandelaki and Kakhadze, 1956a,
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Postcollisional tectonics and seismicity of Georgia 25

Figure 27. Map showing global positioning system (GPS) velocities with respect to Eurasia and 95% confidence ellipses
for the eastern Black Sea–Caucasus–Caspian region (Vernant et al., 2013).

1956b, Gamkrelidze and Tsagareli, 1957, Gubkina and Ermakov,
1984; 1:50,000 scale maps of Lobjanidze and Chkhaidze, 1982,
and Kipiani, 1983; and 1:10,000 scale map of Chkhaidze, 1988).
The Caucasus region is subject not only to S-N but also
to E-W compression, since it is directly adjacent to the eastern
Black Sea on the west and the Caspian Sea on the east, which
both have suboceanic high-density crust that hampers lateral tec-
tonic escape of the western and eastern Caucasus, respectively.
Therefore, the surrounding compression caused the formation
of piggyback basins in western Georgia. Westward escape of
the western Transcaucasus did not occur either, because of the
backstop provided by the stable crust of the eastern Black Sea
Basin, so such compression led to formation of the seismoactive
structure represented by the chain of Gali, Zugdidi, Khobi, Eki,
and Abedati anticlines that fully delineates the Odishi piggyback
basin (Figs. 29A–29D; see also Fig. 5).
FAULT PLANE SOLUTIONS AND
TECTONIC STRESSES
Fault Plane Solutions
In this section, we analyze the seismotectonic deformation
and stress fields for various scales and the relationships among
the different seismotectonic units of Georgia and the south-
ern Caucasus. We then use the results for the interpretation of
local geodynamics in the separate zones. To achieve this goal,
we investigated and geologically interpreted the regularities in
character of earthquake fault plane solutions with various magni-
tudes, calculated the parameters of seismotectonic deformations,
and developed principles to establish the borders and scales of
seismic deformation fields and their interrelationships.
The fault plane solution for the southern Caucasus has
been the subject of investigation by many authors, including
Ambraseys and Jackson (1998), Jackson and McKenzie (1988),
Fuenzalida et al. (1997), Ekstrom and England (1989), and Pon-
drelli et al. (1995), using various techniques, but mainly for large
earthquakes. The major part of this work was done in the frame-
work of the project INTAS 06–1000017–9130 (Stress Related
Geohazards in the South Caucasus) and resulted in an extended
database for seismic hazard assessments within an area rang-
ing 40.0°N–43.6°N and 40.0°E–46.0°E, including the Southern
Slope of the Great Caucasus, the Kura and Rioni depressions,
and the Lesser Caucasus (see Figs. 1 and 2).
In this study, we analyzed focal mechanisms of earthquakes
within a magnitude range of Ms = 2.7–6.9 that occurred in the
southern Caucasus during the period of 1959–2012. From 1992
to 2003, the seismic network in Georgia had poor coverage.
Local data from this period did not allow us to estimate fault
plane solution of earthquakes. After 2003, the old network was
 spe525-17 1st pgs page 26

26 Adamia et al.

Figure 28. Geological map of central Georgia showing active faults (red lines) and earthquake epicenter (Mw ≥5, blue
boxes) and so-called Borjomi-Kazbegui fault—BKF (Adamia and Gujabidze, 2004; Lursmanashvili, 2013; Earthquake
catalogue of Georgia 1250BC–2014; Zare et al., 2014). Symbols of the stratigraphic unites: σ1—Neoproterozoic–
Paleozoic diorites; Y1—Paleozoic granitoides; hs—Hettangian–Sinemurian terrigenous turbidites; P—Pliensbachian
slates and basalts; ta—Toarcian–Aalenian terrigenous turbidites; bj—Bajocian volcanic rocks; bb—Bajocian–
Bathonian terrigenous rocks; ct—Callovian–Tithonian carbonate turbidites; bh—Berriasian–Hauterivian terrigenous
turbidites; ha—Hauterivian–Albian terrigenous turbidites; K1—Lower Cretaceous limestones; K2—Upper Cretaceous
limestones and turbidites; pne—Pliocene–Eocene terrigenous turbidites; e2—Middle Eocene deposits; e3—Upper Eo-
cene deposits; s1-3—Sarmatian molasses; mp—Meotian–Pontian molasses; mpl—Upper Miocene–Pliocene volcanic
rocks; plq—Upper Pliocene–Quaternary volcanic rocks; q—Quaternary undifferentiated.

