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Source: CRS, based on data from the California Independent System Reliability concerns over timescales of hours to days have
Operator and the U.S. Energy Information Administration. been a focus area for Congress. As Figure 1 shows,
Notes: The y-axis represents the potential energy generation from maximum generation from VRE sources does not align with
each individual source, from a minimum of zero to a maximum typical daily peak demand. Other sources of electricity
defined by the installed capacity of the source. Actual generation generation or storage must quickly increase their output to
from any individual source will depend on its size, local weather meet demand as generation levels from VRE sources fall
conditions, and other factors. Wind seasonal generation patterns vary (e.g., when the sun sets). The capability to quickly change
by region, so the pattern shown here may not apply in all cases. Solar output is known as ramping. Not all electricity sources are
capable of ramping, and some that are may be more costly
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Variable Renewable Energy: An Introduction
to use than other sources. In areas of the country with high Transmission System Expansion
levels of generation from VRE sources, concern is growing The transmission system is the network of over 700,000
about maintaining sufficient ramping capability. miles of high-voltage wires and supporting equipment that
moves electricity over long distances. Some regions
At current levels of generation from wind and solar sources, experience transmission congestion when electricity cannot
seasonal variability has not generally presented reliability be moved to where it is needed because of insufficient
issues. A main reason is that many other conventional transmission capacity. Congestion increases overall
sources are available that can generate electricity when electricity costs for consumers, and it can create hurdles to
output from wind and solar sources is relatively low. balancing generation from VRE sources, particularly over
daily timescales.
Projections over the coming decades generally agree that,
given current policy and market trends, more wind and Expanding the transmission system could potentially
solar sources will come online and many conventional support renewables integration by alleviating transmission
sources will retire, increasing the share of total electricity congestion. It might address seasonal variability by
generation coming from VRE sources in the United States. allowing electricity generated during periods of high output
to be delivered to more areas.
For example, the U.S. Energy Information Administration
(EIA) projects that wind and solar could comprise 13%- Smart Grid Upgrades
33% of total electricity generation in 2050 (Figure 2) Smart Grid describes, in part, upgrades to the transmission
depending on economic growth, technology development, and distribution systems that could support renewables
and other factors. Seasonal variability of VRE sources integration. Some Smart Grid upgrades could support
could present greater reliability challenges moving forward integration of large-scale wind and solar projects connected
if the share of generation from these sources increased. to the transmission system. Other aspects of the Smart Grid
could support integration of small-scale projects connected
Figure 2. Projections of Share of Total Electricity to the distribution system, the network of 6.5 million miles
Generation from Wind and Solar Sources, 2020-2050 of wires, supporting equipment, and meters that deliver
electricity to most end users.
Energy Storage
Source: CRS analysis of data in EIA, Annual Energy Outlook 2019, Electricity is essentially generated as a just-in-time
https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/aeo/data/browser/. commodity. Some technologies can store electric energy in
Notes: Dark line represent EIA’s reference case. Shaded area some form and then release it back to the grid, potentially
represents the range of outcomes in EIA’s side cases. Assumptions saving electricity generated during periods of high supply
for EIA’s cases are described in the Annual Energy Outlook 2019. and delivering it during periods of low supply. Energy
storage can be located on the transmission system or the
Potential Solutions distribution system. Pumped hydro, in which water is
As noted above, current levels of generation from VRE pumped to a reservoir during periods of high electricity
sources have not created widespread reliability issues. supply and then released to generate electricity during
Sufficient backup capacity is usually available, and system periods of low electricity supply, is a form of energy
operators and participants are developing new practices to storage that has been used for many years. Other
address the variability of wind and solar sources. technologies are attracting increasing interest. These
include batteries, compressed air storage, and fuels like
Policy options to address reliability issues that could arise hydrogen. Energy storage could potentially be used to
in the future have drawn congressional interest. Some address variability over multiple timescales, though most
frequently discussed potential solutions are described energy storage technologies deployed today are usually
below. Implementing any of these might require significant capable of balancing over timescales of minutes to hours.
infrastructure investment. How such investment should be
funded and what other potential costs and benefits would be Additional Analysis
associated with such investment could be key For more information about VRE sources, potential
considerations. Other concerns, such as environmental reliability issues, and possible solutions, see CRS Report
impacts, cybersecurity, and data privacy, may be of interest R45764, Maintaining Electric Reliability with Wind and
as well. Solar Sources: Background and Issues for Congress, CRS
Report R45156, The Smart Grid: Status and Outlook, and
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Variable Renewable Energy: An Introduction
CRS Report R42455, Energy Storage for Power Grids and Ashley J. Lawson, Analyst in Energy Policy
Electric Transportation: A Technology Assessment.
IF11257
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