Variable Renewable Energy

2/10/24, 8:24 AM Variable renewable energy - Wikipedia
Variable renewable energy

Variable renewable energy (VRE) or intermittent
renewable energy sources (IRES) are renewable energy
sources that are not dispatchable due to their fluctuating nature,
such as wind power and solar power, as opposed to controllable
renewable energy sources, such as dammed hydroelectricity or
biomass, or relatively constant sources, such as geothermal power.
The use of small amounts of intermittent power has little effect on

grid operations. Using larger amounts of intermittent power may
The 150 MW Andasol solar power
require upgrades or even a redesign of the grid infrastructure.[3][4]
station is a commercial parabolic
Options to absorb large shares of variable energy into the grid trough solar thermal power plant, in
Spain. The Andasol plant uses tanks
include using storage, improved interconnection between different
of molten salt to store solar energy
variable sources to smooth out supply, using dispatchable energy
so that it can continue generating
sources such as hydroelectricity and having overcapacity, so that
electricity even after sunset.[1]
sufficient energy is produced even when weather is less
favourable. More connections between the energy sector and the
building, transport and industrial sectors may also help.[5]: 55
Background and terminology

The penetration of intermittent renewables in most power grids is
low: global electricity generation in 2021 was 7% wind and 4%
solar.[6] However, in 2021 Denmark, Luxembourg and Uruguay
generated over 40% of their electricity from wind and solar.[6]
Characteristics of variable renewables include their
unpredictability, variability, and low operating costs. [7] These, Grids with high penetration of
along with renewables typically being asynchronous generators, renewable energy sources generally
need more flexible generation rather
provide a challenge to grid operators, who must make sure supply
and demand are matched. Solutions include energy storage, than baseload generation[2]
demand response, availability of overcapacity and sector
coupling.[8] Smaller isolated grids may be less tolerant to high
levels of penetration.[3][9]
Matching power demand to supply is not a problem specific to intermittent power sources. Existing
power grids already contain elements of uncertainty including sudden and large changes in demand
and unforeseen power plant failures. Though power grids are already designed to have some capacity
in excess of projected peak demand to deal with these problems, significant upgrades may be required
to accommodate large amounts of intermittent power.[10]
Several key terms are useful for understanding the issue of intermittent power sources. These terms
are not standardized, and variations may be used. Most of these terms also apply to traditional power
plants.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_renewable_energy 1/22
Intermittency or variability is the extent to which a power source fluctuates. This has two
aspects: a predictable variability (such as the day-night cycle) and an unpredictable part
(imperfect local weather forecasting).[11] The term intermittent can be used to refer to the
unpredictable part, with variable then referring to the predictable part.[12]
Dispatchability is the ability of a given power source to increase and decrease output quickly on
demand. The concept is distinct from intermittency; dispatchability is one of several ways system
operators match supply (generator's output) to system demand (technical loads).[13]
Penetration is the amount of electricity generated from a particular source as a percentage of
annual consumption.[14]
Nominal power or nameplate capacity is the theoretical output registered with authorities for
classifying the unit. For intermittent power sources, such as wind and solar, nameplate power is
the source's output under ideal conditions, such as maximum usable wind or high sun on a clear
summer day.
Capacity factor, average capacity factor, or load factor is the ratio of actual electrical
generation over a given period of time (usually a year) to actual generation in that time period.
Basically, it is the ratio between the how much electricity a plant produced and how much
electricity a plant would have produced if were running at its nameplate capacity for the entire time
period.
Firm capacity or firm power is "guaranteed by the supplier to be available at all times during a
period covered by a commitment".[15]
Capacity credit: the amount of conventional (dispatchable) generation power that can be
potentially removed from the system while keeping the reliability, usually expressed as a
percentage of the nominal power.[16]
Foreseeability or predictability is how accurately the operator can anticipate the generation:[17]
for example tidal power varies with the tides but is completely foreseeable because the orbit of the
moon can be predicted exactly, and improved weather forecasts can make wind power more
predictable.[18]
Sources
Dammed hydroelectricity, biomass and geothermal are dispatchable as each has a store of potential
energy; wind and solar without storage can be decreased (curtailed) but are not dispatchable.
Wind power
Grid operators use day ahead forecasting to determine which of

the available power sources to use the next day, and weather
forecasting is used to predict the likely wind power and solar
power output available. Although wind power forecasts have been
used operationally for decades, as of 2019 the IEA is organizing
international collaboration to further improve their accuracy.[19]
Wind-generated power is a variable resource, and the amount of

electricity produced at any given point in time by a given plant will Day ahead prediction and actual
wind power
depend on wind speeds, air density, and turbine characteristics
(among other factors). If wind speed is too low then the wind
turbines will not be able to make electricity, and if it is too high the
turbines will have to be shut down to avoid damage. While the

output from a single turbine can vary greatly and rapidly as local
wind speeds vary, as more turbines are connected over larger and
larger areas the average power output becomes less variable.[10]
Intermittence: Regions smaller than synoptic scale (less than

about 1000 km long, the size of an average country) have
mostly the same weather and thus around the same wind
power, unless local conditions favor special winds. Some
studies show that wind farms spread over a geographically
diverse area will as a whole rarely stop producing power
altogether.[20][21] However this is rarely the case for smaller Erie Shores Wind Farm monthly
areas with uniform geography such as Ireland, [22][23][24] output over a two-year period
Scotland [25] and Denmark which have several days per year
with little wind power.[26]
Capacity factor: Wind power typically has an annual capacity
factor of 25–50%, with offshore wind outperforming onshore
wind.[27]
Dispatchability: Because wind power is not by itself
dispatchable wind farms are sometimes built with A wind farm in Muppandal, Tamil
storage.[28][29] Nadu, India
Capacity credit: At low levels of penetration, the capacity

credit of wind is about the same as the capacity factor. As the
concentration of wind power on the grid rises, the capacity credit percentage drops.[30][31]
Variability: Site dependent.[32] Sea breezes are much more constant than land breezes.[10]
Seasonal variability may reduce output by 50%.[33]
Reliability: A wind farm has high technical reliability when the wind blows. That is, the output at
any given time will only vary gradually due to falling wind speeds or storms (the latter
necessitating shut downs). A typical wind farm is unlikely to have to shut down in less than half an
hour at the extreme, whereas an equivalent-sized power station can fail totally instantaneously
and without warning. The total shutdown of wind turbines is predictable via weather forecasting.
The average availability of a wind turbine is 98%, and when a turbine fails or is shut down for
maintenance it only affects a small percentage of the output of a large wind farm.[34]
Predictability: Although wind is variable, it is also predictable in the short term. There is an 80%
chance that wind output will change less than 10% in an hour and a 40% chance that it will
change 10% or more in 5 hours.[35]
Because wind power is generated by large numbers of small generators, individual failures do not
have large impacts on power grids. This feature of wind has been referred to as resiliency.[36]
Solar power
Intermittency inherently affects solar energy, as the production of renewable electricity from solar
sources depends on the amount of sunlight at a given place and time. Solar output varies throughout
the day and through the seasons, and is affected by dust, fog, cloud cover, frost or snow. Many of the
seasonal factors are fairly predictable, and some solar thermal systems make use of heat storage to
produce grid power for a full day.[37]
Variability: In the absence of an energy storage system, solar

does not produce power at night, little in bad weather and
varies between seasons. In many countries, solar produces
most energy in seasons with low wind availability and vice
versa.[38]
Capacity factor Standard photovoltaic solar has an annual Daily solar output at AT&T Park in
average capacity factor of 10-20%,[39] but panels that move San Francisco
and track the sun have a capacity factor up to 30%.[40]
Thermal solar parabolic trough with storage 56%.[41]
Thermal solar power tower with storage 73%.[41]
The impact of
intermittency of solar-
generated electricity will
depend on the correlation
of generation with
demand. For example, Seasonal variation of the output of the
solar thermal power plants solar panels at AT&T park in San
such as Nevada Solar One Francisco
are somewhat matched to
summer peak loads in
Dish Stirling
areas with significant cooling demands, such as the south-western
United States. Thermal energy storage systems like the small
Spanish Gemasolar Thermosolar Plant can improve the match between solar supply and local
consumption. The improved capacity factor using thermal storage represents a decrease in maximum
capacity, and extends the total time the system generates power.[42][43][44]
Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity
In many countries new large dams are no longer being built, because of the environmental impact of
reservoirs. Run of the river projects have continued to be built.[45] The absence of a reservoir results
in both seasonal and annual variations in electricity generated.
Tidal power
Tidal power is the most predictable of all the variable renewable energy sources. The tides reverse
twice a day, but they are never intermittent, on the contrary they are completely reliable. Only 20 sites
in the world have yet been identified as possible tidal power stations.[46]
Wave power
Waves are primarily created by wind, so the power available from

waves tends to follow that available from wind, but due to the
mass of the water is less variable than wind power. Wind power is
proportional to the cube of the wind speed, while wave power is
proportional to the square of the wave height.[47][48][49]
Solutions for their integration

