WALTON: ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF GALVANIZED STEEL CONDUCTORS.
1065
THE ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF GALVANIZED STEEL CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION LINES.*
By E. C. WALTON, B.Eng.
(Paper first received 1st May', and in final form 19th July, 1928.)
SUMMARY.
In this paper are given the results of some work which was
carried out with a view to obtaining definite information as
to the electrical properties of steel conductors when carrying
alternating currents. The most important values measured
in the tests were the " effective a.c. resistance " and " internal
inductive reactance," and it is shown that it would be im-
possible to calculate these in the case of iron or steel con-
ductors.
Full particulars with regard to the selected range of test
samples are given, including their mechanical properties,
chemical analyses and magnetic qualities.
The test methods are briefly described, the method of
power-factor measurement employed in the "internal in-
ductive reactance " tests being more fully referred to in the
Appendix.
The effect of spacing on the values of " effective a.c.
resistance" and " internal inductive reactance" is then
considered. The test results show that these values do not
vary with the spacing until the conductors are brought very
close together and, in fact, are separated only by a thickness
of paper.
Some observations on the test results are given, and it is
shown that the most suitable of the four grades of material
tested is the " 45-ton quality, hard-drawn " grade.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
(1) Introduction.
(2) " Effective a.c. resistance."
(3) " Internal inductive reactance."
(4) Description of test samples.
(5) Results sought in tests.
(6) Test methods :—
" Effective a.c. resistance " and " internal in-
ductive reactance " tests.
D.C. resistance tests.
Temperature-rise tests.
(7) Effect of spacing on " effective a.c. resistance "
and " internal inductive reactance " values.
(8) Observations on test results.
Appendix. A method of measuring the power factor
of a circuit accurately when it is very close to
unity.
(1) INTRODUCTION.
There are certain cases in which it is found desirable
to employ galvanized steel conductors for overhead
electrical transmission lines. In designing such lines
some difficulties usually arise due to the lack of definite
• The Papers Committee invite written communications (with a view to
publication in the Journal if approved by the Committee) on papers published
in the Journal without being read at a meeting. Communications should reach
the Secretary of the Institution not later than one month after publication of
the paper to which they relate.
information with regard to the electrical properties of
steel conductors when carrying alternating currents, and
it was with a view to obtaining such information that
this work was carried out.
A summary of the information on this subject which
was available up to that date appeared in the American
technical Press f in 1918, but the descriptions of some
of the test samples were vague and cannot be definitely
interpreted.
The object of this paper is to present the results of
some work on the electrical properties of certain samples
of galvanized steel conductor, 'the chemical compositions
and mechanical properties of which had been previously
determined. The most important of these electrical
properties are the " effective a.c. resistance" and
" internal inductive reactance." A brief reference will
therefore be made to these, and it can be shown that
any attempt to calculate their values for steel conductors
is impracticable.
(2) EFFECTIVE A.C. RESISTANCE.
When a cylindrical conductor carries an alternating
current, the current density over its cross-section is not
uniform but is a maximum at the circumference and a
minimum along the axis. This phenomenon is known
as " skin-effect " and causes the power loss per unit
length of the conductor, for a definite current value, to
be greater for alternating than for direct current. The
effective a.c. resistance is obtained by taking the quotient
of the power loss and the square of the alternating
current. For conductors of non-magnetic material, the
effective a.c. resistance can be accurately calculated by
means of formulae $ derived from Maxwell's fundamental
equations. These formulae could also be used for iron
and steel conductors if a definite constant value could
be assigned to p,, the magnetic permeability of the
material. Since, however, the magnetic field strength
varies over the cross-section of the conductor, the value
of fj, will, in this case, vary also between wide limits,
which will depend on the value of the current in the
conductor.
For iron and steel conductors, therefore, the formulas
referred to cannot be applied, and it becomes necessary
to make actual measurements to determine the effective
a.c. resistance over a range of current values, and also
for different frequencies. In the case of iron and steel
conductors the effective a.c. resistance is further increased
owing to hysteresis losses, and also with stranded con-
ductors to the " spirahty " effect of the outer strands.
t Electrical World, 1918, vol. 72, p. 160.
t A. RUSSELL: "The Theory of Alternating Currents," 2nd ed., vol. 1,
chap. vii.
1066 WALTON: THE ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF GALVANIZED

