MEC251-

THERMODYNAMICS
CHAPTER 2: DETERMINATION OF PROPERTIES

Hazim Sharudin
 Lecture Contents
1. State and properties of pure substances in liquid and vapor phases,
2. Phases of pure substances on T-v and P-v diagram, thermodynamic
property tables,
3. Ideal gases: equations of state, gas constants, specific heats, internal
energy, enthalphy
4. Thermodynamic processes: constant volume, constant pressure,
constant temperature, polytropic and adiabatic.
The Essence of Thermodynamics
“When you call a thing is mysterious, all that it means is that
you don’t understand it.”
Lord Kelvin
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State And Properties Of Pure Substances In Liquid
And Vapor Phases
PURE SUBSTANCE
 Pure substance: A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout.
 Air is a mixture of several gases, but it is considered to be a pure substance

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State And Properties Of Pure Substances In Liquid
And Vapor Phases
PHASES OF A PURE SUBSTANCE

In a solid, the attractive and repulsive forces

between the molecules tend to maintain them at
relatively constant distances from each other.

The arrangement a) of atoms in different

phases: (molecules are at relatively fixed
positions in a solid, (b) groups of molecules
move about each other in the liquid phase,
and (c) molecules move about at random in
the gas phase.
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State And Properties Of Pure Substances In Liquid
And Vapor Phases
PHASE-CHANGE PROCESSES OF PURE SUBSTANCES

 Compressed liquid
(subcooled liquid): A
substance that it is not
about to vaporize.
 Saturated liquid: A
liquid that is about to
vaporize.

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 Saturated liquid–vapor mixture: The state at which the liquid and vapor phases coexist in
equilibrium.
 Saturated vapor: A vapor that is about to condense.
 Superheated vapor: A vapor that is not about to condense (i.e., not a saturated vapor).

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Saturation Temperature and Saturation Pressure
 The temperature at which water starts boiling depends on the pressure;
therefore, if the pressure is fixed, so is the boiling temperature.
 Water boils at 100°C at 1 atm pressure.
 Saturation temperature Tsat: The temperature at which a pure
substance changes phase at a given pressure.
 Saturation pressure Psat: The pressure at which a pure substance
changes phase at a given temperature.

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Saturation Temperature and Saturation Pressure

 Temp & pressure in saturation

region(state 2 -4) are dependent.
 Latent heat: energy absorbed or
released in a phase-change
process
 Vaporisation
 Condensation

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 Latent heat: The amount of energy absorbed or
released during a phase change process.
 Latent heat of fusion: The amount of energy
absorbed during melting. It is equivalent to the
amount of energy released during freezing.
 Latent heat of vaporization: The amount of
energy absorbed during vaporization and it is
equivalent to the energy released during
condensation.
 The magnitudes of the latent heats depend on the
temperature or pressure at which the phase
change occurs.
 At 1 atm pressure, the latent heat of fusion of
water is 333.7 kJ/kg and the latent heat of
vaporization is 2256.5 kJ/kg.
 The atmospheric pressure, and thus the boiling
temperature of water, decreases with elevation.

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PROPERTY DIAGRAMS FOR PHASE-CHANGE PROCESSES
 The variations of properties during
phase-change processes are best
studied and understood with the
help of property diagrams such as
the T-v, P-v, and P-T diagrams for
pure substances.
T-v diagram of
constant-pressure
phase-change
processes of a pure
substance at various
pressures
(numerical values
are for water).

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PROPERTY DIAGRAMS FOR PHASE-CHANGE
PROCESSES
 Saturated liquid line
 Saturated vapor line
 Compressed liquid region
 Superheated vapor region
 Saturated liquid–vapor mixture region
(wet region)

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PROPERTY DIAGRAMS FOR PHASE-CHANGE PROCESSES

P-v diagram of a pure substance. (T Constant)

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Extending the Diagrams to Include the Solid
Phase

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 Thermodynamic Property Tables
 For most substances, the relationships among thermodynamic properties are too
complex to be expressed by simple equations.
 Therefore, properties are frequently presented in the form of tables.
 Some thermodynamic properties can be measured easily, but others cannot and are
calculated by using the relations between them and measurable properties.
 The results of these measurements and calculations are presented in tables in a
convenient format.