The displaced dispatchable generation could be coal, natural gas,
biomass, nuclear, geothermal or storage hydro. Rather than
starting and stopping nuclear or geothermal it is cheaper to use
them as constant base load power. Any power generated in excess
of demand can displace heating fuels, be converted to storage or
sold to another grid. Biofuels and conventional hydro can be saved
for later when intermittents are not generating power. Some
forecast that “near-firm” renewables (batteries with solar and/or
wind) power will be cheaper than existing nuclear by the late
2020s: therefore they say base load power will not be needed.[50] Types of tide
Alternatives to burning coal and natural gas which produce fewer
greenhouse gases may eventually make fossil fuels a stranded
asset that is left in the ground. Highly integrated grids favor flexibility and performance over cost,
resulting in more plants that operate for fewer hours and lower capacity factors.[51]
All sources of electrical power have some degree of variability, as do demand patterns which routinely
drive large swings in the amount of electricity that suppliers feed into the grid. Wherever possible,
grid operations procedure are designed to match supply with demand at high levels of reliability, and
the tools to influence supply and demand are well-developed. The introduction of large amounts of
highly variable power generation may require changes to existing procedures and additional
investments.
The capacity of a reliable renewable power supply, can be fulfilled by the use of backup or extra
infrastructure and technology, using mixed renewables to produce electricity above the intermittent
average, which may be used to meet regular and unanticipated supply demands.[52] Additionally, the
storage of energy to fill the shortfall intermittency or for emergencies can be part of a reliable power
supply.
In practice, as the power output from wind varies, partially loaded conventional plants, which are
already present to provide response and reserve, adjust their output to compensate. While low
penetrations of intermittent power may use existing levels of response and spinning reserve, the
larger overall variations at higher penetrations levels will require additional reserves or other means
of compensation.
Operational reserve
All managed grids already have existing operational and "spinning" reserve to compensate for existing
uncertainties in the power grid. The addition of intermittent resources such as wind does not require
100% "back-up" because operating reserves and balancing requirements are calculated on a system-
wide basis, and not dedicated to a specific generating plant.
Some gas, or hydro power plants are partially loaded and then controlled to change as demand
changes or to replace rapidly lost generation. The ability to change as demand changes is termed
"response". The ability to quickly replace lost generation, typically within timescales of 30 seconds to
30 minutes, is termed "spinning reserve".
Generally thermal plants running as peaking plants will be less efficient than if they were running as
base load. Hydroelectric facilities with storage capacity (such as the traditional dam configuration)
may be operated as base load or peaking plants.
Grids can contract for grid battery plants, which provide immediately available power for an hour or
so, which gives time for other generators to be started up in the event of a failure, and greatly reduces
the amount of spinning reserve required.[53][54]
Demand response
Demand response is a change in consumption of energy to better align with supply. It can take the
form of switching off loads, or absorb additional energy to correct supply/demand imbalances.
Incentives have been widely created in the American, British and French systems for the use of these
systems, such as favorable rates or capital cost assistance, encouraging consumers with large loads to
take them offline whenever there is a shortage of capacity, or conversely to increase load when there is
a surplus.
Certain types of load control allow the power company to turn loads off remotely if insufficient power
is available. In France large users such as CERN cut power usage as required by the System Operator -
EDF under the encouragement of the EJP tariff.[55][56]
Energy demand management refers to incentives to adjust use of electricity, such as higher rates
during peak hours. Real-time variable electricity pricing can encourage users to adjust usage to take
advantage of periods when power is cheaply available and avoid periods when it is more scarce and
expensive.[57] Some loads such as desalination plants, electric boilers and industrial refrigeration
units, are able to store their output (water and heat). Several papers also concluded that Bitcoin
mining loads would reduce curtailment, hedge electricity price risk, stabilize the grid, increase the
profitability of renewable energy power stations and therefore accelerate transition to sustainable
energy.[58][59][60][61][62][63][64][65] But others argue that Bitcoin mining can never be sustainable.[66]
Instantaneous demand reduction. Most large systems also have a category of loads which instantly
disconnect when there is a generation shortage, under some mutually beneficial contract. This can
give instant load reductions (or increases).
Storage
At times of low load where non-dispatchable output from wind and solar may be high, grid stability
requires lowering the output of various dispatchable generating sources or even increasing
controllable loads, possibly by using energy storage to time-shift output to times of higher demand.
Such mechanisms can include:
Pumped storage hydropower is the most prevalent existing technology used, and can substantially
improve the economics of wind power. The availability of hydropower sites suitable for storage will
vary from grid to grid. Typical round trip efficiency is 80%.[10][70]
Traditional lithium-ion is the most common type used for grid-

scale battery storage as of 2020.[71] Rechargeable flow batteries
can serve as a large capacity, rapid-response storage medium.[13]
Hydrogen can be created through electrolysis and stored for later
use.[72]
Flywheel energy storage systems have some advantages over

chemical batteries. Along with substantial durability which allows
them to be cycled frequently without noticeable life reduction, Construction of the Salt Tanks which
they also have very fast response and ramp rates. They can go provide efficient thermal energy
from full discharge to full charge within a few seconds.[73] They storage[67] so that output can be
can be manufactured using non-toxic and environmentally provided after the sun goes down,
friendly materials, easily recyclable once the service life is over.[74] and output can be scheduled to
meet demand requirements.[68] The
Thermal energy storage stores heat. Stored heat can be used 280 MW Solana Generating Station
directly for heating needs or converted into electricity. In the is designed to provide six hours of
context of a CHP plant a heat storage can serve as a functional energy storage. This allows the
electricity storage at comparably low costs. Ice storage air plant to generate about 38 percent
conditioning Ice can be stored inter seasonally and can be used as of its rated capacity over the course
a source of air-conditioning during periods of high demand. of a year.[69]
Present systems only need to store ice for a few hours but are well
developed.
Storage of electrical energy results in some lost energy because

storage and retrieval are not perfectly efficient. Storage also
requires capital investment and space for storage facilities.
Geographic diversity and complementing

technologies
The variability of production from a single wind turbine can be

high. Combining any additional number of turbines (for example,
in a wind farm) results in lower statistical variation, as long as the
correlation between the output of each turbine is imperfect, and
the correlations are always imperfect due to the distance between
each turbine. Similarly, geographically distant wind turbines or Learning curve of lithium-ion
wind farms have lower correlations, reducing overall variability. batteries: the price of batteries
declined by 97% in three decades.
Since wind power is dependent on weather systems, there is a
limit to the benefit of this geographic diversity for any power
system.[75]
Multiple wind farms spread over a wide

