Furnace design and

operation

Fuels
Fuels
 Choice of fuel is a critical decision in the furnace design process,
especially since fuel is one of the highest costs of subsequent
furnace operation
 Fuel choice also has a major impact on furnace performance and
the capital cost of the overall installation
 Properties of a fuel that influence its use include
 Availability and cost
 Calorific value
 Flammability limits
 Density of the fuel, especially gaseous and liquid fuels
 Emissivity of flame produced
 Chemical composition and the products of the combustion process
 Ash content and composition (principally for solid fuels)
 Effect of products of combustion on the product
Fuels
 Generally, but not exclusively, fuels are hydrocarbon based
 Non-hydrocarbon fuels include
 hydrogen
 carbon monoxide
 ethanol
 methanol
 many of the so called bio-derived fuels
 materials such as sulphide ores, while not normally considered to be fuels,
release heat when oxidised and contribute significant energy to the process
 Fuels may be gases, liquids or solids and may occur naturally or be
manufactured, or in the case of bio-fuels, grown
 Even naturally occurring fuels generally require some processing
prior to use
 It is conventional and convenient to classify fuels by their physical
state, i.e. gases, liquids and solids
Gaseous fuels
 Gases may be natural or manufactured, the latter generally from
oil, coal or bio-mass (wood)
 Both natural and manufactured fuels vary widely in chemical
composition and physical characteristics
 Natural gas is the most common gaseous fuel, used extensively in
industrial, commercial and domestic applications
 Manufactured gases, such as towns gas, was once dominant in the
industrial world, but the relative expense means that they lost
ground to natural gas
Natural gas
 Although the basis of natural gas is methane, the actual
composition depends both on the composition in the reservoir and
the degree of treatment that occurs
 Natural deposits of gas typically contain higher hydrocarbons, as
well as CO2, N2, H2S, etc
Property North Groningen Kansas South Coal Bed
Sea Missouri Australia Methane
CH4 (%) 94.4 81.8 84.1 91.25 98.0
C2H6 (%) 3.0 2.7 6.7 4.53 -
C3H8 (%) 0.5 0.4 - 0.54 -
Higher CxHy (%) 0.4 0.2 - -
N2 (%) 1.5 14.0 8.4 1.4 1.5
CO2 (%) 0.2 0.9 0.8 2.0 0.5
Relative Density 0.589 0.641 0.63 0.612 0.566
(air =1)
3
CV gross (MJ/m ) 38.62 33.28 36.13 38.32 37.0
3 3
Air Req (m /m ) 9.751 8.402 9.16 9.644 9.33
3
Wobbe No (MJ/m ) 50.322 41.568 45.522 48.99 49.2
Manufactured gases
 Produced as a by-product of many chemical and metallurgical
processes. These off-gases are usually utilised as fuels within the
plant
 Propane and butane (LPG), are by-products of oil refining and
natural gas treatment, and are widely distributed by tanker and
used as both transport fuels and furnace fuel
Properties Blast Coke Producer Refinery Lean Lurgi Commercial
Furnace Oven Coal Gas Reformer Crude Propane
Gas Gas Gas Gas Syngas
CH4 (%) - 28 2.6 42.9 22.7 10.3 -
C2H6 (%) 18.7 5.0 - 1.5
C3H8 (%) 4.2 - - 91.0
Higher CxHy (%) - 2 0.4 9.3 0.4 0.6 7.5
CO 24 7.4 29 0.6 2.2 24.4 -
H2 2.5 54 12 21.5 53.7 37.3 -
N2 (%) 56 5.6 52 2.8 - 1.8 -
CO2 (%) 17.5 2 4 - 16.0 25.6 -
O2 . (%) 0.4 - - - - -
Relative Density 1.04 0.38 0.87 0.69 0.593 0.732 1.523
(real air =1)
3
CV gross (MJ/m ) 3.18 19.89 6.14 44.75 18.92 11.76 93.87
3 3
Air Req (m /m )* 0.631 4.572 1.28 10.92 4.398 2.556 23.762
3
Wobbe No (MJ/m ) 3.118 32.266 6.583 53.865 27.196 13.745 76.064
Manufactured gases
 The data in the tables show that a combustion system designed for
one type of gas is unlikely to operate satisfactorily on a different
gas
 Gases are broadly divided into rich and lean. Rich gases have
higher calorific values, generally above 20-25 MJ/m3, while lean
gases occupy the lower end of the scale
 A major consideration is the energy relative to the density because
this affects the heat release rate of a burner. This property is
encapsulated in the Wobbe Number or Wobbe Index
Wobbe number
 Most burners supply the gas through a fixed nozzle, thus the flow
rate will vary with the density
 The Wobbe number or index is used to compare different gases