replaced by a new digital one. From 2003 onward, earthquakes
were calculated by their local magnitude ML. For the period
2003–2012, we had records of 35 earthquakes from the Cau-
casus with a magnitude range of ML 4.3–6.0. Earthquake fault
plane solutions for these were calculated using a semi-automatic
and frequency-sensitive moment tensor inversion technique
(Barth et al., 2007). The data for the Caucasus came from
records of broadband (BB) and long-period seismometers with
source-receiver distances up to 3300 km, and these were used to
investigate source mechanisms of Mw < 6.0 earthquakes. Seis-
mic data came from two BB seismometers in Georgia (provided
by Seismic Monitoring Centre of Georgia), one seismometer
in Armenia, one in Russia, and some from Turkey. Waveform
data of all stations were available online via the Incorporated
Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS) data center, Wash-
ington, D.C. (http://www.iris.edu/SeismiQuery). For 24 of them
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Postcollisional tectonics and seismicity of Georgia 27

Figure 29. (A–D) Western Georgia, Odishi district: (A) topographic and (B) geological maps (Adamia and Gujabidze, 2004); (C) seismic map
of earthquakes that occurred during historical (1250–1900) and instrumental (1900–2008) periods (Earthquake catalogue of Georgia 1250BC–
2014); and (D) cross sections of the Odishi PGB structure. PGB—piggy-back basin.

a moment tensor could be successfully determined; of these, 16
earthquakes pertained to the territory of Georgia.
In total, about 700 earthquakes were analyzed, and the data
set was reduced to 146 events for which we had data for the sign
of first arrival, polarity, and accurate epicenters. For 130 of these,
we calculated fault plane solutions using the first motion polarity
technique with data from the Georgian analogue seismic stations
for the period 1959–1992. During this period, there were 40 work-
ing seismic stations in Georgia and ~70 seismic stations operat-
ing in the entire Caucasus. The initial data for these earthquakes
were recalculated directly from the seismograms. Corrections
were made for P- and S-waves arrival times in some of the sta-
tions. The parameters of seismographs (polarities of axes), which
were not always determined in the past, were taken into account.
When the polarities of axes for the same stations were found to be
false, those data were not used. The average number of polarities
per event was 14. The average accuracy of location (depth end
epicenter) was 2 km. The hypocentral parameters of the earth-
quakes were calculated using the HYPO-71 program (Lee and
Larh, 1975). Since earthquake location strongly depends on the
velocity model employed, all velocity models obtained from vari-
ous geophysical methods for the Caucasus region were examined
(Tvaltvadze, 1960; Murusidze, 1987; Adamia at al., 1991, 2004;
Godoladze et al., 2005). Seismic data from 19 man-made explo-
sions for which we exactly knew the hypocentral parameters
were used. The model used for the interpretation of the surface
wave group velocity dispersion curves (Sikharulidze et al., 2004)
resulted in slightly decreased standard errors for horizontal and
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28 Adamia et al.