geographic area and gridded together produce
power more constantly and with less variability Five days of hourly output of five wind farms in Ontario
than smaller installations. Wind output can be
predicted with some degree of confidence using
weather forecasts, especially from large numbers of turbines/farms. The ability to predict wind output
is expected to increase over time as data is collected, especially from newer facilities.[75]
Electricity produced from solar energy tends to counterbalance the fluctuating supplies generated
from wind. Normally it is windiest at night and during cloudy or stormy weather, and there is more
sunshine on clear days with less wind.[76] Besides, wind energy has often a peak in the winter season,
whereas solar energy has a peak in the summer season; the combination of wind and solar reduces the
need for dispatchable backup power.[77]
In some locations, electricity demand may have a high correlation with wind output,particularly in
locations where cold temperatures drive electric consumption (as cold air is denser and carries
more energy).
The allowable penetration may be increased with further investment in standby generation. For
instance some days could produce 80% intermittent wind and on the many windless days
substitute 80% dispatchable power like natural gas, biomass and Hydro.
Areas with existing high levels of hydroelectric generation may ramp up or down to incorporate
substantial amounts of wind. Norway, Brazil, and Manitoba all have high levels of hydroelectric
generation, Quebec produces over 90% of its electricity from hydropower, and Hydro-Québec is
the largest hydropower producer in the world. The U.S. Pacific Northwest has been identified as
another region where wind energy is complemented well by existing hydropower.[78] Storage
capacity in hydropower facilities will be limited by size of reservoir, and environmental and other
considerations.
Connecting grid internationally
It is often feasible to export energy to neighboring grids at times of surplus, and import energy when
needed. This practice is common in Europe[79] and between the US and Canada.[80] Integration with
other grids can lower the effective concentration of variable power: for instance, Denmark's high
penetration of VRE, in the context of the German/Dutch/Scandinavian grids with which it has
interconnections, is considerably lower as a proportion of the total system. Hydroelectricity that
compensates for variability can be used across countries.[81]
The capacity of power transmission infrastructure may have to be substantially upgraded to support
export/import plans. Some energy is lost in transmission. The economic value of exporting variable
power depends in part on the ability of the exporting grid to provide the importing grid with useful
power at useful times for an attractive price.
Sector coupling
Demand and generation can be better matched when sectors such as mobility, heat and gas are
coupled with the power system. The electric vehicle market is for instance expected to become the
largest source of storage capacity. This may be a more expensive option appropriate for high
penetration of variable renewables, compared to other sources of flexibility.[82] The International
Energy Agency says that sector coupling is needed to compensate for the mismatch between seasonal
demand and supply.[83]
Electric vehicles can be charged during periods of low demand and high production, and in some
places send power back from the vehicle-to-grid.[84][85]
Penetration
Penetration refers to the proportion of a primary energy (PE) source in an electric power system,
expressed as a percentage.[14] There are several methods of calculation yielding different penetrations.
The penetration can be calculated either as:[86]
1. the nominal capacity (installed power) of a PE source divided by the peak load within an electric
power system; or
2. the nominal capacity (installed power) of a PE source divided by the total capacity of the electric
power system; or
3. the electrical energy generated by a PE source in a given period, divided by the demand of the
electric power system in this period.
The level of penetration of intermittent variable sources is significant for the following reasons:
Power grids with significant amounts of dispatchable pumped storage, hydropower with reservoir
or pondage or other peaking power plants such as natural gas-fired power plants are capable of
accommodating fluctuations from intermittent power more easily.[87]
Relatively small electric power systems without strong interconnection (such as remote islands)
may retain some existing diesel generators but consuming less fuel,[88] for flexibility[89] until
cleaner energy sources or storage such as pumped hydro or batteries become cost-effective.[90]
In the early 2020s wind and solar produce 10% of the world's electricity,[91] but supply in the 40-55%
penetration range has already been implemented in several systems,[6] with over 65% planned for the
UK by 2030.[92][93]
There is no generally accepted maximum level of penetration, as each system's capacity to compensate
for intermittency differs, and the systems themselves will change over time. Discussion of acceptable
or unacceptable penetration figures should be treated and used with caution, as the relevance or
significance will be highly dependent on local factors, grid structure and management, and existing
generation capacity.
For most systems worldwide, existing penetration levels are significantly lower than practical or
theoretical maximums.[86]
Maximum penetration limits
Maximum penetration of combined wind and solar is estimated at around 70% to 90% without
regional aggregation, demand management or storage; and up to 94% with 12 hours of storage.[94]
Economic efficiency and cost considerations are more likely to dominate as critical factors; technical
solutions may allow higher penetration levels to be considered in future, particularly if cost
considerations are secondary.
Economic impacts of variability
Estimates of the cost of wind and solar energy may include estimates of the "external" costs of wind
and solar variability, or be limited to the cost of production. All electrical plant has costs that are
separate from the cost of production, including, for example, the cost of any necessary transmission
capacity or reserve capacity in case of loss of generating capacity. Many types of generation,
particularly fossil fuel derived, will also have cost externalities such as pollution, greenhouse gas
emission, and habitat destruction which are generally not directly accounted for. The magnitude of
the economic impacts is debated and will vary by location, but is expected to rise with higher
penetration levels. At low penetration levels, costs such as operating reserve and balancing costs are
believed to be insignificant.
Intermittency may introduce additional costs that are distinct from or of a different magnitude than
for traditional generation types. These may include:
Transmission capacity: transmission capacity may be more expensive than for nuclear and coal
generating capacity due to lower load factors. Transmission capacity will generally be sized to
projected peak output, but average capacity for wind will be significantly lower, raising cost per
unit of energy actually transmitted. However transmission costs are a low fraction of total energy
costs.[95]
Additional operating reserve: if additional wind and solar does not correspond to demand patterns,
additional operating reserve may be required compared to other generating types, however this
does not result in higher capital costs for additional plants since this is merely existing plants
running at low output - spinning reserve. Contrary to statements that all wind must be backed by
an equal amount of "back-up capacity", intermittent generators contribute to base capacity "as
long as there is some probability of output during peak periods". Back-up capacity is not attributed
to individual generators, as back-up or operating reserve "only have meaning at the system
level".[96]
Balancing costs: to maintain grid stability, some additional costs may be incurred for balancing of
load with demand. Although improvements to grid balancing can be costly, they can lead to long
term savings.[97][98][99][100]
In many countries for many types of variable renewable energy, from time to time the government
invites companies to tender sealed bids to construct a certain capacity of solar power to connect to
certain electricity substations. By accepting the lowest bid the government commits to buy at that
price per kWh for a fixed number of years, or up to a certain total amount of power. This provides
certainty for investors against highly volatile wholesale electricity prices.[101][102][103] However they
may still risk exchange rate volatility if they borrowed in foreign currency.[104]
Examples by country
Great Britain
The operator of the British electricity system has said that it will be capable of operating zero-carbon
by 2025, whenever there is enough renewable generation, and may be carbon negative by 2033.[105]
The company, National Grid Electricity System Operator, states that new products and services will
help reduce the overall cost of operating the system.[106]
Germany
In countries with a considerable amount of renewable energy, solar energy causes price drops around
noon every day. PV production follows the higher demand during these hours. The images below show
two weeks in 2022 in Germany, where renewable energy has a share of over 40%.[107] Prices also drop
every night and weekend due to low demand. In hours without PV and wind power, electricity prices
rise. This can lead to demand side adjustments. While industry is dependent on the hourly prices,
most private households still pay a fixed tariff. With smart meters, private consomers can also be
motivated i.e. to load an electric car when enough renewable energy is available and prices are cheap.
Steerable flexibility in electricity production is essential to back up variable energy sources. The
German example shows that pumped hydro storage, gas plants and hard coal jump in fast. Lignite
varies on a daily basis. Nuclear power and biomass can theoretically adjust to a certain extent.
However, in this case incentives still seem not be high enough.
Renewable and conventional energy production in Germany over two weeks in 2022. In hours with low wind and PV
production, hard coal and gas fill the gap. Nuclear and biomass show almost no flexibility. PV follows the increased
consumption during daytime hours but varies seasonally.
Electricity market in Germany over two weeks in 2022. With the integration of solar PV, prices drop around noon
every day in spite of a higher demand. Prices also drop every night and weekend due to low demand. A high
availability of wind power causes the low prices on the right half. In hours without PV and wind power, the most
expensive substitute set the price. The extreme levels for natural gas in 2022 were caused by Russian's invasion in
Ukraine. The low availability of French nuclear power during these months increased the demand for exports.
See also
Combined cycle hydrogen power plant
Energy portal
Energy security and renewable technology
Ground source heat pump

