APPLIED THERMAL ENGINEERING

(FUELS AND COMBUSTION)

II YEAR Mechanical
4th Semester
December 2019 – May 2020

Dr DEEPAKKUMAR R
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
SRMIST, Kattankulathur
 Contents
• Fuel Types
• Stoichiometry
• Exhaust gas analysis
• First law analysis of combustion reaction
• Heat Calculations
• Adiabatic flame temperature

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 Fuel

• Chemical Energy heat energy

A substance (carbon, hydrogen, sulphur,etc )

burning in presence of O2 or Air

heat + combusted products (CO, CO2,H2O,SO2 )

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 Types?
• According to the physical state : Solid, liquid and Gaseous
• According to the mode of procurement : natural and manufactured
Natural Fuels Manufactured Fuels
Solid Fuels
Wood Tanbark, Bagasse, Straw
Coal Charcoal
Oil shale Coke
Briquettes
Liquid Fuels
Petroleum Oils from distillation of petroleum
Coal tar
Shale-oil
Alcohols, etc.
Gaseous Fuels
Natural gas Coal gas
Producer gas
Water gas
Hydrogen
Acetylene
Blast furnace gas
Oil gas

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 Solid Fuels : Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
• easy to transport.
• convenient to store without any risk of spontaneous explosion.
• production cost is low.
• posses moderate ignition temperature.
Disadvantages
• ash content is high.
• wastage of heat is large .
• burn with clinker formation.
• control of combustion is not easy.
• handling cost is high.

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 Liquid Fuels : Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
• higher calorific value per unit mass than solid fuels.
• burn without dust, ash, clinkers, etc.
• firing is easier, fire can be extinguished easily by stopping liquid fuel supply.
• Loss of heat in chimney is very low due to greater cleanliness.
• require less excess air for complete combustion.
• require less furnace space for combustion.
Disadvantages
• cost of liquid fuel is relatively much higher as compared to solid fuel.
• special storage tanks are required for storing liquid fuels.
• greater risk of fire hazards, particularly, in case of highly inflammable and volatile
liquid fuels.
• For efficient burning of liquid fuels, specially constructed burners and spraying
apparatus are required.

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 Gaseous Fuels : Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
• can be conveyed easily through pipelines to the actual place of need
• can be lighted at ease.
• high heat contents and hence having higher combustion temperature.
• control of combustion is easy w.r.t. change in demand like oxidizing or reducing
atmosphere, length flame, temperature, etc.
• do not require any special burner.
• burn without any shoot, or smoke and ashes.
• They are free from impurities found in solid and liquid fuels.
Disadvantages
• Very large storage tanks are needed.
• highly inflammable, so chances of fire hazards is high.

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 Composition of coal
The usual ways of determining the composition of coal are:
(i) By proximate analysis (commercial purposes as it furnishes data regarding
commercial important properties of coal)
(ii) By ultimate analysis (used for calculative and scientific work)
The proximate analysis consists of determining:
• Moisture content
• Volatile matter
• Fixed carbon
• Ash
The ultimate analysis consists of determining the percentages of the ultimate
constituents:
• Carbon
• Hydrogen
• Oxygen
• Sulphur
• Nitrogen
• Ash

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 Conversion volumetric analysis into gravimetric analysis

• The conversion of volume percentage to mass percentage is referred as conversion

of volumetric analysis to gravimetric analysis.
• If the volumetric analysis of a mixture is known, it can easily be converted into
gravimetric (mass) analysis by using the relation

mi = ni Mi
where, mi = mass of the ith constituent
ni = number of moles of the ith constituent
Mi = molar mass (molecular weight) of the ith constituent

The following steps should be taken into consideration for such conversion.
1. Start with volume percentage of each constituent.
2. Multiply the volume percentage of each constituent by its molecular
weight.
3. Take the sum of products of the step 2 above.
4. Find the percentage analysis by mass as (mi/Ʃmi ) * 100

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 Conversion volumetric analysis into gravimetric analysis

The percentage analysis of a gas by volume is given as

C02 = 5.5 % ; C0 = 38.3 % ; CH4 = 0.4 % ; 02 = 0.1 % ; H2 = 52.8 %; N2 = 2.9 % .
Obtain the percentage analysis by mass.
Solution

Constituent % Volume molecular Mass % Mass in mixture =

(ni) weight (Mi) mi = ni Mi (mi/Ʃmi ) * 100

CO2 5.5 44 242 16.02

CO 38.3 28 1072.4 70.98
CH4 0.4 16 6.4 0.423
O2 0.1 32 3.2 0.211
H2 52.8 2 105.6 6.99
N2 2.9 28 81.2 5.37
Ʃmi = 1510.8 100%

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 Conversion gravimetric analysis into volumetric analysis

• Reverse of volumetric analysis to gravimetric analysis.