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A)

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* Refer to example 3-1 until
3-3 in the Text Book.

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B) Saturated Liquid–Vapor Mixture
 Quality, x : The ratio of the mass of vapor to the total mass of the mixture.
 Quality is between 0 and 1 [0: sat. liquid, 1: sat. vapor.]
 The properties of the saturated liquid are the same whether it exists alone or in a
mixture with saturated vapor.

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*Refer Example
3-4 until 3-5

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Examples: Saturated liquid-vapor mixture states on T-v and P-v diagrams.

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 C) Superheated Vapor
 In the region to the right of the saturated
vapor line and at temperatures above the
critical point temperature, a substance exists
as superheated vapor.
 In this region, temperature and pressure are
independent properties.

At a specified
P, superheated
vapor exists at
a higher h than
the saturated
vapor.

A partial listing of Table A–6.

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D) Compressed Liquid

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Reference State and Reference Values
 The values of u, h, and s cannot be measured directly, and they are calculated from measurable
properties using the relations between properties.
 However, those relations give the changes in properties, not the values of properties at specified
states.
 Therefore, we need to choose a convenient reference state and assign a value of zero for a
convenient property or properties at that state.

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IMPORTANT STEPS IN USING THE TABLE!

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Example 1.1

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Example 1.2

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IDEAL GASES: EQUATIONS OF STATE, GAS CONSTANT
 Equation of state: Any equation that relates the pressure, temperature, and specific volume of
a substance.
 The simplest and best-known equation of state for substances in the gas phase is the ideal-
gas equation of state. This equation predicts the P-v-T behavior of a gas quite accurately
within some properly selected region.

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 Various expressions of ideal gas equation

Real gases behave as an ideal gas at low

densities (i.e., low pressure, high temperature).

The ideal-gas
relation often is not
applicable to real
gases; thus, care
should be exercised
when using it.

Properties per
unit mole are
denoted with a
bar on the top.
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 IS WATER VAPOR AN IDEAL GAS?
 At pressures below 10 kPa, water vapor can be
treated as an ideal gas, regardless of its
temperature, with negligible error (less than 0.1
percent).
 At higher pressures, however, the ideal gas
assumption yields unacceptable errors, particularly
in the vicinity of the critical point and the saturated
vapor line.
 In air-conditioning applications, the water vapor in
the air can be treated as an ideal gas. Why?
 In steam power plant applications, however, the
pressures involved are usually very high;
therefore, ideal-gas relations should not be used.

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SPECIFIC HEATS
Specific heat at constant volume, cv: The energy required to raise the temperature of the unit mass
of a substance by one degree as the volume is maintained constant.
Specific heat at constant pressure, cp: The energy required to raise the temperature of the unit mass
of a substance by one degree as the pressure is maintained constant.

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SPECIFIC HEATS
 The equations in the figure are valid for any substance undergoing any process.
 cv and cp are properties.
 cv is related to the changes in internal energy and cp to the changes in enthalpy.
 A common unit for specific heats is kJ/kg · °C or kJ/kg · K. Are these units identical?

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INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY, AND SPECIFIC HEATS OF
IDEAL GASES
Internal energy and
enthalpy change of
an ideal gas

Joule showed using this experimental For ideal gases, u, h, Cv and Cp vary with
apparatus that u=u(T) temperature only

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INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY, AND SPECIFIC HEATS OF
IDEAL GASES

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Specific Heat Relations of Ideal Gases

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Heating of a Gas in a Tank by Stirring

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Heating of a Gas by a Resistance Heater

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Heating of a Gas at Constant Pressure

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INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY, AND SPECIFIC
HEATS OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS
Incompressible substance: A substance whose specific volume (or density) is
constant. Solids and liquids are incompressible substances.