Cost of electricity by source
Spark spread: calculating the cost of back up
List of energy storage power plants
Further reading
Sivaram, Varun (2018). Taming the Sun: Innovation to Harness Solar Energy and Power the
Planet. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-03768-6.
References
1. Cartlidge, Edwin (2011-11-18). "Saving for a Rainy Day" (https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scie
nce.334.6058.922). Science. 334 (6058): 922–924. Bibcode:2011Sci...334..922C (https://ui.adsab
s.harvard.edu/abs/2011Sci...334..922C). doi:10.1126/science.334.6058.922 (https://doi.org/10.112
6%2Fscience.334.6058.922). ISSN 0036-8075 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075).
PMID 22096185 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22096185).
2. "Flexible Power Plant Operation to Enable High Renewable Energy Penetration" (https://iesr.or.id/
en/flexible-power-plant-operation-to-enable-high-renewable-energy-penetration). IESR. 2022-06-
15. Retrieved 2022-11-21.
3. "All Island Grid Study" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090318231419/http://www.dcenr.gov.ie/NR/r
donlyres/E20F6E3D-8724-4E39-B315-0670B8C9841E/0/AllIslandGridStudyStudyOverviewJan08
a2.pdf) (PDF). Department of Communications, Energy and Natural Resources. January 2008.
pp. 3–5, 15. Archived from the original (http://www.dcenr.gov.ie/NR/rdonlyres/E20F6E3D-8724-4E
39-B315-0670B8C9841E/0/AllIslandGridStudyStudyOverviewJan08a2.pdf) (PDF) on 2009-03-18.
Retrieved 2008-10-15.
4. "The Carbon Trust & DTI Renewables Network Impacts Study" (http://webarchive.nationalarchive
s.gov.uk/20100919181607/http://www.ensg.gov.uk/assets/ct_impact_of_re_final_report.pdf)
(PDF). Carbon Trust and UK Department of Trade and Industry. January 2004 [commissioned
June 2003]. Archived from the original (http://www.ensg.gov.uk/assets/ct_impact_of_re_final_repor
t.pdf) (PDF) on 2010-09-19. Retrieved 2009-04-22.
5. IPCC: Climate Change 2022, Mitigation of Climate Change, Summary for Policymakers (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20220807023536/https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6wg3/pdf/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_Summar
yForPolicymakers.pdf) (PDF). ipecac.ch (Report). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 4
April 2022. Archived from the original (https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6wg3/pdf/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_Summ
aryForPolicymakers.pdf) (PDF) on 2022-08-07. Retrieved 2004-04-22.
6. "Global Electricity Review 2022" (https://ember-climate.org/insights/research/global-electricity-revi
ew-2022/). Ember. 2022-03-29. Retrieved 2022-03-31.
7. Riesz, Jenny; Milligan, Michael (May 2015). "Designing electricity markets for a high penetration
of variable renewables" (https://wires.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/wene.137). WIREs
Energy and Environment. 4 (3): 279–289. Bibcode:2015WIREE...4..279R (https://ui.adsabs.harvar
d.edu/abs/2015WIREE...4..279R). doi:10.1002/wene.137 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fwene.137).
ISSN 2041-8396 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2041-8396). S2CID 167079952 (https://api.seman
ticscholar.org/CorpusID:167079952).
8. Sinsel, Simon R.; Riemke, Rhea L.; Hoffmann, Volker H. (2020-01-01). "Challenges and solution
technologies for the integration of variable renewable energy sources—a review" (https://www.scie
ncedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960148119309875). Renewable Energy. 145: 2271–2285.
doi:10.1016/j.renene.2019.06.147 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.renene.2019.06.147).
hdl:20.500.11850/373407 (https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11850%2F373407). ISSN 0960-1481 (http
s://www.worldcat.org/issn/0960-1481). S2CID 198480155 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusI
D:198480155).
9. Czisch, Gregor; Gregor Giebel. "Realisable Scenarios for a Future Electricity Supply based 100%
on Renewable Energies" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140701230913/http://www.risoe.dk/rispu
bl/reports/ris-r-1608_186-195.pdf) (PDF). Institute for Electrical Engineering – Efficient Energy
Conversion University of Kassel, Germany and Risø National Laboratory, Technical University of
Denmark. Archived from the original (http://www.risoe.dk/rispubl/reports/ris-r-1608_186-195.pdf)
(PDF) on 2014-07-01. Retrieved 2008-10-15.
10. "Variability of Wind Power and other Renewables: Management Options and Strategies" (http://ww
w.iea.org/Textbase/Papers/2005/variability.pdf) (PDF). IEA. 2005. Retrieved 2008-10-15.
11. Widén, Joakim; Carpman, Nicole (1 April 2015). "Variability assessment and forecasting of
renewables: A review for solar, wind, wave and tidal resources" (https://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S1364032114010715). Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 44: 356–375.
doi:10.1016/j.rser.2014.12.019 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.rser.2014.12.019). ISSN 1364-0321
(https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1364-0321).
12. Pommeret, Aude; Schubert, Katheline (2019). "Energy Transition with Variable and Intermittent
Renewable Electricity Generation" (https://ideas.repec.org/p/ces/ceswps/_7442.html). Cesifo
Working Paper Series. CESifo Working Paper. 7442: 2.
13. Kuntz, Mark T.; Justin Dawe (2005). "renewable. rechargeable. remarkable" (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20090115212122/http://www.memagazine.org/backissues/membersonly/oct05/features/rer
ere/rerere.html). VRB Power Systems. Mechanical Engineering. Archived from the original (http://
www.memagazine.org/backissues/membersonly/oct05/features/rerere/rerere.html) on 2009-01-15.
14. International Energy Agency Wind Task Force, "Design and Operation of Power Systems with