• The conversion of mass fraction to mole fraction.
• Generally applied to gaseous fuel.
• If the gravimetric analysis (mass) of a mixture is known, it can easily be converted
into volumetric analysis by using the relation

ni = mi / Mi
where, mi = mass of the ith constituent
ni = number of moles of the ith constituent
Mi = molar mass (molecular weight) of the ith constituent
The following steps should be taken into consideration for such conversion.
1. Start with mass percentage of each constituent.
2. Divide the mass percentage of each constituent by its molecular
weight.
3. Take the sum of quotients of the step 2 above.
4. Find the percentage analysis by volume as (ni/Ʃni ) * 100

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 Conversion gravimetric analysis into volumetric analysis

A gaseous mixture contains CO2 = 16 % ; C0 = 1 % ; O2= 8 % and N2 = 75 % by mass.

Convert this gravimetric analysis into volumetric analysis

Solution

Constituent Mass molecular No of moles % Volume in mixture

fraction weight (Mi) ni = mi / Mi =
(mi) (ni/Ʃni ) * 100
CO2 16 44 242 10.93
CO 1 28 1072.4 1.04
O2 8 32 3.2 7.50
N2 75 28 81.2 80.53
Ʃni = 3.327 100%

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 Combustion Terminologies
Reactants The component of the fuel that exist before the combustion reaction.
Products The components that exist after combustion reaction are called the
products.
Chemical reaction
Reactants Product
Heat Release
Combustion The combustion is an exothermic process in which the rapid oxidation of
combustible elements of a fuel takes place with release of heat energy. The
combustion is called the complete combustion when all the carbon present in the fuel
is burned to carbon dioxide, all the hydrogen is burned to water vapour, all the sulphur
is burned to sulphur dioxide and all other combustible elements are fully oxidised.
When these conditions are not fulfilled or the constituents of fuel are not fully
oxidised then combustion is called incomplete combustion.
Ignition Temperature The intimate contact of fuel and oxygen cannot initiate the
combustion process. The fuel must be brought to its ignition temperature to start the
combustion. The ignition temperature of a fuel element is the lowest temperature at
which it starts burning.
gasolene = 260°C, carbon = 400°C, hydrogen = 580°C, carbon monoxide = 610°C and
methane = 630°C.

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 Physical laws of Combustion
There are certain physical laws on which the analysis of combustion process is based.
Law of Conservation of Mass
During a chemical reaction, the mass is conserved, that is, the mass of the reactants
equals the mass of the products. The total mass of each chemical element must be
same on both sides of the equation even though the elements exist in different
chemical compositions in reactants and products.
However, the number of moles of products may differ from the number of moles of
reactants.
For Example
1H2 + 0.5 O2 => H2O
By introducing the molar masses,
2Kg of H2 + 16 Kg of O2 => 18 Kg of H2O
Hence, mass of reactant is equal to mass of products.
When using number of moles,
1 mole of H2 + 0.5 mole O2 => 1 mole of H2O
Thus, number of moles of the product differ from no of moles of reactant

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 Physical laws of Combustion

Ideal Gas Law

All the combustion equations follow the ideal gas equation and general gas equation.

p V = n Ru T
Where, n = number of moles of a gas
Ru = universal gas constant = 8314.3 J/Kmol K
V = molar volume (m3/Kmol)

Avagadros’ Law
It states that molecular mass of all perfect gases occupy the same volume under
similar condition of pressure and temperature.

