BIOL0011

LECTURE 12, 13:

CELL CYCLE
MITOSIS, MEIOSIS

1
Cell Cycle, Mitosis, Meiosis Outline
 Chromosomes Structure and Types
 Stages of the Cell Cycle
 Mitosis cell division
 Principle (Conserve chromosome number and genetic
variation)
 Purpose (Growth, Maintenance, Repair, Asexual Reproduction)
 Process of mitosis: stages
 Meiosis Cell Division
 Principle (haploid/diploid, conserve chromosome number,
increase genetic variation)
 Purpose (Gametogenesis, Genetic recombination)
 Process of meiosis (stages, Crossing over, Independent
Assortment)
 Genetic variation further enhanced by random fertilization
during sexual reproduction 2
Objectives- At the end of this
lesson you should be able to:
1. Describe the stages of the cell cycle
2. For both meiosis and mitosis
1. State the purpose
2. Illustrate/describe the process
3. Compare mitosis and meiosis
4. Explain how genetic variation is achieved
in sexually reproducing organisms

3
Introduction
 According to the cell theory all
cells are formed by the division
of preexisting cells.

 When a cell divides, copies of its

genetic information (DNA) must
be precisely transmitted from
parent to daughter cells.
4
Cell division in Prokaryotes
 Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission; they do
not undergo mitosis.
 Binary fission differs from mitosis in that no spindle is used.

 When a cell is about to divide, the circular

chromosome replicates itself (DNA synthesis) and
attaches to the plasma membrane.
 As the cell elongates, the chromosomes are pulled
apart.
 When cell is approximately twice its original length,
the plasma membrane grows inward and a cell wall
forms between the two cells.
5
Introduction
DNA is copied (replicated)
before cell division
(mitosis or meiosis) occurs.

 Remember that DNA is located in the

nucleus of the cell, coupled with
proteins to form chromatin.
6
Chromosomes
 Allorganisms have two sets of
chromosomes – one from the female
and the other from the male.
 Both members of the pair determine
the same characteristics having the
same sequence of genes.
 They also appear alike having the
same shape, size and centromere
position.
7
Chromosomes
 One of these pairs is the sex
chromosomes that determines
the gender of the offspring.
 All other pairs are autosomes.

 All
chromosomes are duplicated
before cell division starts. The
centromere holds duplicates together
8
The Chromosome
 At the start of cell division,
chromatin condenses to form
chromosomes.
 Chromosomes are visible; they
appear as long, thin threads. They
vary in shape.
 Each chromosome has two identical
threads (genetic duplicates from DNA
replication) called chromatids
9
The Chromosome
 Chromatids are joined at a point
called the centromere.

 Thecentromere can be found

anywhere along the length of the
chromosome.

10
The Chromosome
A chromosome
(two sister chromatids
joined at the centromere)

Centromere Positions on Chromosomes

•Acrocentric (constriction near the top),
•Telocentric (no obvious constriction
•Metacentric (constriction in the middle) 11
The Chromosome
 Genes are found at specific locations
along the chromosome called loci
(locus – singular).
 Genes are a sequence of nucleotides that code
for a particular polypeptide chain
 Genes affect some characteristics of
the organism

 Genes exist in different forms called

alleles. 12
 Chromosomes
 The number of chromosomes(CN)
 varies with species
 is usually the same for individuals of a species

Species CN
Allium cepa (onion) 16
Zea mays (maize) 20
Lycopersicum esculentum (tomato) 24
Canis familiaris (dog) 78
Felis cattus (cat) 38
Homo sapiens (human) 46
13
 Chromosomes – occur in pairs

Homologous Chromosomes
Maternal Chromosome Paternal Chromosome

Centromere Centromere

Chromatid
Sister
chromatids Telomere
Chromatid

Homologue Homologue 14
The cell cycle and
Somatic Cell Division In Eukaryotes

15
The cell cycle
 Generally, when cells reach a certain
size they either stop growing, or divide.
 Cells destined to become gametes
undergo Meiosis
 All other regular cells that divide go
through a regular sequence of events
known as the cell cycle; 3 main stages:
Interphase, Mitosis and Cytokinesis
 Non dividing cells are in Gap 0
16
•Cell cycle = Interphase + Mitosis
•Interphase = G1+S+G2
•Mitosis = P+M+A+T