Large Amounts of Wind Power" (http://www.ieawind.org/AnnexXXV/Publications/Task25/Task%20
25%20Design%20and%20Operation%20of%20Power%20Systems%20UWIG.pdf) Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20071025113737/http://www.ieawind.org/AnnexXXV/Publications/Task25/
Task%2025%20Design%20and%20Operation%20of%20Power%20Systems%20UWIG.pdf) 2007-
10-25 at the Wayback Machine Oklahoma Conference Presentation, October 2006
15. "firm power" (https://www.ecowho.com/defn/f/firm%20power/2da42). www.ecowho.com. Retrieved
2021-02-10.
16. Giebel, Gregor. "Wind Powers Has a Capacity Credit" (https://web.archive.org/web/200903182314
23/http://ejournal.windeng.net/3/01/GGiebel-CapCredLit_WindEngEJournal_2005_right_links.pdf)
(PDF). Risø National Laboratory. Archived from the original (https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/1377
4867.pdf) (PDF) on 2009-03-18. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
17. Suchet, Daniel; Jeantet, Adrien; Elghozi, Thomas; Jehl, Zacharie (2020). "Defining and
Quantifying Intermittency in the Power Sector" (https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/13/13/3366/pdf).
Energies. 13 (13): 3366. doi:10.3390/en13133366 (https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fen13133366).
18. "Volatile but predictable: Forecasting renewable power generation" (https://www.cleanenergywire.
org/factsheets/volatile-predictable-forecasting-renewable-power-generation). Clean Energy Wire.
2016-08-15. Retrieved 2021-02-10.
19. "IEA wind task 36" (http://www.ieawindforecasting.dk/). iea wind forecasting. Retrieved
2019-07-25.
20. "The power of multiples: Connecting wind farms can make a more reliable and cheaper power
source" (http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2007-11/ams-tpo112107.php). 2007-11-21.
21. Archer, C. L.; Jacobson, M. Z. (2007). "Supplying Baseload Power and Reducing Transmission
Requirements by Interconnecting Wind Farms" (http://www.stanford.edu/group/efmh/winds/aj07_ja
mc.pdf) (PDF). Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology. 46 (11): 1701–1717.
Bibcode:2007JApMC..46.1701A (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007JApMC..46.1701A).
CiteSeerX 10.1.1.475.4620 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.475.4620).
doi:10.1175/2007JAMC1538.1 (https://doi.org/10.1175%2F2007JAMC1538.1).
22. David JC MacKay. "Sustainable Energy - without the hot air. Fluctuations and storage" (http://ww
w.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk/withouthotair/c26/page_187.shtml).
23. Andrzej Strupczewski. "Czy w Polsce wiatr wystarczy zamiast elektrowni atomowych?" (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20110904155414/http://www.atom.edu.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task
=view&id=92&Itemid=73) [Can the wind suffice instead of nuclear power in Poland?] (in Polish).
atom.edu.pl. Archived from the original (http://www.atom.edu.pl/index.php?option=com_content&t
ask=view&id=92&Itemid=73) on 2011-09-04. Retrieved 2009-11-26.
24. Diesendorf, Mark (August 2007). "The Base-Load Fallacy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080708
184613/http://www.sustainabilitycentre.com.au/BaseloadFallacy.pdf) (PDF). Institute of
Environmental Studies. www.energyscience.org.au. Archived from the original (http://www.sustain
abilitycentre.com.au/BaseloadFallacy.pdf) (PDF) on 2008-07-08. Retrieved 2008-10-18.
25. "Analysis of UK Wind Generation" (http://www.windaction.org/posts/30544-report-questions-wind-
power-s-ability-to-deliver-electricity-when-most-needed#.WHkNM7kSiyA) 2011
26. Sharman, Hugh (May 2005). "Why wind power works for Denmark". Proceedings of the Institution
of Civil Engineers - Civil Engineering. 158 (2): 66–72. doi:10.1680/cien.2005.158.2.66 (https://doi.
org/10.1680%2Fcien.2005.158.2.66).
27. "Average annual capacity factors by technology, 2018 – Charts – Data & Statistics" (https://www.ie
a.org/data-and-statistics/charts/average-annual-capacity-factors-by-technology-2018). IEA.
28. "How Dispatchable Wind Is Becoming a Reality in the US" (https://www.greentechmedia.com/articl
es/read/how-dispatchable-wind-is-becoming-a-reality-in-the-us). www.greentechmedia.com.
29. "51MWh vanadium flow battery system ordered for wind farm in northern Japan" (https://www.ener
gy-storage.news/news/51mwh-vanadium-flow-battery-system-ordered-for-wind-farm-in-northern-ja
pan). Energy Storage News. 20 July 2020. Retrieved 2020-08-10.
30. "Blowing Away the Myths" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070710024744/http://www.bwea.com/pd
f/ref_three.pdf) (PDF). The British Wind Energy Association. February 2005. Archived from the
original (http://www.bwea.com/pdf/ref_three.pdf) (PDF) on 2007-07-10. Retrieved 2008-10-16.
31. Nedic, Dusko; Anser Shakoor; Goran Strbac; Mary Black; Jim Watson; Catherine Mitchell (July
2005). "Security assessment of future UK electricity scenarios" (https://web.archive.org/web/2007
0111234301/http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/research/theme2/final_reports/t2_24.pdf) (PDF). Tyndall
Centre for Climate Change Research. Archived from the original (http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/researc
h/theme2/final_reports/t2_24.pdf) (PDF) on January 11, 2007. Retrieved 2008-10-20.
32. Junling Huang; Xi Lu; Michael B. McElroy (2014). "Meteorologically defined limits to reduction in
the variability of outputs from a coupled wind farm system in the Central US" (http://dash.harvard.
edu/bitstream/handle/1/10981611/Meteorologically%20defined%20limits%20to%20reduction%20i
n%20the%20variability%20of%20outputs%20from%20a%20coupled%20wind%20farm%20syste
m%20in%20the%20Central%20US_1.pdf?sequence=6) (PDF). Renewable Energy. 62: 331–340.
S2CID 3527948 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3527948).
33. [1] (https://web.archive.org/web/20170118042610/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1709/4a682549