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 STEEL CONDUCTORS FOR OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION LINES.
(3) INTERNAL INDUCTIVE REACTANCE.
Formula; * have also been derived by means of which
the total self-inductance of two similar parallel cylin-
drical conductors may be calculated. The logarithmic
term in the expression for the total self-inductance
arises from the magnetic field external to each conductor
due to the current in it, and may be termed the " external
self-inductance." The other term, which arises from the
magnetic field which exists within each conductor due
to the current flowing in it, may be termed the " internal
self-inductance," the corresponding reactance being
known as the internal inductive reactance.
In the case of copper conductors, the total self-
inductance may be accurately determined from the
TABLE 1.
Comparison between Self-inductance Values for Parallel
Cylindrical Conductors of Copper and Steel; 8
S.W.G. ; 3-ft. Spacing.
Material of conductors External self- Internal
inductance self-inductance
Henrys per mile of parallel conductors
Copper
0-00393 0-00016
(calculated)
Steel (Grade C.H., 0-00393 0-06350
with current of (measured)
15 amps, at 50~)
formulae referred to above, but it is usually found that
the " internal " part of this total self-inductance is small
compared with the "external" and may be neglected
without serious error. For iron and steel conductors,
however, the internal self-inductance becomes appreciable
and often exceeds the external self-inductance, as shown
in Table 1.
In this case, as in that of the effective a.c. resistance,
it becomes impossible to make calculations for iron and
steel conductors from the formulae quoted, due to the
wide variations in the value of fi over the cross-section
of the conductors. Thus it again becomes necessary to
make actual measurements, and curves between internal
inductive reactance and current value for a definite
frequency are desirable.
(4) DESCRIPTION OF TEST SAMPLES.-
The range of samples consisted of a number of different
sizes in each of four grades of material, these being as
follows:—
(1) Grade A.H.: 45-ton quality steel, hard-drawn and
galvanized.
(2) Grade A.S.: same quality as (1) but furnaced in
conjunction with the galvanizing process.
(3) Grade C.H.: conductivity quality steel, hard-
drawn and galvanized.
(4) Grade C.S.: same quality as*(3) but furnaced in
conjunction with the galvanizing process.
• A. RUSSELL: Ice. at.
1067
In every case the " H " and " S " samples in each
quality and corresponding gauges were produced from
the same coil of wire.
For each of the above grades of material, samples of
the following sizes were tested:—
8 S.W.G. solid conductor, and 7-strand conductors
of 12, 14 and 15 S.W.G.
Single wires of the same material as the stranded
conductors were also tested, the samples again being
taken from the same coil of wire as the individual
strands.
In Tables 2 and 3 the test results for the chemical
analyses and mechanical properties of the samples are
collected, with reference to their treatment in manu-
facture. A complete series of micro-photographs was
taken from the range of samples and some of these are
reproduced in Figs. 1 to 8. In addition, tests were
carried but to determine the magnetic qualities of the
four grades of material, and the results are given in the
Total self- form of B-H curves, fx-H curves, and typical hysteresis
inductance
loops in Figs. 9 to 12.
These magnetic tests were made on samples of the
8 S.W.G. steel conductor, each about 7 ft. in length.
0-00409 The sample was supported along the axis of a single-
layer cylindrical solenoid, 3^ in. mean diameter and
6 ft. long. A single-layer search coil about 2J inches in
0-06743 length and wound on an ebonite former was fixed on
the conductor at the centre of the solenoid and connected
to a ballistic galvanometer. The value of H along the
axis of the solenoid was sensibly constant over the
distance occupied by the search coil and could be
calculated. The change in B in that portion of the steel
conductor surrounded by the search coil, corresponding
to a given change in H, was obtained from the observed
throw of the ballistic galvanometer and the known
dimensions of the search coil. The B-H and fx-H
determinations were made by completely reversing the
current in the solenoid over a range of values, while for
the hysteresis loops the current was suddenly reduced
from a definite value to a number of lesser values
(Ewing's method).
(5) RESULTS SOUGHT IN TESTS.
(1) The effective a c. resistance for each of the test
samples, and also for single wires of the same
material as the stranded conductors. This
resistance was to be determined for a selected
range of current values at 50 cycles, and for the
highest of these current values at 25 cycles.
(2) The d.c. resistance for the same set of samples,
and at the same current values, as used for the
effective a.c. resistance measurements.
(3) The internal inductive reactance for the same set
of samples, and at the same current values and
frequencies as used for the effective a.c. re-
sistance measurements.
(4) The mean temperature-rise of each sample above
air temperature when carrying the highest
current value in the selected range at 50
cycles.
 f ABLE 2".
Summary of Results of Mechanical Tests on Galvanized Steel Conductors.