17
1. Interphase
 The longest stage of cell cycle.
 The cell
 grows and prepares for division
 is metabolically/ biochemically
active but mechanically inactive.
 Is
divided into three stages; G1,
G2 & S.
18
Interphase in onion root tip
Illustration of cell in interphase

Microscopic view of
Cell in interphase

DNA and Chromosome

replication occurs

19
Stages of Interphase
G1 – Gap 1 (Growth phase)

 More organelles (like mitochondria,

chloroplasts, ER) produced
 Enzymes for DNA replication produced
 Nucleolus produces RNA
 Structural and functional proteins
produced.

20
Stages of Interphase
S (Synthesis)
 DNA replication occurs. (semiconservative)

 Helix uncoils, complimentary base

pairing, polymerization, recoiling.
 The amount of DNA doubles

 Chromosome replication occurs

 Eachchromosome becomes two
chromatids joined by a centromere.
21
Stages of Interphase
G2 – Gap 2 (Growth phase)

 Mitochondria and chloroplasts divide

 Centrioles replicate
 Spindle fibre components form.
 Towards the end of interphase the
chromatin starts to uncoil.

22
Somatic Cell Division - Mitosis

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Summary of Mitosis
 Mitosis
 Principle
 Conservation of chromosome number
 Conservation of genetic variation

 Purpose
 Growth, Maintenance, Repair, Asexual
Reproduction
 Process
 Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase
24
Mitosis
 Cell division that
results in all daughter
cells having the same
no. of chromosomes as 1. Prophase
(coil)
the parent (2n gives 2n;
n gives n). 2. Metaphase
(align)

 Mitosis is a continuous 3. Anaphase

(separate)
process in reality but for
descriptive/convenient 4. Telophase
purposes it divided into (uncoil)
25

stages.
Mitosis - Prophase
 The duplicated chromatin completes
condensation and becomes visible
as chromosomes.
 Microscopically, chromosomes appear
as two chromatids joined at the
centromere and are well stained.

 Spindle fibers develop, spanning the

cell from pole to pole (made from
microtubules). 26
Mitosis - Prophase
 Centrioles,if present, move to poles.
 In animal cells, short microtubules
called asters radiate from centrioles.
 Nuclear membrane disassembles
 Nucleolus disappears.

27
Prophase

28
Mitosis - Metaphase
 Chromosomes move to the equator of
the cell and line up attaching to the
spindle at the centromere.
 This is the stage at which the
chromosomes are most clearly seen.

29
Metaphase

30
Mitosis - Anaphase
 Centromeres split and chromatids move
apart as the fibres contract.
 They move to opposite poles (NB. now
referred to as chromosomes) with the
centromeres leading.
 On reaching the poles karyokinesis
(division of the nucleus) ends.

31
Anaphase

32
Mitosis - Telophase
 Chromosomes uncoil and lengthen to
eventually become invisible again.
 The spindle disintegrates.
 The nuclear envelope reforms.

33
Telophase

34
35
 Mitosis: using a pair of homologous
chromosomes with genes

Start
chromosomes replicate
before mitosis

36
www.phschool.com/.../mitosisisg/mitdiag.gif
Cytokinesis
Cell division (Cytokinesis)

 Thedivision of the cytoplasm

(cytokinesis) follows the division of
the nucleus (karyokinesis).

 Cytokinesisdiffers for plants and

animal cells.
37
Cytokinesis - Animal cells
 Cell
membrane constricts/indents
(pinches) inwards across the centre
(with the aid of microfilaments) until
the cell separates. Division furrow.

 Most widely accepted theory of

division furrow production is the
“Contractile Ring Theory”.

