“An Analysis of Lexical Categories in Leo Tolstoy’s Short Story “Three

Questions”

Thesis Proposal

Submitted as A Partial Fulfillment of Requirements to Obtain Strata One

(S1) Degree on English Department

By :

NOVA MELIA RAMADANI

2315.010

Advisor

ABSHARINI KARDENA, M.Pd

NIDN.2019038802

ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

TARBIYAH AND TEACHER TRAINING FACULTY

STATE ISLAMIC INSTITUTE OF BUKITTINGGI

1440 H / 2019 M

i
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TA BLE OF CONTENT.................................................................................. ii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

A. Background Of The Problem....................................................................4

B. Problem and Focus of The Problem..........................................................8

C. Research Question.....................................................................................9

D. Purpose of The Research...........................................................................9

E. Significance of The research......................................................................10

F. Definition of The Key Terms………………………………………….…11

CHATER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES

A. Review of The Related Theoris...............................................................12

1. Short Story as A Subject................................................................12

a. Aim of Studying Short Story..............................................14

b. Scope of Studying Short Story...........................................16

A. Short Story Elements…………………………………16

c. Biography of Leo Tolstoy………………………………..18

2. Stylistics and Stylistic Analysis.....................................................19

a. Stylistics...............................................................................19

b. Stylistics Analysis...............................................................21

3. Lexical Categories..........................................................................23

ii
 B. REVIEW OF RELATED STUDY.......................................................26

C. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK........................................................31

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHOD

A. Kind Of The Research..................................................................33

B. Source of Data..............................................................................34

C. Technique of Data Collection.......................................................35

D. Research Instrument......................................................................36

E. Technique Of Data Analysis.........................................................36

References.............................................................................................................39

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 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the problem

Language is the method of human communication, either spoken or

written, consisting of the use of words in a structured and conventional

way. Another that, language is a system of communication used by a

particular country or community. To sum up, language is the tool for

communication that is used by human such as spoken or written.

Literature is one of subject in English majority which discusses

about literary works such as fiction, poetry, drama, and so on. As pointed

out by Cuddon, literature is ‘a vague term which usually denotes works

which belong to the major genres: epic; drama, lyric, novel, short story.” 1

Literature, most generically, is anybody or collection of written work.

Most restrictively, literature refers to writing considered to be an art form

or any single writing deemed to have artistic or intellectual value, and

sometimes deploys language in ways that differ from ordinary usage. It

means that, literature is a group of works of art made up of words. Most

are written, but some are passed on by word of mouth. Literature usually

means works of poetry and prose that are especially well written. There are

many different kinds of literature, such as poetry, plays or novels. To sum

up, so literature is a term used to describe written and sometimes spoken

material. Derived from the latin word literature meaning “writing formed
1
J.A. Cuddon. 2013. A Dictionary Of Literary Terms And Literary Theory, Fifth Edition.
British. A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication. P. 404

4
with letters”, literature most commonly refers to works of the creative

imagination, including poetry, drama, fiction, nonfiction, and in some

instances, journalism, short story, and song.

The human uses language for communicate with other. They

communicate to fulfill their needs. The language has much variation on

using it, so this is named with stylistics. According to G.W.Turner that, "

Stylistics is the part of linguistics which concentrates on variation in the

use of language, often, but not exclusively, with special attention to the

most conscious and complex uses of language in literature."G.W. Turner,

"Stylistics"2 So, the language that is used by human, has much variation.

Sometimes the language is used on the literature.

Semantic competence consists of the ability to determine the

meaning of a particular string of words. In particular, we will use the truth

conditions of a sentence to reason about its meaning. It consists of the

ability to judge which strings of words from grammatical sentences.

Semantic is the study of the relationship between words and how we draw

meaning from those words. According to Davidson, semantic competence

consists of the ability to determine the meaning of a particular string of

words.3 It means that, semantic competence has function for learns a word

to determine meaning and kind of the words.