At NTP, the molar volume

Vo = n Ru T / P

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 Basic combustion reactions
Combustion of solid fuel
Generally the solid and liquid fuels consists of Carbon , Hydrogen and Sulphur. The
product of combustion may be CO, CO2, H2O, SO2 .
The basic combustion reactions for these three elements are following.
Incomplete combustion:
2C + O2 2CO
By introducing the molar masses,
(2*12) Kg of C + 32 Kg of O2 56 Kg of CO
Or
1 Kg of C + (4/3) Kg of O2 (7/3) Kg of CO
It indicates 1 Kg of C requires 4/3 Kg of O2 to produce 7/3 Kg of CO
Intermediate combustion:
2CO + O2 2CO2
By introducing the molar masses,
(56) Kg of C + 32 Kg of O2 88 Kg of CO
Or
1 Kg of CO + (4/7) Kg of O2 (11/7) Kg of CO2
It indicates 1 Kg of CO requires 4/7 Kg of O2 to produce 11/7 Kg of CO2

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 Basic combustion reactions
Combustion of solid fuel
Complete combustion:
C + O2 CO2
By introducing the molar masses,
12 Kg of C + 32 Kg of O2 44 Kg of CO
Or
1 Kg of C + (8/3) Kg of O2 (11/3) Kg of CO2
It indicates 1 Kg of C requires 8/3 Kg of O2 to produce 11/3 Kg of CO2

Burning of sulphur:
S + O2 SO2
By introducing the molar masses,
32 Kg of S + 32 Kg of O2 64 Kg of SO2
Or
1 Kg of S + 1 Kg of O2 2 Kg of SO2
It indicates 1 Kg of S requires 1 Kg of O2 to produce 2 Kg of SO2

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 Basic combustion reactions
Combustion of solid fuel

Burning of hydrogen:
2H + 0.5 O2 H 2O
By introducing the molar masses,
2 Kg of H+ 16Kg of O2 18 Kg of H2O
Or
1 Kg of H + 8 Kg of O2 (9/8) Kg of H2O
It indicates 1 Kg of H requires 8 Kg of O2 to produce (9/8) Kg of H2O

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 Basic combustion reactions
Combustion of gaseous fuel
In gaseous fuels the volumes or number of moles may be substituted for gas elements.
Burning of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide;
2 mole of CO + 1 mole of O2 2 mole of CO2

1 volume of CO + (1/2) volume of O2 1 volume of CO2

Or
It indicates 1 volume of CO requires 1/2 volume of O2 to produce 1 volume of CO2
Burning of hydrogen gas:
2H + 0.5 O2 H2O

1 mole of H2+ (1/2) mole of O2 1 mole of H2O

Or
1 volume of H2 + (1/2) volume of O2 1 volume of H2O
1 volume of H2 requires 1/2 volume of O2 to produce 1 volume of H2O

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 Basic combustion reactions
Combustion of gaseous fuel
Burning of mash gas (methane)

1 mole of CH4 + 2 mole of O2 1 mole of CO 2 + 2 mole of H2O

By introducing the molar masses,

16 Kg of CH4 + 64 Kg of O2 44 Kg of CO2 + 36 Kg H2O

1 Kg of CH4 + 4 Kg of O2 (11/4) Kg of CO2 + (9/4) Kg H2O

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 3 T’s of combustion
The objective of good combustion is to release all of the heat in the fuel. This is
accomplished by controlling the three T’s of combustion.
(1) temperature high enough to ignite and maintain ignition of the fuel,
(2) turbulence for intimate mixing of the fuel and oxygen, and
(3) time sufficient for complete combustion.
Too much or too little fuel with the available combustion air may potentially result in
unburned fuel and carbon monoxide generation.
A very specific amount of O2 is needed for perfect combustion and some additional
(excess) air is required for ensuring complete combustion.
However, too much excess air will result in heat and efficiency losses.
complete, good and incomplete combustion???
Carbon (C), hydrogen (H2)
burning in presence of O2 or Air

CO2,H2O, N2 CO2, O2,H2O, N2 CO, CO2,H2O, N2

(Complete) (good) (incomplete)