38
Cytokinesis – in Animal cells-
Contractile Ring Theory Outline

I. The dividing cell elongates before

cytokinesis.
II. As the cell elongates, contractile
proteins (e.g., Actin & Myosin) in
the cell cortex concentrate at the
equator, forming a ring-like structure.
III. The ring contracts, forming the
division furrow at the equator.
39
Cytokinesis – in Animal cells-
Contractile Ring Theory Outline

IV. After the

cells divide,
contractile
proteins are
redistributed
throughout the
cortex of each
daughter cell.
40
Cytokinesis - Plant cells
 A cell plate is formed across the
equator of the cell.
 Cell plate formed by fusion of pectin
containing vesicles produced by the
Golgi body (dictyosome); they form
the new middle lamella.
 Cellulose is laid down on this plate to
form a new cell wall.
 A new plasma membrane is also formed
from the membranes of the vesicle. 41
Cytokinesis in Eukaryotes

Animal cell Plant cell

42
Cytokinesis
 Mitosis occurs in most animal cells
(somatic cells)
 In plants mitosis is confined to
meristematic cells (located behind
root & shoot tips and buds).
 At the end of cell division the two
daughter cells produced each have the
same number of chromosomes as
the mother cell.
43
 Mitosis Cross Word Puzzle
Submit in tutorial

Mitosis- purpose
1. Maintenance

 Produces daughter cells which are

exact copies (genetically) of the
parental cell.

 This
ensures genetic stability/
conservation.

44
Mitosis- purpose
2. Growth
 If tissues increase by growth, it
is essential that the new cells
look exactly as the existing cells
and have the same number of
chromosomes.

45
Mitosis- purpose
Growth
 Also,growth from a unicellular
zygote into a mulitcellular organism
requires that the same number of
chromosomes be kept.

 The cells then differentiate to form

tissues, organs and organ systems.
46
Mitosis- purpose
3. Repair/regeneration

 Dead or damaged cells must be

replaced by exact copies of the
original cells in order to return
the tissue to its original
condition.

47
Mitosis- purpose
4. Asexual reproduction
 If a species has successfully
colonized a particular habitat, there
is little advantage in the short term
to produce different offspring which
may be less successful.

 Itis better for the species to quickly

establish a colony of individuals
which are similar to the parent. 48
Mitosis- purpose
 Asexualreproduction is the means of
reproduction of many unicellular and
other simple organisms e.g.,
Amoeba, Hydra.

 Inplants, this is a form of vegetative

propagation in which the bud on part
of the stem grows a new plant which
eventually becomes detached from
the parent and lives independently 49
Meiosis

50
Summary of Meiosis
Meiosis
 Principle: diploid to haploid
 Conservation of chromosome number in the
offspring
 Increase genetic variation
 Purpose:
 Gametogenesis
 Genetic variation
 Crossing over
 Independent Assortment
 Process of meiosis:
 Meiosis 1 =Prophase1, Metaphase1, Anaphase1, Telophase1
 Meiosis 2 =Prophase2, Metaphase2, Anaphase2, Telophase2 51
Meiosis
 The cell which will undergo meiosis
(parent cell) is usually diploid (2n)
as it contains the full complement of
chromosomes (2 complete sets: 1
paternal, 1 maternal)

 Meiosis results in the four daughter

cells being haploid(n); they have
half the number of chromosomes as
the parent cell.
52
Meiosis - Introduction
 Insexual reproduction, two sex cells
(gametes) are fused to form a single
cell (zygote).

 Toprevent zygotes from having too

many chromosomes, each gamete
must contain only half of the
parental number of chromosomes.
This is ensured by meiosis.

53
Meiosis
 Meiosis
occurs in the formation of
gametes;
 sperm and ova in animals
 spores, pollen, ova in plants.

 Atthe end of meiosis, 4 haploid (n)

daughter cells are produced from 1
diploid (2n) cell.
54
Meiosis
Two cell divisions occur
 In the 1st meiotic division, prophase
is very different from that in mitosis.
 The 2nd division is very similar to
mitosis.
 The process is continuous
 Symbols I and II are used to
distinguish between the first and
second divisions.
55
 Phases of Meiosis
All chromosomes are duplicated in S phase of
Interphase before cell division starts.
A. Meiosis I B. Interphase
1. Prophase I
i. Leptotene C. Meiosis II
ii. Zygotene 5. Prophase II
iii. Pachytene
6. Metaphase II
iv. Diplotene
7. Anaphase II
v. Diakinesis
8. Telophase II
2. Metaphase I
3. Anaphase I
4. Telophase I 56
 Meiosis I - Prophase I
First meiotic division (Reduction division)
Prophase I