WI = CV/ SG0.5

CV = the higher or gross calorific value in MJ/m3 or BTU/ft3

SG = the specific density relative to air
 Gases of similar Wobbe Number will produce the same heat release
in a furnace when supplied through the same nozzle with similar
supply pressure
Gaseous fuel calculator
Basic Physical ,Chemical & Combustion Data for Mixed Composition Gases

Program name GASPROP Issue 2 Date

Job reference
Date
Stream name / number. Refinery gas

Gas Mole fraction Molecular Mass Gross CV Nett CV Stoiciometric Flue gas Flue gas Flue gas Flue gas Flue gas Laminar
w eight fraction air N2 CO2 H2O SO2 Ar flame speed
requirement factor

H2 0.215 0.4334271 0.0216932 69.746 58.996 0.5121515 0.4046515 0.215 72.885

O2 0 0 0

Ar 0 0 0

N2 0.028 0.7843752 0.0392582 0.028

C0 0.006 0.168063 0.0084116 1.9248 1.9308 0.0142926 0.0112926 0.006 0.366

CO2 0 0 0

CH4 0.429 6.882447 0.3444685 433.5045 390.6045 4.0876836 3.2296836 0.429 0.858 63.492

C2H6 0.187 5.62309 0.2814373 331.0274 302.9774 3.1181689 2.4636689 0.374 0.561 56.287

C3H8 0.042 1.8520782 0.0926971 105.8064 97.4064 1.000482 0.790482 0.126 0.168 16.716

n-C4H10 0.006 0.3487446 0.0174548 19.5816 18.6816 0.1858038 0.1468038 0.024 0.03 3.078

i-C4H10 0.005 0.2906205 0.0145456 16.318 15.568 0.1548365 0.1223365 0.02 0.025 2.565

n-C5H12 0.003 0.2164533 0.0108336 12.048 11.148 0.1143408 0.0903408 0.015 0.018 1.827

i-C5H12 0.002 0.1443022 0.0072224 8.016 7.418 0.0762272 0.0602272 0.01 0.012 1.104

22-C5H12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Flammability
 For a gas flame to self-propagate following initial ignition the
mixture must be within certain limits of fuel and air (oxygen)
 Outside of these limits the reaction does not propagate from the
ignition source and the flame ‘goes out’
 These limits are not absolute values and depend on the size and
shape for the vessel containing the mixture and the direction of
propagation
Flammability limits
 Minimum Flammable Concentration
 The minimum concentration or Lower Limit of flammable material which, when
suspended in air (or other oxidant), is capable of ignition and explosion

 Maximum Flammable Concentration

 The maximum concentration or Upper Limit of flammable material which, when
suspended in air (or other oxidant), is capable of ignition and explosion
 Maximum Permissible Oxygen Concentration to Prevent Ignition
 If the mixture contains insufficient oxygen then an explosion cannot be
propagated. The maximum oxygen concentration at which an explosion cannot
be propagated is determined by creating a mixture of the flammable substance
and an inert gas and adding oxygen until an explosion occurs. The effectiveness
of an inert depends on its molar heat capacity, the greater heat capacity, the
more effective the inert, hence steam is more effective than CO2 which is more
effective than N2
Flammability limits
Property Hydrogen Carbon Methane Ethane Propane Butane
Monoxide
Lower limit (%) 4.0 12.5 5.0 3.0 2.1 1.8
Upper limit (%) 75 74 15.0 12.4 9.5 8.4
Maximum safe 5.0 5.6 12.1 11.0 11.4 12.1
oxygen in N2 (%)