Individual wires
uctor Single wires before stranding
Completed
strand Average values for 7 wires Maximum per cent variation from average
Breaking
Breaking Reduction Elongation on load
Grade Diameter Breaking load stress of area 8 diameters Diameter Breaking load Breaking stress Diameter Breaking load Breaking stre

in. lb. tons/sq. in. per cent per cent lb. in. lb. tons/sq. in.
A TU fO-164 2 165 45-8 54-2 18-4
A.rl. to-165 2 190 45-7 610 17-6
OS O5
I—> i—i

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1 855 39-6
© ©

57-0 16-9
A.S.
1 940 41-5 54-0 19-25
fO-1605 1620 35-7 69-2 J5-4
C.H.
\0-1605 1 585 34-9 70-6 15-4
JO-1615 1 450 31-6 71-4 21-6
C.S.
\0-161 1 490 32-6 70-0 18-5 — — — — —

/0-1055 888 45-3 59-5 12-5 r +o-o9 + 1-81 + 1-56

A.H. I- 6 170 0 1059 884 44-8
10-1065 955 47-7 56-7 12-5 t -0-38 -1-47 -1-78
A.S. JO-106 + 1-65 + 3-94
642 32-5 740 26-2
\0-106 600 30-3 71-0 31-3 [• 4 130 01061 604 30-5
t -1-04 -1-32 -2-62
C.H.
JO-105 782 40-3 61-6 12-5 I +0-96 + 1-18 + 3-55
\ 0 104 765 40-1 69-8 100 i- 5 250 0-1040 763 39-5
t -0-48 -210 — 1-01
CS. ro-104 464 24-3 710 22-5 f +0-86 + 1-49 + 1-64
466 24-6 76-8 25 0
L 3 210 0 1046 470 24-4
t -0-57 -1-28 — 2-46
\0-104

A.H.
/0-0815 532 45-4 62-3 11-7 f +0-73 + 2-26 + 3-12
1:0-081 524 45-3 65-0 11-7 [ 3 700 0-0819 530 44-9
-302 -312
t -0-49
A.S. /O-081 350 30-3 76-8 26-7 / +0-49 + 6-75 + 5-60
10 081 367 31-8 [• 2 480 0-0816 356 30-4
t -0-74 -1-97
730 30 0 -2-63
C.H. / 0081 537 45-5 57-2 11-6 / +0-12 + 2-35 + 2-49
lO-0805 495 43-4 61-5 100 y 3 520 0-0809 510 44-2
\ —111 -1-96 -0-68
C S . JO-080
290 25-7 80-8 25-0 r +0-00 + 1-72 + 3-50
to-079 299 27-2 75 0 25-0 y 2 020 0-0800 290 25-7
-1-72
\ -0-00 — 1-55

AH.
fO-0745 441 45-0 61-3 6-7 / +1-08 + 5-52 + 5-99
to-0745 512 52-3 63-5 7-5 •" 3 070 0-0742 453 46-8
\ -0-27 -2-87 -4-06
/0-074 296 30-7 73-6 300 / +0-68 + 1-75 + 2-00
AS. • 2 010 0-0735 285 29-9
to-074 296 30-7 73-6 31-7 t -0-68 -105 -2-34
C.H.
CO-0725 431 46-5 56-0 6-7 / +0-96 + 1-65 + 3-76
to-0725 428 46-2 59-0 6-7
- 2 920 0-0728 423 45-3
t —1-10 -1-65 -2-87
C.S. JO-0725 245 26-4 76-7 21-7 r +0-41 + 0-83 + 1-16
to-0725 240 25-9 76-7 26-7
* 1 670 0-0727 240 25-8
t -0-27 -1-25 -116
 STEEL CONDUCTORS FOR OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION LINES. 1069

TABLE 3.

Summary oj" Chemical Analysis Results and Manufacturing Treatment for Galvanized Steel Conductors.

Conductor Chemical analysis

Treatment in manufacture
Size Grade c Si S p Mn Ni Cu

S.W.G per cent per cent per cent per cent per cent per cent per cent
A.H. 0 •250 0-075 0 •026 0 •035 0 •550 None 0 •210 Drawn 1 hole to 0-192 in.; annealed at
600° C. and finished 1 hole to size.
A.S. 0 •240 0075 0 •029 0 •031 0 •540 None 0 •200 As A.H. 8; also furnaced at 600c C.
8- with galvanizing process.
C.H. 0 •060 Trace 0 •026 0 •021 0 •210 None 0 •227 Drawn 1 hole to 0-192 in., and finished
1 hole to size.
C.S. 0 050 Trace 0 018 0 •019 0 •200 None 0 •221 As C.H. 8; also furnaced at 580c c.
r with galvanizing process.
A.H. 0 240 0-085 0 026 0 029 0 •570 None 0 190 Drawn 2 holes to 0-130 in".; annealed at
720° C. and finished 1 hole to size.
12. A.S. 0 240 0-085 0 029 0 029 0 580 None 0 200 As A.H. 12, also furnaced at 700° c.
with galvanizing process.
C.H. 0 060 Trace 0 020 0 015 0 200 None 0 227 Drawn 3 holes to size.
„ C.S. 0 050 Trace 0 015 0 015 0 200 None 0 208 As C.H. 12; also furnaced at 700° c.
with galvanizing process.
A.H. 0 240 0-066 0 026 0 034 0 530 None 0 180 Drawn 3 holes to 0 • 098 in.; annealed at
700° C. and finished 1 hole to size.
14, A.S. 0 220 0-066 0 026 0 034 0 530 None 0 180 As A.H. 14; also furnaced at 700° c.
with galvanizing process.
C.H. 0- 050 Trace 0- 019 0 016 0 200 None 0 208 Drawn 4 holes to size.
C.S. 0- 050 Trace 0- 016 0 015 0 200 None 0 211 As C.H. 14; also furnaced at 700° c.
with galvanizing process
A.H. 0- 240 0-066 0- 029 0- 029 0 600 None 0 180 Drawn 4 holes to 0-089 in.; annealed
and finished 1 hole to size.
1 <i< A.S. 0- 220 0-066 0- 027 0- 028 0- 600 None 0- 180 As A.H. 15; also furnaced at 700° c.
X. %J
with galvanizing process.
C.H. 0- 050 Trace 0- 027 0- 021 0- 200 None 0- 214 Drawn 5 holes to size.
C.S. 0- 050 Trace 0- 028 0- 022 0- 200 None 0- 208 As C.H. 15; also furnaced at 700° c.
with galvanizing process.