2
(Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, Ltd, 1973).), p.7.
3
Davidson, D. 1984. Inquiries into Truth and Interpretation. Clarendon Press,
Oxford. page. 55

5
 Stylistic is analysis of using language (style) in literature to find

the aesthetic function.4 It researchers the shape of poetic literary work in

language aspects. It has become perception that literary language has

beautiful ways to send the message through several dictions. According to

Leech and Short that “Stylistic Categories consists of lexical categories,

grammatical, figure of speech, contexts and cohesive.”5 Thus, the texts

have become main focus of stylistic that implemented in the texts of

literary works. So, we can search style more detail and find easily the

artistic function through the analysis of lexical categories.

Stylistic categories is a branch of applied linguistics, is the study

and interpretation of texts of all types and or/spoken language in regard to

their linguistic and tonal style, where style is the particular variety of

language used by different individuals and / or in different situations or

settings. Leech & Short put forward a checklist of stylistic categories :

lexical categories, grammatical categories, figure of speech, and cohesion

and context.

The reason of why the author uses lexical categories in her short

story are to explain the author insight and understanding and explain of the

word in the story. Moreover, it allows the readers to asses the categories

and the types of lexical categories and analyses part of speech not only the

context but also the purpose. The use of the lexical categories gives the

more different sense nuance by advantaging it.

4
Leech and Short, Style in Fiction (London: Longman Group Limited 1981)
P.13.
5
Ibid; P.61

6
 One type of literary works is short story. It has received less

attention from literary scholars than a novel. According to Mario Klarer,

there are four most important elements of the novel and short story, there

are: plot, characters, narrative perspective and setting.6 Plot is related to

what is going happen in the story, character is who are acts, then narrative

perspective or point of view discusses about who sees what, and the last is

setting, tellls the reader about where and when do the events take place.

Finally, the researcher choose one of short story by Leo Tolstoy entitled "

Three Question's".

The researcher chooses the short story as the object of the research

based on purposive sampling, as well known it can be defined as choose

an object of the research based on the certain consideration. The

consideration of why the researcher chooses this short story as the object

of the research is because the literary works of the author is really

enthused by the children not only in England but also around the world.

The literary works are also translated into many languages in the world.

The plot of the story interested and the characters mostly played by

children also, so that the children who reads the story like it, because they

imagine that if they are as part of the characters in that story.

Among the popular literary work by Leo Tolstoy. The researcher

decides to research one of him novel which has title “Three Question's”.

The short story is written on 2005. The "Three Question's" is a story about

Mario Klarer, An Introduction to Literary Studies (London and

6

New York: Routledge) 2004, p.14.

7
 a king who wants to know the answer of the three question's so as to get

enlightenment. In order to run the kingdom in a proper way, he wants to

know the solutions from his countrymen. He disguised himself and then

went on to find solutions to his answer.

Based on preliminary research to the short story, “ Three

Question's” the researcher finds some problems are analyzing of language

use itself. Sometimes the variations creates ambiguity which is needed to

comprehended by find the meaning of the words, phrases or sentences in

that story. Analyzing of word type in Leo Tolstoy's short story “Three

Question's”. Analyzing of sentence complexity Leo Tolstoy's short story

“Three Question's”. And analyzing of noun phrase in Leo Tolstoy's short

story“Three Question's”.

Based on phenomenon above, the researcher need to investigate

deeply through a research under the title “ An Analysis Of Lexical

Categories In Three Question By Leo Tolstoy : A Pedagogical Stylistic

Study”.

B. Problem and Focus of The Problem

Based on the background of the problem, the researcher wants to

identify the problems are the analyzing of word use itself. There are

variations of word uses such as types of lexical analysis which included to

the stylistic categories. Most of Indonesian people would be rather

difficult to comprehend the hidden meaning and the types of lexical

8
 categories in that story. The researcher wants to know the meaning of each

sentences and phrases that belongs to the types of lexical categories. And

the reader wants to know clear meaning about the word in the short story.

So that the researcher will discusses about stylistic categories that focused

on lexical categories in a short story.

Based on the problem above, this research focuses on “Analysis

Of Lexical Categories In Leo Tolstoy’s Short Story “Three Question”.