 The limits of mixtures of gases can be calculated using Le

Chatelier’s rule

Lmix = 100/(P1/L1 + P2/L2 + P3/L3 + … + Pn/Ln)

Umix = 100/(P1/U1 + P2/U2 + P3/U3 + … + Pn/Un)

Where: P1, P2, P3 … Pn are the percentages of gases 1,2,3 etc, L1, L2, L3 are
their lower flammable limits, and U1, U2, U3 are their upper flammable limits
Flammability limits
 Limits of flammability for most
combustible/oxidant systems
widen with elevated
temperature and pressure
 Increasing temperature widens
the limits until the auto–
ignition temperature is reached
when almost all mixtures will
react without any additional
ignition source

Figure 3.1 Combustion Characteristics of Methane

Liquid fuels
 Most liquid fuels are based on petroleum and, although in the past,
liquid fuels have been produced from coal tars which were a by-
product of coal gasification plants, such fuels are nowadays rarely
available
 Oil fuels are produced by the refining of crude oil and are classified
as distillate fuels (white oils), such as kerosene and diesel oil, or
residual fuels (black oils). The latter come in a range of viscosities
and are classified differently in different countries
 Residual fuels such as heavy fuel oil have to be heated to render
them pumpable and to reduce the viscosity to enable atomisation
Liquid fuels

Properties Light Kerosene Gas oil Medium* Heavy*

Distillate Fuel Oil Fuel Oil
C (%) 84.1 85.8 86.1 85.6 85.4
H (%) 15.85 14.1 13.2 11.5 11.4
S (%) 0.05 0.1 0.7 2.6 2.8
O2, N2, Ash - - - 0.3 0.4
o
Flash point ( C) Below -30 40 70 105 115
Kinematic viscosity 0.5 2.1 5.0 - -
o
(15.6 C) (cSt)
Kinematic viscosity - - 1.4 30 70
o
(82.2 C) (CSt)
3
Density kg/m 0.68 0.78 0.83 0.95 0.96
o
(1 atm, 15.6 C)
CV gross (MJ/kg) 47.8 46.5 45.6 43.1 42.9
Air Req (Kg/kg) 15.09 14.69 14.44 13.88 13.85
* These properties are illustrative only; actual properties depend on source of crude oil and refining/reforming processes used.
Viscosity
 One of the most common
causes of poor oil burner
performance is too high an oil
viscosity at the burner caused
by inadequate heating of the
oil
 The viscosity required for
satisfactory atomisation is in
the order of 15-25 cSt
Solid fuels
 Solid fuels include charcoal, coke, anthracite, coal, lignite, peat and
wood, in order of decreasing calorific value
 Calorific value affects the quantity of fuel required, the lower the CV
the greater mass of fuel required for firing a furnace and also the
lower the flame temperature produced
 The volatile content, ash content, ash composition, reactivity, ease
or difficulty of handling, and the variability of the fuel all affect their
performance in a furnace
 Solid fuels are generally the lowest cost of all fuels
 The complexity and range of solid fuels means that only superficial
consideration of their properties is possible in this course
Solid fuels
1 2
Properties Anthracite Bituminous Lignite Wood Charcoal Industrial
Coal Coke
*C (%) 93.0 87.5 70 50.0 93.0 96.5
*H (%) 3.7 5.3 5 6.0 2.5 0.5
*N2 (%) 1.3 1.9 2 1.0 1.5 2.0-3.0
*S (%) 0.7 1.0 - trace trace Up to 1.0
*O2 (%) 1.3 4.3 23 43.0 3.0 1.0
*Volatile (%) 5 35 53 80 1.0 1.0
*CV gross (MJ/kg) 36.25 36.05 26.8 18.65 34.75 33.7
CV gross (MJ/kg) 29.0 29.92 21.45 15.8 33.71 27.97
(comm.. fuel as fired)
Air Req (Kg/kg) 10.05 9.74 7.09 5.10 11.11 9.58
Moisture (%) 12 9 15-20 15 2 8-12
Ash (%) 8 8 1-5 trace 1 7
*
Properties are dry ash free basis, except moisture, ash and air requirements which are for typical commercial fuel.
1
Mid rank coal (401),
2
Lignite deposits typically contain 20-65% moisture, commercial form is normally dried and pulverised or briquetted
Solid and liquid fuels
calculator
Fuel Calculation for Solid and Liquid Fuels from Ultimate Analysis