16 24 32 40
Mag-netizing- force (H) per cm 2
FIG. 9.—B-H curves for different grades of steel conductor.
VOL. 66. 69
1070 WALTON: THE ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF GALVANIZED

1200

800

400

16 24 32 40
Magnetizing- force (ff) per cm*
FIG. 10.—Permeability curves for different grades of steel conductor.

Grade C.H. — ®
" C.S. — *

-12
-16 -8 0 8 16 -16
Magnetizing- force {H) per cm2 Magnetizing tforce (H) per cm2
FIG. 11.—Hysteresis loops for different grades of steel FIG. 12.—Hysteresis loops for different grades of steel
conductor. conductor.
Energy loss per cycle :— Energy loss per cycle :—
Grade A.H.—13-6 x 103 ergs per cm'. Grade C.H.—11 6 x 103 ergs per cm3.
Grade A S.—14'8 X 103 ergs per cm3. Grade C.§.—12 4 x 103 e rgs per cm».
 STEEL CONDUCTORS FOR OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION LINES. rO71

The range of current values selected for each size of to give a voltage wave-shape of sine form for iron-
conductor was as follows:— testing purposes.
The power loss in the test sample for a definite current
7/12 S.W.G. conductors: 5, 10, 20 and 30 amperes.
1-6
•7/14 S.W.Gi conductors: 5, 10,- 15 and 20 amperes.
7/15 S.W.G. conductors: 5, 10 and 15 amperes.
8 S.W.G. solid conductors: 5, 10 and 15 amperes.
Single'wires of 12 S.W.G.: 2, 3, 5 and 7.amperes.
Single wires of ]4 S.W.G.: 2, 3 and 5 amperes.
Single wires of 15 S W.G.: 2, 3 and 5 amperes.
The test results for the required electrical properties
of the whole set of samples are collected in tabular form
in Tables 4 and 5, and typical curves for effective a.c.

10 20
Current, in amperes
FIG. 14.—Internal inductive reactance curves, at 50 cycles,
for 7/12 S.W.G. stranded steel conductors.
Grade A.H.— ®
» A.S. • 15-0
•• C H.~
" C. S.

10 20 30
Current, in amperes
FIG. 13.—Effective a.c. resistance curves, at 50 cycles, for
7/12 S.W.G. stranded steel conductors.

resistance and internal inductive reactance over the

selected ranges of current values are given in Figs. 13
to! 16.
(6) TEST METHODS.
Grade A.M.—©
•Effective a c resistance and internal inductive reactance
•• A.S.— *
tests.—These tests were carried out simultaneously on
•i C.H.—
each sample "of steel conductor. The sample, which
was about 60 ft. in length, was stretched- taut HI the » C.S.—
form of a long, narrow U loop, the parallel sides being
at, 12 in pitch. The main current connections were
made at the free ends of the loop, and voltage tappings 5 10 15
were taken from suitable terminals clamped at a distance Current, in amperes
of'about 1 ft. from these ends. FIG. 15.—Effective a.c. resistance curves, at-50' cycles, for
The necessary low-voltage a c. supply was obtained No. 8 S.W.G. solid steel conductors.
through a step-down transformer from an .alternator,
the speed of which was adjusted to give .thexequired yalue.was measured by means of a standard iwattmeter
frequency. This machine had been specially designed of the Duddell-Mather type, made by the Cambridge
1072 WALTON: THE ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF GALVANIZED
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r-l 00 0 0
ade

X X in X X X m X in X c/i X C/5
Cond ucto

< <
O < < do < < d d d d < d0
V v ' v— V —* '
(papuua^s) (p 3P
(pips)
.a (V>apUT2i}S)
w S fllL
o A \ SSl/i 0' 0 AVS AVS
 TABLE 5.