C. Research Question

Based on the problem and focus of the research above, this research is

formulated as follow:

1. What are the categories and various types of word of speech employed

in Leo Tolstoy’s short story, “Three Questions”?

2. What is the meaning?

D. Purposes of the Research

Based on the research question above, the purpose of this research

is to find out the categories and the types of lexical categories in the short

story and explain the meaning and the structured of the sentences in the

short story. It can be used as media in learning English especially to

improve competency in syntactic. By studying lexical categories, the

students suppose that the short story not only a means of to amuse but also

an appliance to improve their English. So that the researcher decided to

discuss about short story through analysis of lexical categories.

E. Significance of The Research

9
 The result of this research hopefully can give contribution as follow:

1. For The College

Hopefully this thesis will be extra references for the next

researchers.

2. For The English Teacher and Lecturers

Hopefully the teachers and the lecturers will get extra informations

and insight in the English literary works.

3. For The Researcher

Hopefully this research can be the best experience for the

researcher and also help in order can be better for the next time in

writing activity.

4. For The Reader

Hopefully through reading this thesis, the reader inspirated to write

or read English literary works more.

F. Definition of The Key Terms

In order to avoid misunderstanding, the researcher defines some

essential terms which re used in the title of the research. They are:

1. Lexical categories refers to a single word, a part of a word, or a chain

of words that forms the basic elements of a language's lexicon.

2. Short story is a fictional work of prose that is shorter in length than a

novel.

3. Leo Tolstoy is a writer much of literature such as novel, short story,

etc.

10
4. The short story " Three Question's" is a literature in form on short

story that is written by Leo Tolstoy.

11
 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES

A. Review of The Related Theories

1. Short Story as A Subject

A short story is fictional work of prose that is shorter in length than

a novel. Ghasemi says that the short stories distinctive features,

namely, its modernity, brevity and variety make it appealing and

interesting to language learners.7 It means that, short story is a story

with one theme, and the interesting story can make language learner

interest to read and learn the language from the story.

According to Chris Baldick, says that “A fictional prose tale of no

specified length, but too short to be published as a volume on its own,

as novellas sometimes and novels unusually are. A short story will

normally concentrate on a single event with only one or two

characters, more economically than a novel’s sustained exploration of

social background.”8 It means that, short story different with novel,

short story has the plot that short and little character in the story. In

addition to novel has the plot that long and many character in the story.

Based on Abrams et.al., “A short story is a brief work of prose

fiction, and most of the terms for analyzing the component elements,

7
Ghasemi, P. 2011. Teaching The Short Story to Improve L2 reading
and Writing Skills: Approaches and Strategie. International journal of arts &
Scinces. Shiraz University, Iran. P.267.
8
Chris Baldick. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms. Page.
236

12
the types, and the narrative techniques of the novel are applicable to

the short story as well.”9 It means that, short story is prose fiction,

majority on the short story is analyzed with narrative techniques that

has one plot in the story.

The differences between Ghasemi, Chris Baldick and Abram et.al.,

opinion’s are, according Ghasemi, short story is used as learning media

to learn language till the student interest to learn language through

story. But, based on Chris Baldick, the story in the short story has short

plot and little character, till the reader can know how the ending in the

story with one plot on the story. In another that, Abram et.al., have

opinion that short story is prose fiction, the story is made to entertain

the reader and to analyze the short story uses narrative technique.

The similarity, between all argument that short story is a story that

short has short plot is completed with little character and the short

story is made to entertain the reader.

To conclude, short story is used to learn the language and to

entertain the reader. The short story has short plot, and little character,

till to analyze the short story is used narrative technique.

a. Aim of Studying Short Story

In learning language san use literary as a subject, for

example using short story. On using short story in learning

language, can enrich student’s language skill. According Dr. Nimer

9
M.H.Abrams, Geoffrey Galt Harpham. A Handbook of Literary Terms.
Page 331

13
A. Abu Zahra, et.al., in his journal with the title “Using Short

Stories in The EFL Classroom” had said that “Using short stories

in the EFL Classroom exposes learners to distinctive opportunities

for educational, intellectual, cultural and linguistic development.