Program name COMBUST Issue 3 Date 29-Oct-08

Job reference
Date
Stream name / number. Heavy fuel oil

Fuel ash % 0.25 dry basis

Fuel moisture % 0.10 w et basis

Fuel composition dmmf basis

Component Mass % CO2 H2O O2 N2 SO2 O2 required As fired basis

C 85.40 3.12918 2.27733 3.11822
H 11.40 1.01878 0.912 1.01522
O 0.10 0.0005 -0.0005
N 0.30 0.0015 0.00149
S 2.80 0.0559466 0.028 0.05575
Total 100 3.21683

Equivalent nitrogen in air 10.4999 10.4631

Equivalent argon in air 0.17794 0.17732
Equivalent CO2 in air 0.00695 0.00693
Stoichiometric air requirement 13.9016 mass/mass 13.853 mass/mass
Derived solid fuels
 In the past much effort was made to reduce the limitations of solid
fuels by upgrading them either by carbonisation or gasification.
Current concerns over global warming has revived much of this
technology as a route to cleaner fuels
 Charcoal burning is one of the earliest and the longest standing
techniques for upgrading fuel, having been undertaken since pre-
historic times
 During charcoal burning the volatiles are driven off and the residual
carbon left behind. When done correctly, this residual carbon is highly
reactive and burns readily and the calorific value is nearly doubled
typically from approximately 18-19 MJ/kg to over 34 MJ/kg
Derived solid fuels
 Industrial coke formed by upgrading bituminous coal in a similar
manner to making charcoal has only just over 80% of the heating
value of charcoal
 Petroleum coke is the solid residue from the refining of crude oil. It
is sold in two grades, green coke containing ~10-15% volatiles, and
dead burnt coke containing <5% volatiles
 The calorific value of petroleum coke varies from 30-40 MJ/kg,
depending on the grade
 Petroleum coke usually contains residual alumina and trace heavy
metals (e.g. vanadium) as a result of catalyst degradation in the
refining process
Alternative fuels
 There are two basic types of alternative fuels
 By product fuels e.g. paper and cardboard, wood waste and bark
 Waste derived fuels e.g. plastic chippings, domestic garbage, recovered
solvents, spent transformer oil, sewage sludge
 Wastes may be upgraded to improve their combustion and
environmental performance or used in their raw state
 Except in purpose built incinerators, wastes are rarely burnt alone,
but in combination with a normal fuel
 Many wastes have higher combustion air requirements per net MJ
of energy and similarly produce larger flue gas volumes. Unless the
furnace can handle these larger volumes a production loss is
inevitable.
Alternative fuels
 Substitution of a waste derived fuel for the standard fuel will
inevitably change the heat release profile. Common effects include
raising or lowering the peak heat flux, and moving its position in
the flame
 Most wastes are more difficult to handle than conventional fuels so
the relative capital cost of an effective waste fuel handling system
will be higher than for a conventional fuel
 Waste burning usually requires a special licence, and raises the
public profile of the plant