 Duplicated chromosomes pair up, in

homologous pairs.
 One member of each pair is a homologue.
 One homologue is the duplicated paternal
chromosome and the other the duplicated
maternal chromosome

57
Meiosis I -Prophase I
Homologous
Chromosomes
Maternal Chromosome Paternal Chromosome

Centromere Centromere

Chromatid
Telomere
Chromatid

Homologue Homologue 58
 Meiosis I - Prophase I
 Lengthy and complex
 Therefore placed in 5 stages
i. Leptotene - replicated chromosomes are
threadlike and are being condensed
ii. Zygotene - homologous chromosomes start to
pair up
iii. Pachytene - homologous chromosomes paired
iv. Diplotene - sister chromatids of homologous
chromosomes visible; crossing over just visible
v. Diakinesis - chromatids diverge so chiasmata
clearly visible; spindle develops
59
Meiosis I -Prophase I
 The process of the homologous
chromosomes coming together is
called synapsis.

 When they synapse, the homologous

pair is referred to as a bivalent (2
chromosomes) but since it consists
of 4 chromatids it may also be called
a tetrad.
60
Meiosis I -Prophase I
 Duringsynapsis, chromatids
associate closely so they can wrap
around each other.

 Towards the end of prophase I they

start repelling each other, but remain
joined at points called chiasmata
(chiasma – singular).

61
Meiosis I - Prophase I
 At chiasmata, breakage and rejoining
can occur so that portions of one
homologue can end up on portions of
the other (crossing over). The result
is recombinant chromosomes.

 Spindlefibres form, centrioles if

present migrate to the poles, and the
nucleolus and nuclear membranes
disappear 62
Meiosis I - Prophase I
Crossing over
Parental type
Chromatids
Homologous
Chromosomes

Chromatid

Chiasma Recombinant
Maternal Paternal
Chromosome Chromosome Chromatids

63
Genes on paternal
and maternal
unreplicated After crossing-over
chromosomes showing
recombinant
Homologous chromatids
Chromosomes
after Crossing-over
chromosome
Here, a & b are reproduction
alleles of the
same gene Chromosomes as
they will end up
in gametes

1 from http://web.mit.edu/esgbio/www/mg/meiosis.html 64
Meiosis I - Prophase I Prophase I

Leptotene -
replicated
chromosomes are threadlike
and are being condensed
Zygotene - homologous
chromosomes start to pair up
Pachytene - homologous
Leptotene Zygotene chromosomes paired
Diplotene - sister chromatids of
homologous chromosomes
visible; crossing over just visible
Diakinesis - chromatids diverge so
chiasmata clearly visible;
spindle develops

- http://anthro.palomar.edu/biobasis/meiosis.htm

65
Pachytene Diplotene - Diakenesis
Meiosis I -Metaphase I
Metaphase I
 Pairedhomologous chromosomes
(bivalents) line up at the equator
by their centromeres on the
spindle. Pairs are held together by points
of prior chiasmata
 The way the members of the pair
orientate themselves is completely
random and is not influenced by the
arrangement of the other pairs -
Independent assortment. 66
Meiosis I -Metaphase
IIndependent Assortment
 X and Y are
alternative
arrangements of
the chromosomes
at metaphase. X

 The arrangement
determines the Y
combination
entering different
gametes.

67
Genetic Variation in Sexual
reproduction
 Main sources of genetic variation
 Crossing over in Prophase 1
 Independent Assortment in Metaphase 1

 Genetic variation is further enhanced by

 Random mate choice
 Many gametes produced
 Mutation when gametes are being produced
 Random fertilization after sexual reproduction

68
Meiosis I

Metaphase I

Anaphase I

69
Meiosis I- Anaphase I
Anaphase I
 Individual
chromosomes of the
homologous pair separate as they
move to opposite poles
 Only one member of each
homologue goes to each pole.