Short story is considered as one of the literary genres that can be

used in the EFL Classroom to enhance language skill, motivate

students, and increase their cultural awareness and tolerance.” 10 In

other words, on this way the teacher asks the students to productive

anymore on learning English language.

Besides the student accept the lesson from teacher, the

student can apply what they had learned. On the short stories, they

can tell about culture, education, and their intellectual toward

nature phenomenon.

Based on King concludes that “Short story can be utilized

as engines and a powerful and motivating source for assisting

learners consolidate and practice language (grammar diction)’11. It

means that, on making a story, the student can express their mind

through language on a story. So, \this way can makes student for

creative on making story.

In addition, Ellis and Brewsies emphasize that “As stories

are motivating and fun, they can help students develop positive

10
Dr. Nimer A. Abu Zahra.,et.al.,. 2015. Using Short Stories in The EFL
Classroom. IUG Journal of Humanities Research. Vol 24, No 1, 2016, pp, 11-24.
P.12
11
King, I. 2001. Beyond Cinderella : Using Stories with Secondary and
Adult Learners, BETA – IATEFL Language and Linguistic Studies, 4(2), 94 – 106.

14
 attitudes towards the foreign language and enrich their learning

experiences”.12 It means that, on making short story, the student not

only develop positive attitudes toward something but also the story

can motivate the student for study language and this way effect to

their mood in learning, they will fill fun, to make a story, listening

story or reading story. So this way can develop their language

knowledge especially in English language.

This can conclude that, reading the short story, making the

short story in learning English can makes the student creative on

learning language. Besides, they can practice the language into a

story, and helps the student develop positive attitudes in foreign

language and enrich their experience in learning language.

b. Scope of Studying Short Story

1. Short Story Elements

According to Mario Klarer there are several most important

elements of the novel and short story,13 they are:

A. Plot

B. Characters

C. Narrative perspective

D. Setting

12
Ellis, G., and Brewster, J. 1991. The Storytelling Handbook A Guide
for Primary Teacher of English. Hamondswath : Penguin.
13
Mario Klarer, An Introduction In Literary Studies. (London and New
York: Routledge, 2004) P.14

15
 In addition, elements of short story that are only in the

Gordon and Kuehner’s Book.14 The elements are as follows:

a. Plot

Plot is the author’s arrangements of the events in a narrative

to get a desired effect.

b. Setting

Setting to describe time and place in the story.

c. Character

Character is a person creates for work of fiction

d. Point of view and Tone

Point of view is where the author places her/him in the

story. There are two main points of view: first person (I)

and third person (he, she, they)

e. Theme

Theme is an author’s insight or general observation about

human nature or the human condition that is delivered by

characters plot and imagery.

f. Style

Style is an author’s characteristic way to say things in the

story.

Based on the description above, it can be concluded

that story has six basic elements. They are plot, setting,

14
Jane Bcahma Gordon, Karen Kuehner, 1999. Fiction: The Elements
of Short Story, New York: Mc Graw Hill, p.247.

16
 character, point of view, theme, and style. It relates each

other to make complete story.

So this different with Mario Klarer, according to

him, he explains that there are four elements of short story

are: plot, characters, narrative perspective and setting.

c. Biography of Leo Tolstoy

Tolstoy was born at Yasnaya Polyana, a family estate 12

kilometers (7,5 mi) Southwest of Tula, Russia, and 200 Kilometers

(120 mi) South of Moscow. He was the fourth of five children of

Count Nikolai Ilyich Tolstoy (1794 – 1837), a veteran of the

patriotic war of 1812, and countess Mariya Tolstoy (née

Volkonskaya, 1790 – 1830). His mother died when he was two and

his father when he was nine.

Tolstoy and his siblings were brought up by relatives. In

1844, he began studying law and oriental languages at Kazan

University where teachers described him as “both unable and

unwilling to learn.” Tolstoy left the University in the middle of his

studies, returned to Yasnaya Polyana and then spent much time in

Moscow, Tula and Sait Petersburg, leading a lax and leisurely

lifestyle.