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Example (Q4.11 in 6th Edition Cengel)
A mass of 5 kg of saturated water vapor at 300 kPa is heated at constant
pressure until the temperature reaches 200°C. Calculate the work done by the
steam during this process.
Answer: 165.9 kJ
Example (Q4.12 6th Edition Cengel)
A frictionless piston–cylinder device initially contains 200 L of saturated liquid
refrigerant-134a. The piston is free to move, and its mass is such that it
maintains a pressure of 900 kPa on the refrigerant. The refrigerant is now heated
until its temperature rises to 70°C. Calculate the work done during this process.
Answer: 5571 kJ

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Thermodynamic processes: constant volume, constant
pressure, constant temperature, polytropic and adiabatic.
MOVING BOUNDARY WORK
Moving boundary work (P dV work): Quasi-equilibrium process:
The expansion and compression work A process during which the system remains nearly in
in a piston-cylinder device. equilibrium at all times.

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Thermodynamic processes: constant volume, constant
pressure, constant temperature, polytropic and adiabatic.

The boundary work done during

a process depends on the path
followed as well as the end
states.

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Thermodynamic processes: constant volume, constant
pressure, constant temperature, polytropic and adiabatic.
1. Constant Volume (Isochoric Process)
 If the volume is held constant, dV = 0
 The boundary work becomes,
𝟐

𝑾𝒃 = 𝑷𝒅𝑽 = 𝟎
𝟏
 Heat supplied,
From the 1st Law,
𝑸 − 𝑾 = ∆𝑼
𝑸 − 𝟎 = ∆𝑼
𝑸 = ∆𝑼
 For a vapor, use property tables to find the ∆𝑼
 For a gas, change internal energy is
𝑸 = ∆𝑼 = 𝒎𝑪𝒗 (𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 )

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Thermodynamic processes: constant volume, constant
pressure, constant temperature, polytropic and adiabatic.
1. Constant Volume (Isochoric Process)
Exercise – Sept 2015
A closed, rigid container contains a Nitrogen gas at 65 kPa with a temperature of
200oC. The mass of the gas is 0.393 kg and to be heated until its pressure is
doubled. Determine:
i. The volume of the container (m3) (0.8488 m3)
ii. The amount of heat transfer (kJ) (138.12 kJ)

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Thermodynamic processes: constant volume, constant
pressure, constant temperature, polytropic and adiabatic.
2. Constant Pressure (Isobaric Process)
 The boundary work becomes,
𝟐 𝟐

𝑾𝒃 = 𝑷𝒅𝑽 = 𝑷 𝒅𝑽 = 𝑷(𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏 )
𝟏 𝟏

 Heat supplied,
From the 1st Law,
𝑸 − 𝑾 = ∆𝑼
𝑸 = ∆𝑼 + 𝑾
𝑸 = ∆𝑯
 For a vapor, use property tables to find the ∆𝑯
 For a gas, change enthalpy is
𝑸 = ∆𝑯 = 𝒎𝑪𝑷 (𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 )

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Thermodynamic processes: constant volume, constant
pressure, constant temperature, polytropic and adiabatic.
2. Constant Pressure (Isobaric Process)
Exercise – March 2016
A piston-cylinder assembly contains 7.5 kg of steam at 0.7 Mpa, quality of 0.85. The
steam is expanded reversibly at constant pressure until the temperature reaches 250oC.
Show the process on a P-v diagram and determine:
i. The total work input (kJ) (585.69 kJ)
ii. The heat energy involved in the process (kJ) (3758.025 kJ)

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Thermodynamic processes: constant volume, constant
pressure, constant temperature, polytropic and adiabatic.
3. Constant Temperature (Isothermal Process)
 The boundary work becomes,
𝒎𝑹𝑻
𝑷𝑽 = 𝒎𝑹𝑻 𝑷=
𝑽
𝟐 𝟐
𝒎𝑹𝑻 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝑾𝒃 = 𝑷𝒅𝑽 = 𝒅𝑽 = 𝒎𝑹𝑻𝟏 𝒍𝒏 = 𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝒍𝒏
𝑽 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟏
𝟏 𝟏

 Heat transfer for the closed system,

From the 1st Law,
𝑸 = ∆𝑼 +𝑾
 For a vapor, use property tables to find the ∆𝑼
 For a gas, change internal energy is
∆𝑼 = 𝒎𝑪𝒗 𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 = 𝟎 (due to temperature is constant)
𝑸=𝑾