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 Stoichiometry
Minimum Air Required for Complete Combustion of Solid Fuel
• The minimum amount of air that supplies just sufficient oxygen for the complete
combustion of all the carbon, hydrogen and sulphur present in the fuel is called
the theoretical amount of air or stoichiometric air.
• It is also called the chemically correct amount of air required for complete
combustion.
• For 1 kg of fuel consisting of carbon, hydrogen and sulphur, the minimum amount
of O2 required can be obtained with the help of basic combustion. Equations
respectively as
1 kg of carbon requires 8/3 kg of O2
C kg of carbon requires [8C/3] kg 0f O2
Similarly
S kg of sulphur requires (S) kg of O2
H kg of hydrogen requires (8H) kg of O2
Total Oxygen required = (8/3) C + 8 H + S in Kg
Minimum Air Required
= (100/23) [(8/3) C + 8 H + S]
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 Stoichiometry…
Minimum Air Required for Complete Combustion of gases Fuel
Consider 1 m3 of gaseous fuel consisting of CO, H2, CH4, C2H4, etc.
Let the volume of these gases in the mixture be CO m3, H2 m3, CH4 m3
and C2H4 m3, respectively.
the minimum volume of oxygen required for complete combustion
= 0.5 CO + 0.5 H2 + 2 CH4 + 3 C2H4 (m3)
If fuel itself contains O2 m3 of oxygen then volume of oxygen required
for complete combustion
= 0.5 CO + 0.5 H2 + 2 CH4 + 3 C2H4 - O2 (m3)
The atmospheric air contains 21% of oxygen by volume. Hence, the
minimum volume of air required for complete combustion is
Vth = (100/21) [0.5 CO + 0.5 H2 + 2 CH4+ 3 C2H4 - O2] (m3)

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 Stoichiometry…
Excess Air
In actual combustion process, the amount of air supplied is either greater or less than
the theoretical amount. The amount of air actually supplied is usually expressed in
terms of percent of stoichiometric air:
The amount of air in excess, which is necessary to burn fuel completely is called the
excess air. This can be expressed as a per cent excess air in terms of stoichiometric or
theoretical amount of air as
Percent excess air =
(Actual air used -Stoichiometric air required) / Stoichiometric
air required
Similarly, if the actual amount of air supplied is less than the theoretical amount then
it can be expressed as percent deficiency of air. For an example, consider the complete
combustion of methane with 150% of theoretical air (50% excess air).
The balanced chemical equation is
CH4 + 1.5 x 2 (O2 + 3.76 N2) -> CO2 + 2H2O + O2 + 11.28 N2
Here the amount of air per mole of fuel is 1.5 times the theoretical amount.

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 Stoichiometry…
Equivalence ratio
It is the ratio of actual air-fuel ratio to the theoretical air-fuel ratio for complete
combustion. The reactants form a rich mixture when the equivalence ratio is less than
unity. Accordingly, for excess air supplied with fuel, the equivalence ratio is always
greater than unity.

Air Fuel ratio

A frequently used quantity in the analysis of the combustion processes is the air-fuel
ratio. It is usually expressed on mass basis and is defined as the ratio of mass of the air
to the mass of the fuel during combustion process. It is designated as A/F.
A/F = Mass of the air / Mass of fuel
Simply A/F ratio is the equivalent amount of air required for burning of 1 kg of fuel
completely. Air-fuel ratio can also be interpreted on mole basis as the ratio of number
of moles of air to the number of moles of fuel. But the former definition is normally
used.

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 Air Fuel ratio (from flue gas analysis)
When the volumetric analysis of products of combustion is known, then the actual air-
fuel ratio can be obtained by using the following methods:
1. Carbon balance method
2. Hydrogen balance method
3. Carbon Hydrogen balance method
1. Carbon Balance Method
If all carbon present in the fuel burns completely without leaving traces in flue gases
then carbon balance method is used to obtain the actual amount of air used to form
the dry products of combustion.
In this method, the mass of carbon present in the fuel is balanced with mass of carbon
present in the dry flue gases. It is a quite accurate method.
Let C be the mass of carbon in 1 kg of fuel; and CO2 and CO are the masses of carbon
dioxide and carbon monoxide, respectively, formed per kg of flue gases.
Then 1 kg of CO2 contains 3/11 kg of carbon
(because 1 kg of carbon produces 11/13 kg of CO2), and
1 kg of CO contains (3/7) kg of carbon
(because 1 kg of carbon produces 7/3 kg of CO