Tolstoy began writing during this period, including his first

novel childhood, a fictitious ccount of his own youth, which was

published in 1852 . in 1851, after running up heavy gambling

17
 debts, he went with his older brother to the caucasusand joined the

army. He served as a young artillery officer during the Crimean

war and was in Sevas topol during the 11 – month – long siege of

Sevastopol in 1854 – 55, including the battle of Chernaya.

Tolstoy described the schools’ principles in his 1862 essay

“The School at Yasnaya Polyana.” His ducational experiments

were short – lived, partly due to harassment by the tsarist secret

police. However, as a direct forerunner to A.S. Neill’s Summerhill

School, the school at Yasnaya Polyana can justifiably be claimed

the first example of a coherent theory of democratic education.

d. Stylistics and stylistic Analysis

1. Stylistics

Stylistic is the branch of linguistic that focuses on style,

particularly in works of literature. It means that, to discuss a

literature, there is branch particular that discusses about the

literature, on the literature can discusses about style of

language, theme, or meaning of the literature, the science of

linguistic that discusses about style of language, meaning of

language names stylistics.15

According to Allan et.al., (1988), the concept of stylistics is

studies the characteristics of situationally distinctive use of

15
Ebi Yeibo, 2011. Group Types as Style Markers in J.P. Clark -
Bekederemo's Poetry. Manufactured in Finland. ISSN 1799 - 2591.

18
language and tries to establish principles capable of accounting

for particular choices made by individuals and social groups in

their use of language. It means that, stylistics discusses about

chatacteristic on language use and meaning on the language till

the language can uses for a literature.16

The differencies between Ebi Yeibo and Allan statement's,

Ebi Yeibo says that stylistics discusses about literature, on the

literature that discusses about the style of language, the theme

and meaning of the literature. In other ways, Allan says that

stylistics discusses about characteristic on language use and

meaning of the language. The similarity, is they discuss about

stylistic, stylistic is the branch of linguistic that discusses about

literature, about the style of language, and meaning of the

language.

Stylistics, a branch of modern linguistucs devoted to the

detailed analysis of literary style, or of the linguistic choices

made by speakers and writers in non - literary contexts. 17 It

means that, stylistic is a linguistic that focuses on language

chances that is used by speaker and writer, for communication

but non on context literature.

16
Allan, B. et.al., (Eds) (1988). The Fontana Dictionary of Modern
Thoughts. London: Fontana.
17
Chris Bardick. 2001. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary
Terms. Oxford University Press. Page: 247.

19
 The differences, between them, Ebi Yeibo and Allan, say

that stylistic just focusses on literature, and discusses about the

style of language and meaning of language, on the contrary,

according Chris, stylistics discusses about language that is used

by speaker and writer non on context literature.

To conclude, stylistics is a branch of lunguistic that

discusses about language, specifically on literary, stylistics will

discusses about the style of language, meaning and

characteristic of the literature.

2. Stylistics Analysis

According to Leech and Short in ARIEL Journal, "The

stylistic analysis of the given story has been carried out using the

checklist of stylistic categories" These are the stylistic categories:

a. Lexical Categories

b. Grammatical Categories

The discussion of this category commonly about tense,

number, and gender. Grammatical category divides into several

classification, they are, first is sentence type. Based on the function

there are three sentence types, declarative, interogative, and

imperative sentence. The second is sentence complexity. In general

there are two main structures of sentences, simple and complex

sentences. The last is noun phrase. This classification discusses the

complexity of the noun phrase in a text. There are three

20
 components in describing a complex noun phrase, such as the head,

pre-modification, and post-modification.

C. Figures of Speech

Figure of speech is basically used by the authors to make

expression of the language becoming more beautiful and effective

to deliver the message indirectly to the readers. A figure of speech

expresses an idea, thought, or with words which carry meanings

beyond the literal meaning. The most common figures of speech

may be group in three categories, there are figures of comparison

which includes simile, metaphor, and personification, then figures

of contrast includes irony, hyperbole, and litoles, and the last is

figures of association includes metonymy and synecdoche.