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Thermodynamic processes: constant volume, constant
pressure, constant temperature, polytropic and adiabatic.
3. Constant Temperature (Isothermal Process)
Exercise – Sept 2015
Air at an initial state of 300 K, 150 kPa, and 0.2 m3 is compressed slowly in an isothermal process
to the pressure of 800 kPa. Then, air undergoes heating process at constant pressure to reach
400 K of temperature.
i. Sketch both processes on a single P-V diagram showing the direction of the processes
and label the states.
ii. Determine the final specific volume at the end of the heating process (m3/kg) (0.1435
m3/kg)

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Thermodynamic processes: constant volume, constant
pressure, constant temperature, polytropic and adiabatic.
4. Polytropic Process
 The pressure-volume relation is given as
𝐏𝐕 𝐧 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
 n may have any value from −∞ < 𝒏 < +∞ depending on
the process.

PROCESS EXPONENT, n
Constant Pressure 0
Constant Volume ∞
Isothermal & Ideal Gas 1
Adiabatic & Ideal Gas 𝑪𝒑
𝜸=
𝑪𝑽

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Thermodynamic processes: constant volume, constant
pressure, constant temperature, polytropic and adiabatic.
4. Polytropic Process
 The boundary work becomes,
𝑪
𝑷𝑽𝒏 = 𝑪 𝑷=
𝑽𝒏
𝟐 𝟐
𝑪 𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝑾𝒃 = 𝑷𝒅𝑽 = 𝒏
𝒅𝑽 =
𝑽 𝒏−𝟏
𝟏 𝟏

𝑷𝑽 = 𝒎𝑹𝑻

𝒎𝑹 (𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 )
𝑾𝒃 =
𝒏−𝟏

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Thermodynamic processes: constant volume, constant
pressure, constant temperature, polytropic and adiabatic.
4. Polytropic Process
Exercise – Sept 2015
Refrigerant-134a is held in a cylinder fitted with a frictionless piston so that the gas can be slowly
compressed from an initial pressure of 99 kPa to a final pressure of 305 kPa. The initial
temperature and volume are 24oC and 0.0453m3. The compression process is such that
Pv1.3=constant. The internal energy is given by u=1.5Pv. Determine:
i. The change of internal energy (kJ/kg) (10.769 kJ/kg)
ii. Work input (kJ) (-4.43 kJ)
iii. Heat transfer of the compression process (kJ) (-2.44 kJ)

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Thermodynamic processes: constant volume, constant
pressure, constant temperature, polytropic and adiabatic.
5. Adiabatic Process
 The process is thermally insulated (no heat enters and leaves the
system, 𝑸 = 𝟎)
 The equation for this process given as
𝐏𝐕 𝜸 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
 The boundary work becomes,
𝑪
𝑷𝑽𝜸 = 𝑪 𝑷=
𝑽𝜸
𝟐 𝟐
𝑪 𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝑾𝒃 = 𝑷𝒅𝑽 = 𝒅𝑽 =
𝑽𝜸 𝜸−𝟏
𝟏 𝟏

𝑷𝑽 = 𝒎𝑹𝑻

𝒎𝑹 (𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 )
𝑾𝒃 =
𝜸−𝟏
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Thermodynamic processes: constant volume, constant
pressure, constant temperature, polytropic and adiabatic.
5. Adiabatic Process
 Change in internal energy for closed system
From the 1st Law,
𝑸 = ∆𝑼 +𝑾
𝟎 = ∆𝑼 +𝑾
𝑾 = −∆𝑼
 For a vapor, use property tables to find the ∆𝑼
 For a gas, change internal energy is
𝑾 = −∆𝑼 = − 𝑼𝟐 − 𝑼𝟏 = 𝑼𝟏 − 𝑼𝟐 = 𝒎𝑪𝒗 𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐
 The change in the internal energy is equal to the mechanical work
done.

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End
See you in -
CHAPTER 3 : 1st and 2nd Law of
Thermodynamics

Referance:
1) Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach,
Y.A. Cengel and M.A. Boles, McGraw-Hill, 7th
Edition, 2011.
2) Amalina Halidi, Lecture Notes, MEC251
3) Nor Azirah Binti Mohd Fohimi, Lecture
Notes, MEC251

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