Summary of Results of Electrical Tests on Single Wires of same Material as the Stranded Galvanized Steel Conductors.

Effective a c. resistance a.c. resistance Internal inductive reactance

in ohms per 1 000 yds. at d c. resistance " ' in ohms per 1 000 yds. at
D.C resistance

Grade 50 cycles 25 50 cycles 25 50 cycles 25

cycles cycles cycl

2 3 5 7 2 3 5 7 7 2 3 5 7 7 2 3 5 7 7
G. amps. amps. amps. amps. amps. amps amps. amps. amps. amps. amps. amps. amps. amps. amps. amps. amps. amps. amp

r A.H. 24-3 24-3 24-5 24-8 24-7 25-0 25"-8 27-0 25-7 1-017 1026 1051 1-089 1038 2--64 302 401 4-92 31
A.S. 23-3 23-8 24-2 24-6 23-3 24-2 26-2 27-5 26-0 1-000 1015 1082 1114 1054 2-"74 2-98 4-42 5-34 3-2
JJ 19-4 19-4 19-6 20-0 20-2 21-1 23-7 21-6 1-043 1172 1-186 1-082 2-78 4-35 5-81
C.H. 230 1083 6-34 3-7
I C.S. 19-2 19-2 19-3 19-5 19-5 20-5 21-8 22-4 20-7 1-013 1064 1125 1150 1060 3-46 4-18 514 5-90 3-6

2 3 5 2 3 5 5 2 3 5 5 2 3 5 5
amps. amps. amps. amps. amps. amps. amps. amps. amps. amps. amps. amps. amps. amps amp

r AH. 37-6 37-9 38-3 37-6 38-0 39 1 38-4 1-000 1-004 1-021 1002 3-54 4-60 5 04 3-5
J1 A.S
CH.
37 1
31-5
37-3
31-7
37-9
32-2
—
—
37 1
31-5
37-5
32-4
38-3
34-5
—
—
37-9
33 0
1-000
1-000
1-004
1021
1011
1071
—
—
1001
1022
3-09
3-69
4-45
4-26
4-69
5-91
—: 2-9
4-2
I CS. 29-3 29-4 29-8 — 32-7 34-2 35-6 — 33-6 1114 1-160 1191 — 1125 4-57 5-98 7-43 51

2 3 5 2 3 5 5 o 3 5 5 2 3 5 5
amps amps. amps. amps. amps. amps. amps. amps. amps. amps. amps. amps. amps amps. amp

r A.H.
A S.
46-8
49-8
47-0
50-0
481
—
47-4 47-8
50-5
48-9
—
48-2
51-2
1-011
1-002
1-016
1-008
1015
1022 —
1-001
1-001
5 09
4-66
5-66
5-59
6-45
713
7-0
5-7
J^ 511 500 52-3
C.H. 38-2 38-3 39-6 — 39-4 40-6 41-9 — 40-1 1-028 1-058 1057 — 1012 5-53 6-64 7-23 4-7
I C.S. 39-9 40-1 410 — 411 43-1 440 — 41-7 1-027 1074 1071 — 1016 6-91 8-65 9-40 6-3
107,4 WALTON THE ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF GALVANIZED.
and Paul Instrument Co., Ltd., which was capable of
extremely accurate measurements. The current |was
measured by a dynamometer-type instrument which
was calibrated on direct current before and after each
test. Thus the effective a.c. resistance was obtained.
The phase angle <f> between the voltage across the test
sample and the current flowing in it was then obtained
reactance of a particular sample at a definite current
value and spacings of 6 in., 12 in. and 24 in.
D.C. resistance tests.—Since the purpose of these tests
was to enable the ratio of a.c. to d.c. resistance to be
calculated, it was decided to use the same method of
measurement for both the a.c. and d.c. resistance tests,
as there was no point in obtaining a higher degree of
accuracy in the latter by using a bridge method.
Temperature-nse tests.—These tests, although not sa
important as those mentioned above, were considered
desirable as giving some idea of the practical use of
the current values selected.
The temperature-rise was determined by means of a
resistance method, which enabled the mean temperature
of the Conductor to be measured while an alternating
a c. supply
f50'
p
Variable choking- coil

5 10 15
Current, in amperes
FIG. 16.—Internal inductive reactance curves, at 5p cycles,
for No. 8 S W.G. solid steel conductors. FIG 17.—Method of making ternperature-rise tests.