e8e853be7b393e916f4cab91487a.pdf) Graham Sinden (1 December 2005). "Characteristics of
the UK wind resource" pg4
34. Reliability of Wind Turbines (http://www.iset.uni-kassel.de/abt/FB-I/publication/2006-02-09Reliabilit
y.pdf)
35. "Wind Systems Integration Basics" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120607000124/http://www.nrel.
gov/wind/systemsintegration/system_integration_basics.html). Archived from the original (http://w
ww.nrel.gov/wind/systemsintegration/system_integration_basics.html) on 7 June 2012.
36. "renewable is doable A Smarter Energy Plan for Ontario (brochure version)" (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20080827184239/http://pubs.pembina.org/reports/renew-doable-brochure.pdf) (PDF).
PEMBINA Institute. August 2007. Archived from the original (http://pubs.pembina.org/reports/rene
w-doable-brochure.pdf) (PDF) on 2008-08-27. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
37. Gemasolar, energía non stop (http://www.nationalgeographic.com.es/2011/10/25/gemasolar_ener
gia_non_stop.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130206152532/http://www.nationalge
ographic.com.es/2011/10/25/gemasolar_energia_non_stop.html) 2013-02-06 at the Wayback
Machine Spanish 26 October 2011
38. Jurasz, J.; Canales, F.A.; Kies, A.; Guezgouz, M.; Beluco, A. (2020-01-01). "A review on the
complementarity of renewable energy sources: Concept, metrics, application and future research
directions" (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.solener.2019.11.087). Solar Energy. 195: 703–724.
arXiv:1904.01667 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1904.01667). Bibcode:2020SoEn..195..703J (https://ui.ads
abs.harvard.edu/abs/2020SoEn..195..703J). doi:10.1016/j.solener.2019.11.087 (https://doi.org/10.
1016%2Fj.solener.2019.11.087). ISSN 0038-092X (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0038-092X).
39. "Average annual capacity factors by technology, 2018 – Charts – Data & Statistics" (https://www.ie
a.org/data-and-statistics/charts/average-annual-capacity-factors-by-technology-2018). IEA.
40. World Energy Perspective (https://www.worldenergy.org/assets/downloads/WEC_J1143_CostofTE
CHNOLOGIES_021013_WEB_Final.pdf) (PDF) (Report). World Energy Council. 2013. p. 21.
41. "Executive Summary: Assessment of Parabolic Trough and Power Tower Solar Technology Cost
and Performance Forecasts" (http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy04osti/35060.pdf) (PDF). National
Renewable Energy Laboratory. October 2003. Retrieved 2016-11-07.
42. Spain Pioneers Grid-Connected Solar-Tower Thermal Power (http://www.iea.org/impagr/cip/pdf/iss
ue36SolarP.pdf) p. 3. Retrieved December 19, 2008.
43. Mills, David; Robert G. Morgan (July 2008). "A solar-powered economy: How solar thermal can
replace coal, gas and oil" (http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/magazine/story?id=52693).
RenewableEnergyWorld.com. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
44. "Solar Air Cooling" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110706180243/http://www.farm-energy.ca/IRe
F/index.php?page=solar-air-cooling-ataglance). Integration of Renewable energy on Farms.
March 2008. Archived from the original (http://www.farm-energy.ca/IReF/index.php?page=solar-air
-cooling-ataglance) on 2011-07-06. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
45. "Project Description – Keeyask Hydropower Limited Partnership" (http://keeyask.com/the-project/p
roject-description/). 10 February 2011.
46. "Energy Resources: Tidal power" (http://www.darvill.clara.net/altenerg/tidal.htm).
www.darvill.clara.net. Retrieved 2022-03-31.
47. "Wind and Waves" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120913081744/http://www.mos.org/oceans/mot
ion/wind.html). Archived from the original (http://www.mos.org/oceans/motion/wind.html) on 2012-
09-13. Retrieved 2012-06-04.
48. "Comparing the Variability of Wind Speed and Wave Height Data" (https://web.archive.org/web/20
120617081359/http://energetech.com.au:8080/attachments/ComparingWindSpeedWaveHeight.pd
f) (PDF). Archived from the original (http://energetech.com.au:8080/attachments/ComparingWindS
peedWaveHeight.pdf) (PDF) on 2012-06-17. Retrieved 2012-06-04.
49. "Savenkov, M 2009 'On the Truncated Weibull Distribution and its Usefulness in Evaluating the
Theoretical Capacity Factor of Potential Wind (or Wave) Energy Sites', University Journal of
Engineering and Technology, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 21-25" (https://web.archive.org/web/201502221209
57/http://www.savenkov.org/publications/Savenkov_on_the_truncated_weibull_distribution_2009.p
df) (PDF). Archived from the original (http://www.savenkov.org/publications/Savenkov_on_the_trun
cated_weibull_distribution_2009.pdf) (PDF) on 2015-02-22. Retrieved 2014-11-30.
50. Harvey, George (2022-06-28). "We Don't Need Base Load Power" (https://cleantechnica.com/202
2/06/28/we-dont-need-base-load-power/). CleanTechnica. Retrieved 2022-11-21.
51. Michael G. Richard: Death by 'capacity factor': Is this how wind and solar ultimately win the game?
(https://www.treehugger.com/renewable-energy/death-capacity-factor-how-wind-solar-ultimately-wi
n-game.html), 2015-10-06
52. "Solar and Energy Storage: A Perfect Match - Energy Storage to the Test" (http://www.renewablee
nergyworld.com/rea/news/print/article/2011/02/solar-solar-and-energy-storage-a-perfect-match).
RenewableEnergyWorld.com. Retrieved 2011-03-08.
53. "UK battery storage capacity could reach 70% growth in 2019 as business models evolve" (https://
www.solarpowerportal.co.uk/blogs/uk_battery_storage_capacity_could_reach_70_growth_in_201
9_as_business_model). Solar Power Portal. 13 June 2019.
54. "UK battery storage market reaches 1GW landmark as new applications continues to grow" (http
s://www.solarpowerportal.co.uk/blogs/uk_battery_storage_market_reaches_1gw_landmark_as_ne
w_applications_continue). Solar Power Portal. 2 April 2020.
55. Andrews, Dave (May 24, 2009). "How CERN is encouraged to not do atom or quark smashing,
during periods of high demand and low power station availablity [sic], by means of the EJP tarrif"
(http://www.claverton-energy.com/how-cern-is-encouraged-to-not-do-atom-or-quark-smashing-duri
ng-periods-of-high-demand-and-low-power-station-availablity-by-means-of-the-ejp-tarrif.html). -
Extract from CERN newsletter indication when to switch of loads bulletin 46 (http://bulletin.cern.ch/
eng/articles.php?bullno=46/2005&base=art)
56. http://www.claverton-energy.com/download/42/ description of EJP tariff Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20081208120416/http://www.claverton-energy.com/download/42/) December 8, 2008,
at the Wayback Machine
57. "2005 Integrated Energy Policy Report" (https://web.archive.org/web/20190601145045/https://ww
w.energy.ca.gov/2005_energypolicy/index.html). California Energy Commission. November 21,
2005. Archived from the original (http://www.energy.ca.gov/2005_energypolicy/index.html) on
2019-06-01. Retrieved 2006-04-21.
58. Fridgen, Gilbert; Körner, Marc-Fabian; Walters, Steffen; Weibelzahl, Martin (2021-03-09). "Not All
Doom and Gloom: How Energy-Intensive and Temporally Flexible Data Center Applications May
Actually Promote Renewable Energy Sources" (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12599-021-00686-z).
Business & Information Systems Engineering. 63 (3): 243–256. doi:10.1007/s12599-021-00686-z
(https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12599-021-00686-z). ISSN 2363-7005 (https://www.worldcat.org/iss
n/2363-7005). S2CID 233664180 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:233664180). "To gain
applicable knowledge, this paper evaluates the developed model by means of two use-cases with
real-world data, namely AWS computing instances for training Machine Learning algorithms and
Bitcoin mining as relevant DC applications. The results illustrate that for both cases the NPV of the
IES compared to a stand-alone RES-plant increases, which may lead to a promotion of RES-
plants."
59. Rhodes, Joshua. "Is Bitcoin Inherently Bad For The Environment?" (https://www.forbes.com/sites/j
oshuarhodes/2021/10/08/is-bitcoin-inherently-bad-for-the-environment/). Forbes. Retrieved
2022-01-16. "Mining and transacting cryptocurrencies, such as bitcoin, do present energy and
emissions challenges, but new research shows that there are possible pathways to mitigate some
of these issues if cryptocurrency miners are willing to operate in a way to compliment the
deployment of more low-carbon energy."
60. "Green Bitcoin Does Not Have to Be an Oxymoron" (https://news.bloomberglaw.com/environment-
and-energy/green-bitcoin-does-not-have-to-be-an-oxymoron). news.bloomberglaw.com. Retrieved
2022-01-16. "One way to invest in Bitcoin that has a positive effect on renewable energy is to
encourage mining operations near wind or solar sites. This provides a customer for power that
might otherwise need to be transmitted or stored, saving money as well as carbon."
61. Moffit, Tim (2021-06-01). "Beyond Boom and Bust: An emerging clean energy economy in
Wyoming" (https://escholarship.org/uc/item/0zp872rt). "Currently, projects are under development,
but the issue of overgenerated wind continues to exist. By harnessing the overgenerated wind for