TABLE 2. VELOCITY MODEL TABLE 3. FAULT PLANE SOLUTION QUALITY FACTORS

BY SIKHARULIDZE ET AL. (2004) Quality Avo Cvo eTNP
A 0.009 0.009 15
Depth of top layer (km) Vp (km/s) Vp/Vs B 0.009–0.025 0.009–0.025 20
0 .0 4 .2 1.71 C 0.025–0.090 0.025–0.100 25
4 .0 5 .5 D >0.1 >0.1 40
20.0 6 .2 Note: Avo—normalized integral of quality on averaging area
(max = 1); Cvo—relative volume of 70% confidential area (where 1
30.0 6 .9
corresponds to full volume of set of calculation); eTNP—root-mean-
49.0 8 .2 square deviation of main axis (T, N).

depth location and for the residual between the observed and the
calculated arrival times compared to the other velocity models.
The location data obtained by the velocity model of Sikharuli-
dze et al. (2004) gave depths less than 2 km for the near-surface
explosive sources, while the other models gave larger than 5 km.
Scatter of the epicenters was also the best using Sikharulidze’s
model, which consists of several layers (Table 2).
The Lander (FA2002) software package was used for calcu-
lation of focal mechanism by the first motion polarity using the
maximum likelihood function. It allows the mechanism, behavior
of the quality function, and confidential areas to be presented in
order to provide some quantitative estimations of the quality of
calculations. The calculation method involves the width of the
inverted frequency range Δf as a measure of stability, and the
number N of inverted waveforms combined to assess the quality
of the events, where quality A = Δf ≥ 10 and N ≥ 10; quality B =
[Δf ≥ 10 and N ≤ 9] or [Δf ≤ 9 and N ≥8]; and quality C = Δf ≤ 9
and N ≤ 7. The majority of these earthquakes (112) were classi-
fied as quality C according to the World Stress Map (WSM) qual-
ity ranking table and are a part of the WSM project (http://www
.world-stress-map.org). Table 3 presents the quality factors of out-
put, and Figure 30 depicts all data for our fault plane solutions.
Seismic consistency (Cs) calculated for Georgia is a statistic
measure showing how similar the earthquakes are. If all earth-
quakes in volume have identically orientated moment tensor,
then Cs = 1. When earthquakes sources cancel each other, Cs = 0.
Overall, Cs values range from 0 to 1 (Apperson, 1991). Similarity
and dissimilarity of fault plane solutions are important parameters
indicating whether the region is seismically homogeneous or het-
erogeneous. Dividing the region into seismically homogeneous

Figure 30. The main type of earthquake fault plane solutions for Georgia with magnitude range Ms 4.7–6.9.

Postcollisional tectonics and seismicity of Georgia
or heterogeneous areas makes it possible to define seismic source
zones, which are vital for seismic hazard assessment. From this
point of view, we divided the study region into polygons for
which the Cs was close or equal to 1. In this exercise, we first
determined Cs for three tectonic units (regions) on account of
the known geologic history of the Caucasus (Zonenshain and Le
Pichon, 1986): the Great Caucasus, the Lesser Caucasus, and the
Transcaucasian intermontane depressions. For the Rioni low-
land, there were just two earthquakes with Cs = 1; admittedly,
such poor statistics do not permit a good seismic characterization
of this area. The tectonic units thus identified were subdivided
with the hope of obtaining higher values of Cs. Thus, the divi-
sion of the Great Caucasus into a western and an eastern subre-
gion yielded higher Cs values for the western Great Caucasus. A
more complicated picture was obtained for the Lesser Caucasus
because earthquakes were not similar. Finally, the territory of
Georgia was divided into right polygons, out of which six were
characterized by Cs > 0.7 (Fig. 31). Stress inversion (Michael,
1984, 1987) was also done for the whole territory and for each
zone. As the region is predominantly in a thrusting regime, the
orientations of maximum horizontal stress (SH) are parallel to the
maximum principal stress σ1 (Table 4). Results obtained for the
tectonic units and subdivisions are presented in Table 4.
To sum up this section, fault plane solution data show that
the territory of Georgia is experiencing latitudinal compression,
longitudinal extension, and overall crustal thickening. The Cau-
Figure 31. Active faults (red lines), selected polygons, and orientation of maximum horizontal stress (SH). Red arrows
show orientation of SH for the whole territory of Georgia; black arrows show orientation of SH for separate polygons.
spe525-17 1st pgs page 29
29
casus includes several orogenic systems with different tectonic
histories. As we see in Table 4, Cs is 0.55 for the whole Cau-
casus, which indicates dissimilarity of fault plane solutions for
the whole region. Cs becomes close to 1 for polygons when we
divide the territory of Georgia into right units. Western and east-
ern Georgia exhibit differences in fault plane solutions as well as
in the orientation of horizontal stresses.
Tectonic Stresses
In our study of Georgia, we first characterized the apparent
stress regime by the orientation of maximum horizontal stress,
classified by the quality ranking scheme of WSM (Zoback, 1992;
Heidbach, 2009). The distribution of the relative number of earth-
quakes (in percent) for all types of faults for the Georgian terri-
tory is presented in Figure 32A, and separately for strong and
small earthquakes in Figure 32B and Figure 32C, respectively.
The histograms of earthquake distribution by fault plane
solution type for moderate and strong earthquakes show just three
stress regime: strike slip, thrust fault, and thrust strike, while the
same histogram for small earthquakes shows all types of stress
regimes, though both of them are quite similar according to
preferential mechanism, where strike-slip is dominant, followed
by thrust strike and thrust fault mechanisms. So, the moderate
and strong earthquakes reflect the regional tectonics, which are
largely determined by the position of the Caucasus between the
 spe525-17 1st pgs page 30

