Chapter-5

Nuclear Energy
2.4 Nuclear fuel
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Definitions: - +
-
+
Take, for example a helium atom: s
+
It is composed of n=2 neutrons and p=2 protons

Atomic number, Z = number of protons in a positively-charged atom,

or number of electrons in orbit in a non-ionized atom. (Z = 2 in helium).

Nucleon: any particle that forms the nucleus, no matter if it is n or p.

Atomic mass number, A = number of nucleons= n +p

Number of neutrons = A – Z

Atoms of the same Z are similar in their chemical properties.

Atoms of the same Z but different in A are called isotopes, which are
similar in chemical properties but different in physical ones.
Example A,( number of nucleons)

Hydrogen is represented as:

Z,(number of protons)

Helium is represented as:

Uranium 235 is represented as:

Not only atoms are represented this way, but also particles, for example:

Protons:

Neutrons:

α- particles , same as a He nucleus

β- particles , which is essentially high energy electron.

App. K shows Z and A for isotopes.

Major Types of Nuclear Reactions:

1- Fission:
There are only three isotopes that are listed as (fissionable) fuel
material. They are uranium-235, uranium-233, and plutonium-239.
Only uranium-235 occurs in nature, but at a very low percentage.
The major uranium isotope is uranium-238, which is
(unfissionable), and its percentage is 99.274%. The rest is uranium-
235, at 0.72% and uranium-234, at 0.006%. There is very low
percentage of uranium-235 in the natural uranium fuel which does
not allow most reactors to work without increasing this percentage
in a process known as enrichment.
A fission reaction is defined by striking the fissionable isotope with
a neutron to start the following reaction:

+ → → FP#1 + FP#2 + (2 to 3 neutrons) + γ rays

Energy
About 680 grams of uranium is capable of generating 600 MWe for
a year.
.
2- Fusion:

+ → + + 3.26 MeV (Mega-electron Volt)

The energy that comes out of the reaction is due to the reaction of the
two hydrogen atoms which produces a lighter helium atom and the
difference in mass is turned into energy, according to famous Eqn:

E = m C2
This reaction occurs essentially in the sun and in the H-bomb. There
is no process that can achieve this reaction in the lab to date.
3.6.5 Classification of Nuclear Reactors

I-According to average K.E. of neutrons:- Thermal ˂ 0.1 eV

0.1eV˂ Intermediate ˂ 0.1MeV
Fast > 0.1MeV
II-According to purpose of reactor
III-According to core geometry
IV-According to type of coolant

I- Reactors that use fast neutrons are called "Breeder reactors"

because they produce higher number of neutrons than what they
absorb.
Features of breeder reactor
Advantages:
1. Can use any fuel (235U, 233U and 239Pu) because their η is high
for any fuel. (η is number of neutrons produced per neutron
absorbed by the fuel).
2. Can use any structural material because all material have small
Cross section for fast neutrons.
3. Smaller in size, therefore easier to shield.

Disadvantages:
1. For the same microscopic cross section and neutron flux, the
fuel loading is high.
2. Needs enriched fuel to become critical.
3. Suffers radiation damage to structure.
4. Suffers of some control problems.
-Features of the thermal reactors
- Advantages of the thermal reactor are the disadvantages of the
breeder reactor.
- Disadvantages of thermal reactor are the advantages of breeder
reactor.

II-Purpose of reactor:- Research ˂ 5 MW

Used as a source for neutrons for medical
and industrial purposes.
Energy is dissipated by cooling towers.

-Experimental ˂10 MW
A model to test new systems.

-Production
Military material (Pu 239).
Energy is dissipated by cooling towers.

-Compact power
Ships, submarines, aircraft carriers.
Uses enriched uranium.

-Commercial
For electricity production.
Mainly thermal reactors
III-Core geometry:- Homogeneous
Fuel in liquid form, uranyl nitrate, uranyl sulfate,
carried away from reactor to a heat exchanger and
back.

Advantages:
-Good for control through heat exchanger.
-Good heat transfer
-Does not need shut down, Fission product
(Xe 135) is continuously removed.
-Less fuel loading.

Disadvantages:
-Fuel solution contains highly radiative fission
product → difficult to repair.

-Heterogeneous
Fuel in solid form, incapsulated in zirconium
rods and a coolant transfers the energy outside.
IV-Type of coolant: -Light water

-Heavy water

-Organic coolant

-Gas coolant

-Liquid metal coolant

Light Water Reactor (LWR)

Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

Fig. 3.4, 5, 10, 13, 14 Fig. 3.6

Features of PWR:
- Water is pressurized using a pressurizer which keeps the water in
the reactor in the liquid phase. This improves heat transfer in the
reactor core and this also reduces corrosion. Fig. 3.5
- No contamination in turbine; the secondary cycle (in blue) pressure
is kept larger than that of the primary cycle.

- Advantages of PWR: Water is a good coolant, it has a high

hydrogen concentration, thereby it serves as a good moderator
(which absorbs neutrons)

Disadvantages: Should be pressurized.

Enriched uranium should be used.
Features of BWR:
The reactor generates steam which goes directly to the turbine. Less
complicated, because there is no separate steam generator, no pressurizer.
Fig.3.6
Disadvantages of BWR: Possible contamination in the turbines.
Heavy Water Reactor (CANDU), Fig. 3.7

The main advantage of this reactor is that it uses natural uranium because
the heavy water has a very low absorption cross section.

Disadvantages: Larger in size than LWR because it has very low

absorption cross section.
Organic Coolants
These are man-made coolants such as the product Sanowax made by
Dowtherm. They are made to replace water in the reactors.

Advantages:- High hydrogen concentration which causes more neutron

Absorption.
- Less corrosive than water.
- Can reach higher temperature with less pressurization.
Disadvantages: -Radiation damage to molecular structure of coolant,
which causes the damaged molecules to accumulate on
the heat transfer surfaces.

Gaseous Coolants
Examples of gaseous coolants are air, N2 and He.
Advantages: - No temperature limit on the working fluid (the coolant).
- Gases have low cross section to neotrons.
- Gases can be used to produce work in a gas turbine.
Disadvantages:- Small heat transfer coefficient.
- Highly pressurized to be effective.
Example: Calder Hall HTGR in Britain, Fig. 3.8
Liquid Metal Reactors
These are considered the best reactors in terms of working conditions.
Liquid metals have excellent thermal conductivity and can achieve higher
temperatures with less pressures.

Reactor Components, Fig. 3.15, 16 and 17

- Reflector for neutrons, this is a moderating material used in
thermal reactors and heavy mass material, for fast reactors.
- Thermal shield, for γ radiation and fast neutrons.
- Containment vessel, made of carbon steel with stainless steel
lining. Weighs up to 700 tons.
- Biological shield, made of concrete, 2.5-3.5 meters thick.
- Secondary containment system.