Bitcoin mining, Wyoming has the opportunity to redistribute the global hashrate, incentivize Bitcoin
miners to move their operations to Wyoming, and stimulate job growth as a result." {{cite
journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
62. Rennie, Ellie (2021-11-07). "Climate change and the legitimacy of Bitcoin" (https://papers.ssrn.co
m/abstract=3961105). Rochester, NY. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3961105 (https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.
3961105). S2CID 244155800 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:244155800).
SSRN 3961105 (https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3961105). "In responding
to these pressures and events, some miners are providing services and innovations that may help
the viability of clean energy infrastructures for energy providers and beyond, including the data
and computing industry. The paper finds that if Bitcoin loses legitimacy as a store of value, then it
may result in lost opportunities to accelerate sustainable energy infrastructures and markets."
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
63. Eid, Bilal; Islam, Md Rabiul; Shah, Rakibuzzaman; Nahid, Abdullah-Al; Kouzani, Abbas Z.;
Mahmud, M. A. Parvez (2021-11-01). "Enhanced Profitability of Photovoltaic Plants By Utilizing
Cryptocurrency-Based Mining Load" (https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9483629). IEEE
Transactions on Applied Superconductivity. 31 (8): 1–5. Bibcode:2021ITAS...3196503E (https://ui.
adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021ITAS...3196503E). doi:10.1109/TASC.2021.3096503 (https://doi.org/
10.1109%2FTASC.2021.3096503). hdl:20.500.11782/2513 (https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11782%
2F2513). ISSN 1558-2515 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1558-2515). S2CID 237245955 (https://
api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:237245955). "The grid connected photovoltaic (PV) power
plants (PVPPs) are booming nowadays. The main problem facing the PV power plants
deployment is the intermittency which leads to instability of the grid. [...] This paper investigating
the usage of a customized load - cryptocurrency mining rig - to create an added value for the
owner of the plant and increase the ROI of the project. [...] The developed strategy is able to keep
the profitability as high as possible during the fluctuation of the mining network."
64. Bastian-Pinto, Carlos L.; Araujo, Felipe V. de S.; Brandão, Luiz E.; Gomes, Leonardo L. (2021-03-
01). "Hedging renewable energy investments with Bitcoin mining" (https://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/pii/S1364032120308054). Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 138:
110520. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2020.110520 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.rser.2020.110520).
ISSN 1364-0321 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1364-0321). S2CID 228861639 (https://api.seman
ticscholar.org/CorpusID:228861639). "Windfarms can hedge electricity price risk by investing in
Bitcoin mining. [...] These findings, which can also be applied to other renewable energy sources,
may be of interest to both the energy generator as well as the system regulator as it creates an
incentive for early investment in sustainable and renewable energy sources."
65. Shan, Rui; Sun, Yaojin (2019-08-07). "Bitcoin Mining to Reduce the Renewable Curtailment: A
Case Study of Caiso" (https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3436872). Rochester, NY.
doi:10.2139/ssrn.3436872 (https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.3436872). S2CID 219382864 (https://
api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219382864). SSRN 3436872 (https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/pap
ers.cfm?abstract_id=3436872). "The enormous energy demand from Bitcoin mining is a
considerable burden to achieve the climate agenda and the energy cost is the major operation
cost. On the other side, with high penetration of renewable resources, the grid makes curtailment
for reliability reasons, which reduces both economic and environment benefits from renewable
energy. Deploying the Bitcoin mining machines at renewable power plants can mitigate both
problems." {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
66. "Can renewable energy make crypto mining greener? | Sifted" (https://sifted.eu/articles/renewable-
energy-crypto-mining/). sifted.eu. 16 June 2022. Retrieved 2022-06-27.
67. Wright, matthew; Hearps, Patrick; et al. Australian Sustainable Energy: Zero Carbon Australia
Stationary Energy Plan (http://media.bze.org.au/ZCA2020_Stationary_Energy_Report_v1.pdf),
Energy Research Institute, University of Melbourne, October 2010, p. 33. Retrieved from
BeyondZeroEmissions.org website.
68. Innovation in Concentrating Thermal Solar Power (CSP) (http://www.renewableenergyfocus.com/v
iew/3272/innovation-in-concentrating-thermal-solar-power-csp/), RenewableEnergyFocus.com
website.
69. Solana: 10 Facts You Didn't Know About the Concentrated Solar Power Plant Near Gila Bend (htt
p://blogs.phoenixnewtimes.com/valleyfever/2013/10/solana_10_facts_you_didnt_know.php)
70. Benitez, Pablo C.; Lilianna E. Dragulescu; G. Cornelis Van Kooten (February 2006). "The
Economics of Wind Power with Energy Storage" (http://ideas.repec.org/p/rep/wpaper/2006-02.htm
l). Resource Economics and Policy Analysis (REPA) Research Group. Department of Economics,
University of Victoria. Retrieved 2008-10-20.
71. "Grid-Scale Battery Storage Frequently Asked Questions" (https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy19osti/744
26.pdf) (PDF).
72. "The global race to produce hydrogen offshore" (https://www.bbc.com/news/business-55763356).
BBC News. 2021-02-12. Retrieved 2021-02-12.
73. "Mechanical energy storage" (https://web.archive.org/web/20220219164627/https://energystorag
e.org/why-energy-storage/technologies/mechanical-energy-storage/). Archived from the original (h
ttps://energystorage.org/why-energy-storage/technologies/mechanical-energy-storage/) on 2022-
02-19. Retrieved 2022-02-19.
74. "Kinetic energy storage" (https://web.archive.org/web/20220219163121/https://en.kest.energy/tec
h). Archived from the original (https://en.kest.energy/tech) on 2022-02-19. Retrieved 2022-02-19.
75. Junling Huang; Michael B. McElroy (2014). "Meteorologically defined limits to reduction in the
variability of outputs from a coupled wind farm system in the Central US" (https://dash.harvard.ed
u/bitstream/1/10981611/6/Meteorologically%20defined%20limits%20to%20reduction%20in%20th
e%20variability%20of%20outputs%20from%20a%20coupled%20wind%20farm%20system%20i
n%20the%20Central%20US_1.pdf) (PDF). Renewable Energy. 62: 331–340.
76. Lovins, Amory; L. Hunter Lovins (November 1983). "The Fragility of Domestic Energy" (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20080625205941/http://www.rmi.org/images/other/EnergySecurity/S83-08_Fra
gileDomEnergy.pdf) (PDF). The Atlantic. Archived from the original (http://www.rmi.org/images/oth
er/EnergySecurity/S83-08_FragileDomEnergy.pdf) (PDF) on June 25, 2008. Retrieved
2008-10-20.
77. Nyenah, Emmanuel; Sterl, Sebastian; Thiery, Wim (2022). "Pieces of a puzzle: solar-wind power
synergies on seasonal and diurnal timescales tend to be excellent worldwide" (https://doi.org/10.1
088%2F2515-7620%2Fac71fb). Environmental Research Communications. 4 (5): 055011.
Bibcode:2022ERCom...4e5011N (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022ERCom...4e5011N).
doi:10.1088/2515-7620/ac71fb (https://doi.org/10.1088%2F2515-7620%2Fac71fb).
78. Harden, Blaine (2007-03-21). "Air, Water Powerful Partners in Northwest" (http://www.washington
post.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/03/20/AR2007032001634.html). The Washington Post.
ISSN 0190-8286 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286). Retrieved 2023-08-08.
79. JUNE, WE (2022-01-27). "The European Super Grid : A solution to the EU's energy problems •
Eyes on Europe" (https://www.eyes-on-europe.eu/the-european-super-grid-a-solution-to-the-eus-e
nergy-problems/). Eyes on Europe (in French). Retrieved 2022-03-31.
80. "US, Canada expand clean energy cooperation" (https://cleanenergynews.ihsmarkit.com/research
-analysis/us-canada-expand-clean-energy-cooperation.html). IHS Markit. 2021-06-30. Retrieved
2022-03-31.
81. "How Norway became Europe's biggest power exporter" (https://www.power-technology.com/featu
res/how-norway-became-europes-biggest-power-exporter/). Power Technology. 2021-04-19.
82. IRENA (2018). Power System Flexibility for the Energy Transition, Part 1: Overview for policy
makers (https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2018/Nov/IRENA_Power_
system_flexibility_1_2018.pdf?la=en&hash=72EC26336F127C7D51DF798CE19F477557CE9A8
2) (PDF). Abu Dhabi: International Renewable Energy Agency. pp. 25, 42. ISBN 978-92-9260-089-
1.
83. "System integration of renewables – Topics" (https://www.iea.org/topics/system-integration-of-rene
wables). IEA. Retrieved 2021-05-21.
84. "Is Vehicle-to-Grid Technology the Key to Accelerating the Clean Energy Revolution?" (https://ww
w.powermag.com/is-vehicle-to-grid-technology-the-key-to-accelerating-the-clean-energy-revolutio