D. Context and Cohesion

Context can be defined as the whole aspect in a text which

provides resources for appropriate interpretation. There are two

types of context, linguistic and non-linguistic context. Cohesion

can defined as a way in which sentences are connected and how the

connections are made, for example by using coordinating

conjunction, linking adverbials, word repetition, etc.

In short, researcher assumed that there era four stylistic

categories. The categories are lexical, grammatical, figures of

speech, and context cohesion category. The researcher uses the

21
 theory according to Leech and Short and takes one of the

categories to be discussed, lexical category.

3. Lexical Categories

Lexical categories are the group types of words used in a

text or lexical category is a class of lexical items. Lexical items

are items in the lexicon of a language (the language’s

vocabulary). i.e., eat, pinch, elephant, cookie, pretty.

The using of lexical categories is to find out how choices

of words involving various type of meaning.18 It means that, the

using of lexical categories for helping the reader to identify the

meaning of the word. For one word has much meaning. But, the

word can identify the meaning with look the context of the

sentence.

The writer is analyzing how the lexical categories imply

into the text. These are restricted into three categories, they are:

adjective, noun, and verb.

According to Safiye Ciftlikli in her journal with the title

"Lexical Categories in Eleven by Sandra Cisneros: A Pedagogical

Stylistic Study",19 in term of analysis lexical categories are used to

clarify how choice of words involves various types of meaning.

18
Leech and Short. 1981. Style in Fiction. London: Longman group Limited. P.75.
19
Safiye Ciftlikli. 2019. Lexical Categories in Eleven by Sandra Cisneros:
A Pedagogical Stylistic Study. DOI: 10. 22559/folklore.980. page: 796 – 798.

22
General description of vocabulary choice, examination of nouns,

verbs, and adjectives are taken into account in this analysis.

a. Nouns

It is clearly identified that a large number of concrete nouns

( eyes, mama's lap, onion, riny, tree trunk, dolls, penny, tin, box,

sweater, desk, pencil, book, eraser, mountain, cake, candle, etc.)

b. Adjectives

While adjectives are examinated from the stylistic point of

view, it is clearly perceived that most of the adjectives that has

been selected to refer what the girl feels regarding to her age and to

refer what the girl feels regarding to her age and to the red sweater.

Examples (stupid, scared, sad, quiet, ugly, raggedy, old, sick, itchy,

streched, mad, dumb).

c. Verb

Analyzing the story in terms of the use of verbs, it is clearly

identified that the writer generally uses agentive, verbs, with a

human subject. Action verb (tell, wake up, open, sit, grow up, cry,

put, come, etc.) and state verbs (understand, expect, need, have,

know, belong, remember, pretend.)

23
 Lexical categories, according to Leech and Short in their

book with the title "Style in Fiction" kinds of lexical categories,

are:

a. Nouns

Concrete nouns (engine, wagons, colt, gorse, railway,

hedge, basket, etc). Abstrack nouns, when they occur, often refer to

movement and action: threats, speed, canter, movement, winding,

spasms.

b. Verbs

Verbs are far more frequent. Most verbs are dynamic, and

many indicate movement: came, clanking, flickered, licking,

trailing, claw, grew. Verbs which are stative generally have

implications of movement, indicating physical position or posture:

held, stood, cleaved, squat, hung, etc. Auditory verbs are used for

mechanical activities: clacking, thumped, rapped, whistled.

C. Adjectives

The adjectives bring visual imagery, particularly of colour:

red, scarlet and pink, black. Another morphologically defined,

consists of adjectives endong in -y, marshy, ready, ashy, dreary,

clumsy, wintry, twiggy. Adjective in with the large number of

24
adjectives which emphasis ugliness and torpor: raw, rough, ragged,

forsaken, stagnant, dishevelled, etc.