by a special method,-referred'to in the Appendix, this current of the required value was' flowing, the principle
method being necessary since the angle was in many of the method being illustrated in Fig. 17. The test
cases of the order of 5° (COB <f> = 0-996). From the sample was arranged as a • long continuous rectangular
tangent of this angle and the effective a.c. resistance loop and suspended in the atmosphere, the temperature
value the total inductive reactance was determined, and," of which was • measured by an accurate thermometer.
since the external inductive reactance could be calcu- The a.c, low-voltage supply was applied to the ends of
lated, the internal inductive reactance was obtained by the loop, and the d.c. resistance between the mid-points
subtraction. of the long parallel sides was measured by means of a.
The accuracy of this method is proved by Table 6, Kelvin double bridge. The d.c. measuring current in
which gives the test results for the internal inductive the test samples was small compared with the main

TABLE 6.

Internal Inductive Reactance Values for a Defimte Length {about 60 ft.) of 7/12 S.W.G. Steel Conductor, Grade A.S.
with Current of 30-08 amps, at 50 cycles

R tan $ = total Calculated Internal

Effective a c. to external
Spacing Power loss W resistance R tan<£ inductive inductive inductive
W reactance reactance
reactance

in. watts watts ohms ohms ohms ohms

24 73-42 8-18 0-08117 01113 0-3105 0-02520 0-00485 0-02035
12 73-44 8-30 008119 0 1127 0-3035 0-02465 0-00425 0-02040
6 73-40" '" 8-42 008115 0-1145 0-2960 0-02400 0-00357 0-02043

NOTE.—For method of obtaining " tan <j> " see Appendix.

 STEEL CONDUCTORS FOR OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION LINES. 1075
alternating current, so. that its heating effect could be reason for this assumption is as follows. If the con-
neglected. The resistance-temperature coefficient for ductors are relatively close together, the external
each of the four grades of material was determined in a magnetic field due to the current in one conductor wilj
separate test by immersing a suitably-constructed coil produce eddy currents in the other conductor. These
of the 12 S.W.G. single conductor in a vessel containing eddy currents will have the effect of distorting the
current distribution and thus the formulae will not
TABLE 7. hold.
Resistance-Temperature Coefficients for the Four Grades It was decided to investigate this point, the object
Of Material Tested. being to determine the spacing at which this effect
becomes appreciable. Two samples of steel conductor
Grade of material Resistance-temperature coefficient of the largest available diameter were therefore selected,
(per degree C , from and at 20" C )
one being stranded and the other solid, and measurements
of effective a.c. resistance and internal inductive re-
AH. 0-00362 actance were made at various spacings. In the case of
A.S. 0-00369 the effective a.c. resistance values when the spacing was
C.H. 0-00475 such that the conductors were only separated by one
C.S. 0'00455 thickness of paper, a correction was necessary due to
the increased temperature-rise of the conductors. This
temperature-rise was measured approximately by means
oil. The oil was maintained at various steady tem- of an accurate alcohol thermometer placed in contact
peratures by means of an outer vessel containing water, with the conductors. The results of these tests are
and resistance .measurements were made by means of given in Tables 8 and 9.
the Kelvin dbub'le bridge. The results obtained are It will be noted that as the spacing was reduced, no
given in Table 7. Thus from the initial and final d.c. apparent increase in either the effective a.c. resistance

TABLE a.
Measurement of Effective A .C. Resistance of a Definite Length [about 60 //•.) of Galvanized Steel Conductor, at Different
Spacings.

Increase in value of effective a.c. resistance in

test (4) over average of values in (1), (2) aftd (S)
Measured
Test No. Particulars of conductor Spacing Power loss temperature of
conductor Calculated Amount due Amount due
from power to higher to distortion
loss as temperature of of current
measured conductor in (4) distribution

in watts °C. per cent per cent per cent

r
12 73-44 30-2
(1) 6 73-40 30-2
7/12 S.W.G. Grade A.S. 73-38 30-2
(2) < with current of 30-08 2* > 2-77 1-38 l-3ft
(3) amps, at 50 cycles One thickness of
(4) paper between !• 75-44 34-3
conductors J
r
12 59-61 330
(1) 6 59-66 330
8 S.W G. Grade A.S. with 59-59
(2) < current of 14*96 amps 24 330 . 3-98 2-97 101
(3) \ at 50 cycles One thickness of
paper between L 61-99 42 0
conductors