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 Air Fuel ratio (from flue gas analysis)…
Then the mass of Carbon per kg of dry flue gases
= (3/11) CO2 + (3/7) CO kg/kg of flue gases
The mass of dry flue gases per kg of fuel burnt
m dry flue gases = Mass of carbon present in 1 kg of fuel / Mass of carbon present in 1
kg of flue gases
The mass of vapour formed per kg of fuel during combustion
mH2O = 9 x H2 present per kg of fuel
Then the total mass of dry flue gases per kg of fuel burnt
m flue gases = m dry flue gases + mH2O
Hydrogen Balance Method
When some solid carbon is suspected in combustion products, then the carbon-
balance method cannot give an accurate mass of air used in combustion. In such a
situation, the hydrogen method is used. In the hydrogen-balance method, the mass of
hydrogen in the fuel composition is balanced with the mass of hydrogen per kg of flue
gases.
Carbon-Hydrogen Balance Method
If the Orasat apparatus cannot measure the percentage of nitrogen accurately, the
masses of carbon and hydrogen are balanced in fuel composition and products of
combustion. It is a very accurate method.
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 Exhaust gas analysis (Orsat apparatus)
Principle
The Orsat analysis technique is a quick, simple and inexpensive method for volumetric analysis
of the combustion products. An Orsat gas analyzer uses a chemical absorption technique to
determine mole fractions of CO2, CO and O2 in an exhaust gas. Since it cannot measure H2O
content, the exhaust gas sample is cooled to atmospheric temperature, so most of the water
vapour in the combustion products gets condensed out. Therefore, the Orsat analysis is
treated-as an analysis of the dry combustion products. The Orsat apparatus also does not
detect unburnt hydrocarbons and free hydrogen in the products.

Construction
It consists of a burette, levelling bottle and three pipettes to absorb CO2, O2 and CO. These
pipettes are interconnected by means of a manifold fitted with cocks. Each pipette is also fitted
with a number of small glass tubes to increase the surface area within the pipette. The
measuring burette is surrounded by a water jacket to keep the temperature and density of the
gas constant. The first pipette contains caustic soda (KOH), which absorbs carbon dioxide, the
second pipette contains pyrogallic acid to absorb oxygen content of the gas and third one
contains cuprous chloride to absorb carbon monoxide. Further, the apparatus is also equipped
with a three-way cock to connect the apparatus either to gases or to the atmosphere.

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 Exhaust gas analysis (Orsat apparatus)…

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 Exhaust gas analysis (Orsat apparatus)…
Procedure
A sample of gas is drawn in the measuring burette by lowering the levelling bottle.
The sample of flue gas is taken as 100 cc, and any excess gas is expelled to the atmosphere via
three-way cock.
The cock A is opened and the flue gas is first passed through the first pipette containing KOH,
where CO2 component of the gas is absorbed.
The process is repeated several times to ensure complete absorption of CO2 in the KOH
solution.
The levelling bottom is then lowered to suck the gas back in the measuring burette. The
difference in level of the gas gives the percentage of CO2 by volume in the flue gases.
Now the cock A is closed, the procedure is repeated with the second and third pipettes by
opening cocks B and C, respectively and the volumetric percentage analysis of O2 and CO in the
line gases is measured.
When the percentage of CO2, 02 and CO have been determined then the remaining gas in the
sample is assumed to be nitrogen, N2.
The Orsat apparatus gives the volumetric analysis of dry flue gases, since steam is condensed at
atmospheric temperature. In order to get good approximation, the flue gases must be passed
through absorption pipettes in the same sequence as discussed above.

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 Determination of calorific value of fuel (Dulong’s fomula)

Normally, fuels contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, ash and sulphur.
The nitrogen and ash are inert to the combustion.
The carbon, hydrogen, sulphur and oxygen are participating in the combustion.
Let C, H, O and S be the percentage of these constituents, respectively in the fuel.
The calorific value of these constituents can be obtained from Calorific value Table.
For carbon (C) = 393520 kJ/kmol / 12 kg/kmol = 33,000 kJ/kg
For hydrogen (H) = 286043/2 = 143000 kJ/kg (HCV)
= 242000/2 = 121000 kJ/kg (LCV)
For Sulphur(S) = 293120/32 = 9160 kJ/kg (HCV)
Heat produced after complete combustion
HCV = 33000 C + 9160 S + 143000 (H-O/8) KJ/Kg
Where, C,S,H and O are % constituents in 1 Kg of fuel.
LCV = 33000 C + 9160 S + 121000 (H-O/8) KJ/Kg

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 Determination of calorific value of fuel (Bomb calorimeter)

The calorific value of powdered and liquid fuels is determined at constant

volume in the bomb calorimeter.
It resembles the shape of a bomb, and thus it is known as the bomb
calorimeter.
Construction
The fuel is burnt in a strong steel chamber, known as bomb, which is
immersed in a known mass of water. The fuel sample is placed in a crucible
inside the bomb, which is tilled with oxygen under a pressure above 25 atm.
It is then ignited by an electrically heated platinum wire. The combustion
thus takes place at constant volume, the fuel burns almost in a constant-
pressure environment due to the high pressure of oxygen. To reduce any
losses of heat, the calorimeter is also provided with additional water jacket
and air. A motor-driven stirrer is used to keep the water temperature uniform
around the bomb and an accurate thermometer (Beckman type) is immersed
in water to measure the temperature accurately.