 NB.each chromosome still has two

chromatids and the centromeres did
not split. 70
Meiosis I-Telophase I
Telophase I

 Chromosomes uncoil,
nuclear envelope reforms
 Spindle disappears
 Cytoplasm division occurs
so two cells are formed.

71
Second meiotic division

Meiosis II - Prophase II
Prophase II

 Nucleolus disappears, nuclear envelope

disassembles
 Centrioles, if present, moves to the
poles
 The poles are now at right angles
to the plane of the first division
 Spindle develops.
72
 An interphase may occur before Meiosis II starts

Meiosis II

Prophase II

NB. Both cells resulted from cytokinesis after Telophase I

Each chromosome still has two chromatids joined by a centromere
73
Figures 13-16 from -
16http://faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu/faculty/Michael.Gregory/files/Bio%20101/Bio%20101%20Lectures/Meiosis/meiosis.htm
Meiosis II - Metaphase II
Metaphase II
 Chromosomes in both cells line up
singly (they cannot pair, because you have
already split the homologous pairs in anaphase I)
at the equator by their centromeres
attaching to the spindle

74
Meiosis - Anaphase II
Anaphase II

 Centromeres split so Chromatids

separate and move to opposite
poles.

75
Meiosis - Telophase II
Telophase II

 Chromosomes unwind and become

indistinct
 Nuclear envelope and nucleolus
reform
 Spindle disappears
 Cytoplasm division occurs so each of
the two cells split into two.
76
Telophase II
Four haploid cells at the end of
the process

77
Overview of Meiosis

2n= 4 chromosomes
n= 2 chromosomes

78
Meiosis - Importance
 The long term survival of a species is
dependent on its ability to adapt to an
environment which constantly
changes.
 It has to be able to colonize a range of
habitats.
 The offspring must therefore be
different from their parents as well as
each other (variation) to successfully
colonize.
 Meiosis ensures that this occurs. 79
Meiosis - Importance

1. Production of haploid gametes

so chromosome number is
maintained in the offspring.

 Thegenotype of one parent is mixed

with that of the other when gametes
fuse randomly.
80
Meiosis - Importance
2. Genetic variation by Crossing over
 During prophase I, equivalent portions
of homologous chromosomes may be
exchanged, that is, genes from female
chromosomes can exchange genes with
chromosome from male parent.
 New genetic combinations are
produced and linked genes can be
separated.
81
Meiosis - Importance
3. Genetic variation by random
distribution of chromosomes during
metaphase I.

 When members of homologous pairs

arrange themselves at the equator of
the cell, they do so independently of
each other and randomly.

82
Meiosis - Importance
 So,which chromosome of a given
pair goes to which pole is unaffected
by the behaviour of the
chromosomes in other pairs.

 Newgenetic combinations are

produced in this way

83
Meiosis - Importance
4. Meiosis is essential in evolution.

A varied stock of individuals is

produced, and by natural selection,
those best suited to existing conditions
survive.

84
Meiosis - Importance
5. Meiosis ensures that at some
stage in the life cycle haploid
gametes are produced.

 Ifthis did not occur, the

chromosome number would double
with every generation.

85
Mitosis - Meiosis comparison
MITOSIS
Occurs in body/ somatic cells
Single division
Prophase not divided into
sub-stages
Homologous chromosomes
remain separate.
Each chromosome consist of
2 chromatids).
MEIOSIS
Germ cells (gametogenesis)
Two successive divisions
Prophase I has 6 substages
(Proleptotene, Leptotene,
Zygotene, Pachytene,
Diplotene and Diakinesis).
Homologous chromosomes
pair-up.
Each pair of homologous
chromosomes consist of 4
chromatids (Tetrad).
86
Mitosis - Meiosis comparison
MITOSIS
No synapsis or chiasmata
formation for exchange of
genetic material.
Each of the two daughter
cells will have the same
number of chromosomes
as the parent cell.
A diploid cell (2n)
produces two diploid cells
by a mitotic division.
MEIOSIS
Synapsis and chiasmata
formation occur for exchange
of genetic material.
Each of the four daughter
cells will have half the
number of chromosomes
as the parent cell.
A diploid cell produces four
haploid cells (n) by a
meiotic division.
87
 88

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