d. Adverbs

The largest group of adverbs is that of place, and especially

direction: down, back, aside, away, up, behind. These tend to

combine with verbs to emphasise movement and activity

(stumbling down, walking up, drew back, etc). There are also four

manner adverbs in -ly: indistinctly, heavily, insignificantly and

noiselessly.20

So to conclude, according to Safiye, he explains that there

are three kinds of lexical categories, are: nouns, adjectives, and

verbs. In another way, Leech and Short, explain that there are four

kinds of lexical categories, are: nouns, verbs, adjectives and

adverbs. So, the researcher will identifies the short story in four

kinds of lexical cayegories are: nouns, adjectives, verbs, and

adverbs.

a. Noun
20
Leech and Short. 1981. Style in Fiction. London: Longman group
Limited. P.74

25
Is the word that refer to people, things, place, plants,

hewan, concept, etc. example: Fatimah, rose, cat, doctor,

chair, water, house, happiness, honesty.21

There are five kinds of noun, are:

1. Abstract and Concrete noun.

Abstract noun: happiness, freedom, health,

honesty, courage, wisdom.

Concrete noun: chair, bread, people, car

perfume.

2. Common nouns: book, invention, city, soldier, tool,

bread, stone.

3. Proper noun: Amir, Yogyakarta, Indonesia,

Bengawan Solo, Australia.

4. Collective Nouns: a team, a committee, a jury, a

club, a regiment.

5. Material nouns: gold, water, fish, iron, blood, etc.

Compound noun: pick pocket, dance team, dining

room, swimming pool, mother – in – law,

stepmother. Inflection of noun : gender, number,

case.

There are four kinds of gender in noun, are:

21
Dr. Fuad Mas’ud. 1998. Essentials of English
Grammar A Practical Guide. Yogyakarta. BPFE Yogyakarta.
Page: 61

26
  Masculine gender: father, brother, uncle,

son, boy, man, men, sir, king.

 Feminine: mother, sister, daughter, niece,

grandmother, women, widow.

 Common gender: teacher, student,

secretary, people, pupil, baby.

 Neuter gender: book, table, pen, chair, river,

mountain.

Countable noun: many, Uncountable noun:

much.

Pronoun22

i. Personal pronoun

Nominative subjective: I, you, she, he, it,

we, you, they.

Objective accusative: me, you, him, her, it,

us, you, them.

ii. Demonstrative pronoun: this, these, that,

those.

iii. Indefinite pronoun: another, anybody,

anyone, anything, each, either, each one,

everybody, everyone, everything, much

22
Ibid. 80

27
 neither, no one, no body, nothing,

somebody, someone, something, all, any,

most, none, some.

iv. Interrogative pronoun: who, what, whom,

which.

v. Reflexive pronoun: myself, himself, herself,

itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves.

vi. Reciprocal pronoun: each other, one another.

vii. Relative pronoun: who, whom, whose, that,

which.

Defining relative: that (which), who (that),

that (which), that (whom), that (which),

whom, whose, of which, where.

Non defining relative: who, which, whom.

viii. Possessive pronoun: my, your, his, her, its,

our, your, their, mine, yours, his, hers, its,

ours, yours, theirs.

b. Adjective

Is the words that is used to explain noun or pronoun..

Example: good, happy, long, bad, sad, hot, tall, beautiful.23

There are two kinds of adjectives, are:

1. Descriptive adjective: big, red, small, round, tall,

delicious.
23
Ibid. 93

28
 2. Limiting adjectives: my book, this car, three men.

Adjective can be 8 groups, are:

a. Adjective of quality: small, fat, large, poor,

short.

b. Adjective of quantity: much, little, some, all,

enough or sufficient, bit, no, any, half, etc.

c. Adjective of numeral or numerical adjective

Definite: cardinal, ordinal, multiplication

Cardinal: one, two, three

Ordinal: first, second, third

Multiplication: single, double, triple, twofold,

threefold, a pair, a dozen.

Indefinite: all, some, enough, many, several,

few, a few, one.

d. Demonstrative adjective: definite and indefinite

Definite: this that, the same, the, these, those,

such other

Indefinite: another, a an, any, a certain, any

certain , such, some, any other.

e. Proper adjective: English, Dutch, Javaness,

Canadian.

f. Interrogative adjective: what, which, whose.