resistance values.the temperature-rise of the conductor
above air temperature .was calculated.
(7) EFFECT OF SPACING ON EFFECTIVE A.C. RESISTANCE
AND INTERNAL INDUCTIVE REACTANCE VALUES.
An assumption with regard to the spacing of the con-
ductors is necessary in order to arrive at the formulae
for effective a.c. resistance and total self-inductance,
previously, referred to. One way of appreciating the
or internal inductive reactance was obtained until the
spacing was such that the conductors were only separated
by a thickness of paper. Even at this spacing the
increase in effective a.c. resistance was only very
slight.
The important conclusion to be drawn from these
results is that since the main tests were carried out with
a spacing, of 12 in,., the samples were tested under
practical conditions as regards spacing.
1076 WALTON: THE ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF GALVANIZED
(8) OBSERVATIONS ON T E S T RESULTS. highest selected current value up to that of
Referring to the main test results given in Tables 4 the corresponding " 45-ton quality " samples
and 5 and the curves in Figs. 13 to 16:— (A.S. and A.H.).
(d) The only samples for which the values of effective
(a) The wide variations in effective a.c. resistance and a.c. resistance or internal inductive reactance
internal inductive reactance over the selected reach a maximum within the range of current
ranges of current values show the necessity for values selected are the No. 8 S.W.G. conductors
actual measurements. of conductivity quality (C.S. and C.H.). These
(b) Considering the values of the " a.c. to d.c. resistance maxima probably correspond to the maximum
ratio " and internal inductive reactance for the values of magnetic permeability for the materials.
four samples of any one size but different grades The reason that these maxima only occur in the
of material, it will be noted that the order of case of the No. 8 S.W.G. conductors is explained
these values ranging from highest to lowest is by Table 10, and the magnetic permeability

TABLE 9.

Measurement of Internal Inductive Reactance for a Definite Length (about 60 / / ) of Galvanized Steel Conductor, at
Different Spacings.

Increase
Effective R tan</> Calculated in internal
Particulars Power Internal inductive
of Spacing loss, w a.c W t a n <j> = total external inductive reactance
conducto W resistance, inductive inductive reactance over value
R w reactance reactance at 12 in.
spacing

in. watts watts ohms. ohms ohms ohms per cent

12 73-44 8-30 008119 01127 0-3035 0-02465 0-00425 0-02040 —
«*H
„
o
6 73-40 8-42 008115 01145 0-2960 0-02400 0-00357 0-02043 —
CO a ft 73-38 8-63 008114 01174 0-2833 0-02300 0-00245 0-02055 0-74
o>, 2*
< <u £
fcj
3 00 o •<
One I
co M O o thickness
i-H
TO
o
© of paper > 75-44 9-27 0-08341 01228 0-2590 0-02160 0-00020 002140 4-90
0 CO
-4-1
d
between
•"1 conductors J
r 0-08837 0-00504
12 59-61 6-36 0-2663 0 1065 0-3315 0-08333
*o w 6 59-66 6-40 0-2665 01072 0-3290 0-08765 0-00429 0-08336 —
•4-)
CO ft 59-59 6-44 0-2662 0-1079 0-3250 0-08660 0-00326 0-08334 —
o c 2*
One
S ^
1
O
)H «o o thickness
CO O5
00
|H XI •4* 4J of paper > 61-99 6-77 0-2770 0-1091 0-3200 0-08870 0-00020 0-08850 6-21
O i-H
between
•0
conductors J[
that of grades C.S., C.H., A.S. and A.H. in curves in Fig. 10 show why only the " con-
almost every instance. This order is in agree- ductivity quality" samples of this size are
ment with that of the magnetic permeability affected. From Table 10 it will be noted that
values. In the case of the a.c. to d.c. resistance the value of H at the circumference is greatest for
ratio, the fact that this order does not occur in the No. 8 S.W.G. conductors, while Fig. 10 shows
every instance is probably due to the differences that the maximum value of the magnetic per-
in hysteresis loss per cycle for the four grades meability is attained at a lower value of H for
of material. the " conductivity quality " grades of material
(c) In view of the above-mentioned order in the than for the " 45-ton quality " grades.
values of a.c. to d.c. resistance ratio and internal (e) The ratio of a.c. to d.c. resistance is, from the
inductive reactance, it would appear that values given in the test results, much less at
grade A.H. is the most suitable of the four 25 cycles than at 50 cycles. This is in general
grades of material tested, as it also possesses agreement with the fundamental formulae which
a high tensile strength. It will be noted that may be used to compute the ratio in the case of
the high values of the a.c. to d.c. resistance conductors of a non-magnetic material. It was
ratio for the " conductivity quality " samples considered advisable to obtain values of the
(C.S. and C.H.) are in some cases sufficient to a.c. to d.c. resistance ratio over a range of
bring their effective a.c. resistance at the frequencies for one particular sample at a
 STEEL CONDUCTORS FOR OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION LINES. 1077
definite current value. The curve obtained APPENDIX.
from these results is reproduced in Fig. 18 and A METHOD OF MEASURING THE POWER FACTOR OF A
it will be noted that it approximates very CIRCUIT ACCURATELY WHEN IT IS VERY CLOSE TO
closely to a. straight line for the range of UNITY.
frequency 0-60 cycles.
This method is very convenient and accurate when a
TABLE 10. standard wattmeter is available. The fixed coils of the
instrument are so connected up as to carry the main
Comparison between Values of H at Circumference, for current of the circuit in the usual manner. The pressure
each Stze of Conductor, Corresponding to Highest coil is connected as shown in Fig. 19. It will be noted
Current Value in the Selected Range.
»-t-» y M
i v • I
Corresponding
Overall diameter Highest current value of H at Non-inductive
Size of conductor in selected range circumference resistance
of conductor