30 Adamia et al.

TABLE 4. SEISMIC CONSISTENCY (CS) AND AZIMUTH OF HORIZONTAL STRESS (ShMAX) FOR SELECTED POLYGONS
Az
Data set Label N data Cs
Shmax
All Regio n S ub re gi o n S u b- su b r e gio n
Georgia Ge 1 46 0. 5 5 19 0
Great Caucasus GC 70 0.71 182
West Great Caucasus W. GC 44 0.83 181
East Great Caucasus E. GC 26 0.75 194
Transcaucasian Depression Kura KD 7 0.71 217
Transcaucasian Depression Rioni RD 2 –
Lesser Caucasus LC 67 0.62 193
Central part of Lesser Caucasus C. LC 23 0.64 194
Javakheti Ja 44 0.61 185
J-Tabatskuri J_TB 5 0.72 340
J-Dmanisi J_DM 20 0.70 210
J-Faravani J_FA 14 0.72 210
J-Sagamo J_SA 4 0.50 333

Figure 32. (A–C) Distribution of relative number of earthquakes (in

percent) by fault type for all the earthquakes analyzed (A); for earth-
quakes with magnitude Ms > 4.5 (B); and for earthquakes with mag-
nitude Ms < 4.6 (C). SS—strike slip fault; TF—thrust fault with no
strike component; TS—thrust and strike-slip fault; NF—normal fault;
NS—normal fault with strike slip; UF—unknown fault type.