n/). POWER Magazine. 2020-11-09. Retrieved 2021-02-12.
85. "UK city of Nottingham uses vehicle-to-grid (V2G) and IoT to optimise EV fleet charging" (https://w
ww.traffictechnologytoday.com/news/electric-vehicles-ev-infrastructure/uk-city-of-nottingham-uses-
vehicle-to-grid-v2g-and-iot-to-optimise-ev-fleet-charging.html). Traffic Technology Today. 2021-01-
18. Retrieved 2021-02-12.
86. Gross, Robert; Heptonstall, Philip; Anderson, Dennis; Green, Tim; Leach, Matthew; Skea, Jim
(March 2006). The Costs and Impacts of Intermittency (https://web.archive.org/web/20090318231
423/http://www.ukerc.ac.uk/Downloads/PDF/06/0604Intermittency/0604IntermittencyReport.pdf)
(PDF). UK Energy Research Council. ISBN 978-1-903144-04-6. Archived from the original (http://
www.ukerc.ac.uk/Downloads/PDF/06/0604Intermittency/0604IntermittencyReport.pdf) (PDF) on
2009-03-18. Retrieved 2010-07-22.
87. http://repa.econ.uvic.ca/publications/Working%20Paper%202006-02.pdf
88. Shumais, Mohamed; Mohamed, Ibrahim. "DIMENSIONS OF ENERGY INSECURITY ON SMALL
ISLANDS: THE CASE OF THE MALDIVES" (https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/54
3261/adbi-wp1049.pdf) (PDF).
89. "Transforming small-island power systems" (https://www.irena.org/publications/2019/Jan/Transfor
ming-small-island-power-systems). /publications/2019/Jan/Transforming-small-island-power-
systems. 27 January 2019. Retrieved 2020-09-08.
90. "Shining a light on a smart island" (https://www.man-es.com/discover/shining-a-light-on-a-smart-isl
and). MAN Energy Solutions. Retrieved 2020-09-08.
91. "Wind and solar produce record 10% of world's electricity, but faster change needed, scientists
warn" (https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/renewable-energy-wind-solar-coal-how-much-
electricity-climate-change-a9669651.html). www.independent.co.uk. 13 August 2020. Archived (htt
ps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220811/https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/renewable-en
ergy-wind-solar-coal-how-much-electricity-climate-change-a9669651.html) from the original on
2022-08-11. Retrieved 2020-09-08.
92. Ltd, Renews (2020-08-11). "Britain urged to hit 65% renewables by 2030" (https://renews.biz/6236
2/britain-urged-to-hit-65-renewables-by-2030/). reNEWS - Renewable Energy News. Retrieved
2020-09-08.
93. "UK Looks To Triple Solar And More Than Quadruple Offshore Wind Power" (https://oilprice.com/L
atest-Energy-News/World-News/UK-Looks-To-Triple-Solar-And-More-Than-Quadruple-Offshore-
Wind-Power.html). OilPrice.com. Retrieved 2022-03-31.
94. Tong, Dan; Farnham, David J.; Duan, Lei; Zhang, Qiang; Lewis, Nathan S.; Caldeira, Ken; Davis,
Steven J. (2021-10-22). "Geophysical constraints on the reliability of solar and wind power
worldwide" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8536784). Nature Communications. 12
(1): 6146. Bibcode:2021NatCo..12.6146T (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021NatCo..12.6146
T). doi:10.1038/s41467-021-26355-z (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-021-26355-z).
ISSN 2041-1723 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2041-1723). PMC 8536784 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.
nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8536784). PMID 34686663 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34686663).
95. http://www.claverton-energy.com/what-is-the-cost-per-kwh-of-bulk-transmission-national-grid-in-
the-uk-note-this-excludes-distribution-costs.html Electric power transmission costs per kWh
transmission / National Grid in the UK (note this excludes distribution costs)
96. http://www.ukerc.ac.uk/component/option,com_docman/task,doc_download/gid,550/ Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20070706221755/http://www.ukerc.ac.uk/component/option%2Ccom_do
cman/task%2Cdoc_download/gid%2C550/) 2007-07-06 at the Wayback Machine The Costs and
Impacts of Intermittency, UK Energy Research Council, March 2006
97. Welle (www.dw.com), Deutsche. "Will war fast-track the energy transition? | DW | 04.03.2022" (htt
ps://www.dw.com/en/will-war-fast-track-the-energy-transition/a-61021440). DW.COM. Retrieved
2022-03-31.
98. Morse, Richard; Salvatore, Sarah; Slusarewicz, Joanna H.; Cohan, Daniel S. (2022-03-14). "Can
wind and solar replace coal in Texas?" (https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs40807-022-00069-2).
Renewables: Wind, Water, and Solar. 9 (1): 1. Bibcode:2022RWWS....9....1M (https://ui.adsabs.ha
rvard.edu/abs/2022RWWS....9....1M). doi:10.1186/s40807-022-00069-2 (https://doi.org/10.1186%
2Fs40807-022-00069-2). ISSN 2198-994X (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2198-994X).
99. Vetter, David. "5 New Reports Show Wind And Solar Power Can Cripple Putin, Secure Climate
Goals" (https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidrvetter/2022/03/30/5-new-reports-show-wind-and-solar-
power-can-cripple-putin-secure-climate-goals/). Forbes. Retrieved 2022-03-31.
100. "Accelerating Grid Integration" (https://www.usaid.gov/energy/sure/grid-integration).
www.usaid.gov. 2022-02-17. Retrieved 2022-03-31. "Grid modernization reduces medium- to
long-term curtailment, stagnation of large-scale renewable energy deployment, reduces long-term
costs, and enables new business models, such as electric vehicles (EVs), aggregation, demand-
side management, and distributed energy resources. It also promotes regional market
coordination and power system integration which can unlock billions of dollars in electricity
revenue through cross-border trade."
101. ES, Tetra Tech; order, Inc under USAID’s Scaling Up Renewable Energy task (2021-07-28).
"Renewable Energy Auctions Toolkit | Energy | U.S. Agency for International Development" (http
s://www.usaid.gov/energy/auctions). www.usaid.gov. Retrieved 2022-05-19.
102. "Feed-In Tariffs vs Reverse Auctions: Setting the Right Subsidy Rates for Solar" (https://developm
ent.asia/insight/feed-tariffs-vs-reverse-auctions-setting-right-subsidy-rates-solar). Development
Asia. 2021-11-10. Retrieved 2022-05-19.
103. "Government hits accelerator on low-cost renewable power" (https://www.gov.uk/government/new
s/government-hits-accelerator-on-low-cost-renewable-power). GOV.UK. Retrieved 2022-05-19.
104. "Currency Risk Is the Hidden Solar Project Deal Breaker" (https://www.greentechmedia.com/articl
es/read/currency-risk-is-the-hidden-solar-project-deal-breaker). www.greentechmedia.com.
105. Ambrose, Jillian (2020-07-27). "UK electricity grid's carbon emissions could turn negative by 2033,
says National Grid" (https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jul/27/uk-electricity-grids-car
bon-emissions-could-turn-negative-by-2033-says-national-grid). The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077
(https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077). Retrieved 2020-11-03.
106. "Zero carbon operation of Great Britain's electricity system by 2025 | National Grid ESO" (https://w
ww.nationalgrideso.com/news/zero-carbon-operation-great-britains-electricity-system-2025).
www.nationalgrideso.com. Retrieved 2019-07-09.
107. "Renewable energies in figures" (https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/en/topics/climate-energy/rene
wable-energies/renewable-energies-in-figures). Umweltbundesamt (German environmental
agency). 11 June 2013. Retrieved 25 October 2022.
External links
Grid Integration of Wind Energy (http://www.wind-works.org/articles/GridIntegrationofWindEnergy.
html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120510064213/http://wind-works.org/articles/GridInt
egrationofWindEnergy.html) 2012-05-10 at the Wayback Machine
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Variable_renewable_energy&oldid=1197736965"

Variable Renewable Energy - Wikipedia

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Variable Renewable Energy - Wikipedia

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

2/10/24, 8:24 AM Variable renewable energy - Wikipedia

The use of small amounts of intermittent power has little effect on

Background and terminology

Grid operators use day ahead forecasting to determine which of

Wind-generated power is a variable resource, and the amount of

turbines will have to be shut down to avoid damage. While the

Intermittence: Regions smaller than synoptic scale (less than

Capacity credit: At low levels of penetration, the capacity

Variability: In the absence of an energy storage system, solar

Waves are primarily created by wind, so the power available from

Solutions for their integration

Traditional lithium-ion is the most common type used for grid-

Flywheel energy storage systems have some advantages over

Storage of electrical energy results in some lost energy because

Geographic diversity and complementing

The variability of production from a single wind turbine can be

Multiple wind farms spread over a wide

Connecting grid internationally

Maximum penetration limits

Economic impacts of variability

Ground source heat pump

33. [1] (https://web.archive.org/web/20170118042610/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1709/4a682549

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Variable_renewable_energy&oldid=1197736965"

You might also like