S.WG. cm amps
7/12 0-875 30 13-7
7/14 0-661 20 12-1
7/15 0-600 15 100
8 0-407 15 14-7
12 0-264 7 10-6
14 0-203 5 9-9
15 0-183 5 10-9
FIG. 19.
(/) It will be noted that for any particular sample that when Kx is closed and K2 open the pressure coil is
and current value, the internal self-inductance directly connected to the voltage leads of the circuit in
at 25 cycles is greater than at 50 cycles. This the usual manner. Let the wattmeter reading with
again is in general agreement with the funda- this connection be W. With K t open and K2 closed
mental formulae which may be used for con- the pressure coil and the inductive coil are in parallel
ductors of non-magnetic material.
The work described in this paper was carried out by
the author in the Department of Electrical Engineering,

1-40

c!-20

FIG. 20.
and connected through the non-inductive resistance to
the voltage leads. Let the reading with this new
connection be w.
Eeferring to Figs. 19 and 20 and using the j notation,
20 40 60
Frequency, in cycles p e r s e c . VP , . VP
F I G . 18.—No. 8 S.W.G. solid steel c o n d u c t o r , g r a d e A . S . and tr =
current value = 14-96 amperes.
or tp — and ir =
r\ rl + (co£2)2
Liverpool University. The samples on which the tests
were carried out were supplied by Messrs. Rylands Let r\ + (coXj)2 = z\ and r\ + (o>L2)2 = z\
Brothers, Ltd., Warrington, together with the test Then, component of i in phase with Vp
results for the chemical analyses and mechanical
properties, and the micro-photographs.
The author's thanks are due to the Faculty of En-
gineering and Prof. E. W. Marchant, D.Sc, Member, and component of i 90° out of phase with Vp
for permission to publish these results, and also to the
latter for his valuable help and advice both during the
course of the work and in the preparation of this paper. zi
1078 WALTON: ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF GALVANIZED STEEL CONDUCTORS.

Thus, component of V in phase with Vj> From equations (1) and (2) we have
,w VI cos (0 -f 6)
X
W + F2)* VI cos {<f> -
and component of V 90° out of phase with Vp
1 COS ((f> + 6)

cos (<£ _
= - RVP( ^ + ^
Let w/W'?= x\
cos ^ cos 6 — sin ^ sin Q
Then + F2 = 7 r~,—• ± •—7
= RVP{X2 + cos <p cos i/r+ sin-0 sin ip
cos 6 — tan <£ sin 6
cos 1^ + tan (f> sin </r
where
\ *? & *7

\K ZJY Z And finally, tan *

r = ——Q —,,_,.,:, „.>•
sm 8 + i?a;-\/(Z2 + F2) sin
and L, coL,

T2)-i and »P =
Also
RZ\z\
tana=-=
\*.
2
^22 -f

FIG. 21. FIG. 22.

Thus- a can be calculated for a circuit of which the
constants'are known, and, since 6 = a — ifj, 6 also can
be evaluated.
Referring to Fig. 21; this represents the conditions
when the wattmeter reading is W.
Let / = main current in circuit.
V = potential difference across circuit,
cos (f> = power factor of circuit.
i = current in wattmeter pressure coil.
ip = small -phase angle * between voltage and
current in pressure c'ojl.
y instruments, of which the ammeter and volt-
Then Woe — / c o s (0 —_.ip)_
Eeferring now to Fig. 22, which represents the con-
ditions when the wattmeter reading,
id oc ipl cos (<f> + 6)
Since 6, i/r, JB, X and Y are known or can be calculated,
tan <f) can be expressed in terms of x only. By means
of this expression tan ^ may be determined from'the
two wattmeter readings W and w.
The chief advantages of this method over the usual
wattmeter, ammeter and voltmeter method are briefly:—
(a) For each value of (f> only two readings of a very
accurate standard wattmeter are required
instead of spreading from each of three different
(1) meter would certainly not be as accurate as the
standard wattmeter.
(b) This method gives a direct measurement of tan <f>,
whereas the usual method giyes cos <f>. Now
when <f> is small, {dfd^>) tan <j> is much greater
than {d/d(f>) cos <f) and thus the accuracy with this
method will be a great-deal higher than with
(2) the us,ual method.