Postcollisional tectonics and seismicity of Georgia
still-converging Eurasian and Africa-Arabian lithospheric plates,
within the wide zone of a continent-continent collision and resul-
tant deformations.
Some authors differentiate the stress regime of nodal plane
axis by plunges of the P (compressional), B (neutral), and T
(tensional) axes (Vermisheva and Gangus, 1975, 1977; Frohlich,
1992, 2001; Frohlich and Apperson, 1992; Zoback, 1992; Triep
and Sykes, 1997; Kagan, 2002, 2005). The stress regime ana-
lyzed by this method gives a reasonable estimate of principal
stress directions when the faulting is close to Anderson’s fail-
ure criteria (Anderson, 1951; Célérier, 2008). A better view can
be obtained by analyzing the slip rake and dip of nodal planes
together with plunges of the B, P, and T axes (Célérier, 2008); we
used this combined method in this study. Figures 33A and 33B
display the distribution of fault plane parameters for all analyzed
earthquakes, while Figures 33C and 33D show the same kind of
data for earthquakes with Ms > 4.5.
In both cases, the majority of nodal planes dip >45°. Most
of nodal planes are sinistral, dextral, or reverse (transpressional)
strike slip. If the fault strike is perpendicular to the direction of
acting compression, the motion looks like pure thrust. If the angle
between the compressional stress and the fault is 45°, the motion
spe525-17 1st pgs page 31
31
corresponds to that of strike slip. If faults in separate sites of a
tectonic province sharply deviate from their general direction,
then a more complicated stress regime is prevalent, and the result-
ing structures will vary in their orientation and type (Belousov,
1971). Overall, the orientations of the seismogenic structures in
the fold-and-thrust belts in the Caucasus appear to be oblique to
the principal direction of compression from the Arabian plate.
RECENT GEODYNAMICS AND DEEP STRUCTURE
Active tectonics, seismicity, recent magmatic activity, and
the geodynamics of Georgia and adjacent areas are predomi-
nantly the result of the continental collision and the continuing
convergence of the Eurasian and Africa-Arabian lithospheric
plates (e.g., Smith, 1971; Dewey et al., 1973; Khain, 1975; Ada-
mia, 1975; Adamia et al., 1981; Monin and Zonenshain, 1987;
Pearce et al., 1990; McClusky et al., 2000; Reilinger et al., 2006;
Martin et al., 2010).
Knowledge of the lithospheric structure of Georgia and the
adjacent area comes from surface geology, deep and ultradeep
drilling, and geophysical (gravity, seismic, magnetic, and heat
flow) results. Several parts of the region have been traversed
Figure 33. (A–B) Distribution of fault
plane parameters for all analyzed earth-
quakes by weighted direction: (A) rake
and (B) dip of both nodal planes.
(C–D) The same distribution f… or
earthquake with Ms > 4.5 for (C) rake
and (D) dip of both nodal planes.
 spe525-17 1st pgs page 32

32 Adamia et al.

Figure 34. P- and S-velocity anomalies in three vertical sections. The locations of profiles 1–3 are shown on the map
(Amanatashvili et al., 2012; Koulakov et al., 2012; Sadradze, 2015).