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 Determination of calorific value of fuel (Bomb calorimeter)

Procedure A known quantity of fuel sample as a briquette is placed into the

crucible and a fuse wire is connected with the electrodes. The bomb is then
placed in a calorimeter with a weighed quantity of water. After making
necessary connections, the stirrer is started and temperature measurements
are taken every minute. At the end of the fifth minute, a charge is fired and
temperature readings are taken carefully every 10 seconds during this period.
When the temperature readings begin to fall, the frequency of readings may
be reduced to one every minute.
After experimentation, the bomb is taken out from its housing. The products
of combustion are released through the release valve. Then it is opened, and
the unburnt fuse wire, if any, is collected and weighed. A temperature-time
curve is plotted. The measured temperature rise is corrected for various
losses. The allowance for combustion of fuse wire is determined from the
weight of the fuse and its known calorific value. The water equivalence of a
calorimeter must be used in calculation to accommodate its allowance.

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Determination of calorific value of fuel (Bomb calorimeter)…

The heat released by combustion of fuel is absorbed by water surrounding the bomb and
calorimeter. Thus an energy balance yields to
Mass of fuel * calorific value + mass of fuse wire burn * calorific value of fuse wire = Mass of
water equivalent of calorimeter) * specific heat of water x corrected temperature rise
mf CV+ mfuse CV1 = (mw + me) Cpw [(T2 -T1) + Tc]
mf = [(mw + me) Cpw [(T2 -T1) + Tc] - mfuse CV1 ] / CV
where
Tc = radiation correction to temperature, it is obtained from graphical presentation of observation
before and after firing
mf= mass of fuel
mfuse = mass of fuse wire
mw = mass of water filled in calorimeter
me = water equivalent of the calorimeter
CV1=Calori1ic value of fuse wire
T2-T1 = Observed temperature difference
The bomb calorimeter measures a higher calorific value of fuel. If a liquid fuel is being tested, it is
contained in a gelatin capsule and the firing may be assisted by paraffin of known calorific value in
the crucible.

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Determination of calorific value of fuel (Bomb calorimeter)…

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 Determination of calorific value of fuel
(Junkers gas calorimeter)

The calorific value of a gaseous fuel is determined by Junker’s or Boy ’s gas calorimeter.
The metered gaseous fuel is continuously supplied to the calorimeter at constant
pressure, where it burns in the presence of air. The products of combustion are cooled
to the initial temperature of the reactants by continuous circulating water. The gas
temperature and pressure are measured and the amount of the gas burned is referred
to 25°C and 1.013 bar. The temperature rise of circulating water is measured and the
condensate from the products of combustion is collected. This test is carried out for a
fixed time period. The water flow rate and weight of condensate are measured.
Thus, we have ,
(Volume of fuel at 1.013 bar, 25°C) x Calorific value = Mass of water circulated x
specific heat x temperature rise of water
Vx CV = mw Cpw x (ΔT)w
where V = (Pgas Vgas) * T / (P Tgas) = 298 x Pgas Vgas/ (1.013 x 100 Tgas)
where p = 1.013 bar, atmospheric pressure, T = 25°C, standard reference temperature
In both the bomb calorimeter test and Junker’s calorimeter test, the steam formed on
the combustion is condensed and the heat of steam formation is recovered. Thus they
measure a higher calorific value of fuel.

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 Determination of calorific value of fuel
(Junkers gas calorimeter)…

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 Adiabatic flame temperature

For a combustion process that takes place adiabatically with no

shaft work, the temperature of the products is referred to as the
adiabatic flame temperature. This is the maximum temperature
that can be achieved for given reactants. Heat transfer, incomplete
combustion, and dissociation all result in lower temperature.

The maximum adiabatic flame temperature for a given fuel and

oxidizer combination occurs with a stoichiometric mixture (correct
proportions such that all fuel and all oxidizer are consumed). The
amount of excess air can be tailored as part of the design to
control the adiabatic flame temperature.

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