Postcollisional tectonics and seismicity of Georgia
by deep seismic sounding (DSS) profiles (Adamia et al., 1991).
The region is layered by continental crust; only the central part
of the Black Sea and the southern Caspian Sea are floored by
suboceanic crust. The thickness of the crust varies from 20 to
55 km, with significant lateral variations in the sedimentary
layer (0–25 km). There exists a direct proportional relationship
between crustal thickness and topographic elevation: the thicker
the crust, the higher the relief. Crustal thickening up to 55–60 km
occurs beneath the Great Caucasus; 40–45 km beneath the Lesser
Caucasus; and ~30–45 km beneath the central Transcaucasian
intermontane lowland. The eastern Black Sea basin is floored by
~5-km-thick suboceanic crust and up to 12–13-km-thick sedi-
ments (Minshull et al., 2005). The sedimentary basin directly
extends to the Rioni foreland and the Achara-Trialeti belt (Ada-
mia et al., 1991). The thickness of the consolidated crust beneath
the central part of the south Caspian Basin and within the Kura
foreland is ~8 km, while the thickness of the sediments in these
basins reaches up 20–25 km (Brunet et al., 2003; Kadirov et al.,
2012; Mamedov and Mamedova, 2012).
Results of the Eastern Turkey Seismic Experiment (ETSE)
project have shed new light on the lithospheric structure of the
Eastern Anatolian high plateau and the surrounding areas (Rod-
jers et al., 1997; Al-Lazki et al., 2003). These results indicate
that the nearly 45-km-thick crust of the Eastern Anatolian pla-
teau resides on an extremely thin mantle lithosphere or perhaps
even directly on the asthenosphere (Keskin, 2003; Sandvol et al.,
2003; Özacar et al., 2010). At present, the mechanism of conti-
nental collision in this area is not fully understood and has been
debated (e.g., Pearce et al., 1990; Rodjers et al., 1997; Keskin,
2003; Hafkenscheid et al., 2006; Koulakov and Sobolev, 2006;
Adamia et al., 2008; Kheirkhah et al., 2009; van Hinsbergen et
al., 2010; Martin et al., 2010).
The deep seismic structure beneath the Caucasus region
has been investigated in a number of global and regional seis-
mic modeling studies using traveltimes of body waves (e.g.,
Belousov and Volkovsky, 1989; Baranova et al., 1991; Adamia
et al., 1991; Mamedov, 1992) and surface waves (e.g., Belousov
and Volkovsky, 1989; Baranova et al., 1991; Adamia et al., 1991;
Mamedov, 1992). Most of the studies yielded generally consis-
tent features with higher seismic velocities in areas correspond-
ing to the platforms and basins, and low velocities beneath the
folded belts.
Here, we present results of our tomographic modeling for
Georgia (Fig. 34; Amanatashvili et al., 2012; Koulakov et al.,
2012). This model is based on the analysis of P- and S-wave
velocity data beneath Asia down to 1000 km depth, as computed
by Koulakov (2011). It was constructed using arrival times of
seismic body waves reported in the worldwide International Seis-
mological Centre (ISC) catalogue (2001) in the time period from
1964 to 2007. Despite the complex pattern of variations in the P
and S velocities for the depths of 5, 15, 25, and 60 km, the com-
puted seismic model reveals a clear correlation between anoma-
lous lower P and S velocities and the late Cenozoic fold-and-
thrust mountain belts of the Great Caucasus and Lesser Caucasus
spe525-17 1st pgs page 33
33
(located near the surface thick warm “granitic”/consolidated
layer) and also with the areas of Neogene–Quaternary volcanism
of the Great and Lesser Caucasus (Fig. 32). There is also good
correlation between the P and S higher-velocity anomalies and the
pre-Caucasian foredeeps and Transcaucasian forelands, which
are underlain by rigid platforms with thick cold sedimentary
cover). Lowest-velocity anomalies are characteristic of the areas
affected by Neogene–Quaternary volcanism, such as the Elbrus-
Chegem, Kazbegui, and Keli areas (of the Great Caucasus) and
the Georgian (Javakheti), Azerbaijanian, and Armenian High-
lands (Lesser Caucasus). The Neogene–Quaternary volcanism is
traced as deep as ~300 km and is associated with the locations
of magma chambers within the upper mantle–asthenosphere as
well as the continental crust (Fig. 34; Amanatashvili et al., 2012;
Koulakov et al., 2012).
Several different geodynamic models have been proposed
for the collision-related magmatic activity on the continents, in
particular, for the Eastern Anatolian plateau, which extends to
the high volcanic plateaus of southern Georgia. There are many
potential models for the origin of such magmatism, and some
of them may be relevant to the eastern Anatolian–south Cauca-
sian late Cenozoic collision zone. For example, the “detachment
model” of Innocenti et al. (1982) and Keskin (2003) suggests
that a remnant piece of subducted oceanic lithosphere is respon-
sible for the late Miocene–Quaternary calc-alkaline volcanism in
southern Georgia situated close to the Tethyan suture. Another
model is the “lithosphere delamination” (Pearce et al., 1990; Kes-
kin, 2003) suggested for the Pleistocene–Holocene volcanism of
the central Great Caucasus located far from the Tethyan suture
(see Fig. 34; Bewick et al., 2015).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are grateful to the reviewers, who provided thorough and
friendly critical analysis of our work, which helped to improve
the original manuscript. We also would like to express our
thanks to Bernard Célérier and Andreas Barth for consulta-
tion in fault plane solution and stress inversion techniques and
Mehmed Keskin for significant assistance in analytical work.
Special thanks go to Rasoul Sorkhabi for his invaluable contri-
butions, which helped to significantly improve the paper. This
work was financially supported by Shota Rustaveli National
Science Foundation (Project 04/45).
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