29
 g. Possessive adjective: my, her, our, its, your,

their, his.

h. Distributive adjective: each, every, either,

neither.

c. Verb

Is the word that refer to name of action that is done by the

subject.24

Kind of verb

o Finite verb: verb I

o Auxiliary verb:

To be: being, been, am, is, are, was, were

To do: does, did

Have: has, had

o Linking verb: be (am, is, are, was, were) appear,

become, feel, grow, look, remain, seem, sound, stay,

taste, smell.

o Transitive verb: struck, bits, push, drop, grow,

misunderstood.

o Intransitive verb: shine, slept, boils, played, laughs,

died/

o Regular and irregular verb

Regular verb: cook cooked cooked

24
Ibid. 114

30
 Irregular verb: see saw seen

d. Adverb

Is the word that explain: how the way, where the place,

when the time, how times, etc, from a work that is done or a

phenomenon happening.25

There are eight kinds of adverb, are:

1. Adverb of manner: quickly, sweetly, neatly,

fluently.

2. Adverb of place: have, abroad, everywhere, down.

3. Adverb of time:

Definite time: yesterday, now, Saturday, night,

today, tomorrow, last week.

Indefinite time: recently, soon, already, just, still,

nowadays, first, next, later.

4. Adverb of degree: very, too, rather, somewhat,

extremely, fairly, exceedingly, quite, almost,

nearly, partially, wholly, utterly, practically,

entirely.

5. Adverb of frequency: usually, always, often,

sometime, rarely, scarcely, hardly, ever, never.

6. Adverb of quantity: little, twice.

7. Interrogative adverb: why, where, how, when, how

long.
25
Ibid. 118

31
8. Relative adverb: therefore, accordingly, moreover,

besides, however, nevertheless, where, why.

Prepositions: is the word that refer to relation

between noun, pronoun, and another word in

sentence.26 Example: at, ahead, about, across, after,

above, around, among, away, against, back behind,

before, below, beneath, beside, beyond, between,

backwards, by, down, during, downwards, for,

from, front, in, into, inside, near, on, of, off, out

onwards, till, through, up, upto, until, upon,

upwards, under, via, with, within, without,

according to, instead of, next to, through out,

upside down, outside of.

Conjunction: is the word that is used to connect

word with word, idiom with idiom, sentence with

sentence.27

There are two kinds of conjunction:

A. Coordinating conjunction: and, but, for, nor, or,

yet.

Cumulative conjunction: both….and, either…

or, neither….nor, as well as, so…as, whether…

or, not only…but also, if…then, although…yet,

26
Ibid: 129
27
Ibid: 145

32
 and also, furthermore, likewise, besides, again,

moreover, in addition, similarly.

Alternative conjunction: or, neither…or, or

else, otherwise, neither, neither…nor.

Adversative conjunction: but, however, still,

yet, in spite of, despite, notwithstanding,

although, nevertheless, on the other hand, on

the contrary, in contrast, conversely.

Illative conjunction: therefore, accordingly,

thus, hence, consequently, so, because of, for

this reason, as a result, regardless of.

B. Subordinating conjunction: after, before, when,

while, as soon as, as, as if, because, since, even

though, if, in order that, lest, than, though, that,

although, until, where.

B. Review of Relevances Studies

33
 In supporting this research, there are several relevant studies

conducted by some researchers. The first research is done by Jennifer L.

Smith on the article with the title "Lexical Category and Phonological

Contrast".28 This research is about in a number of languages, nouns shows

phonologically privileged behavior compared to verbs. This difference is

analyzed here as an instance of positional faithfulness: the category noun

is a strong position, so the grammar includes noun-specific faithfulness

constrains which, when high-ranking, allow nouns ro be exempt from

neutralization processes that target other words.

The second research is done by Dwiki Rifardi with the title "Study

of Lexical Meaning on Bob Marley Songs".29 This research is about

analysis of lexical and contextual meaning of songs by Bob Marley for

explain the context found in his song. The focus of this research is

describing the context found in lexical and contextual meaning devices.

This study uses a descriptive qualitative method because the researcher

would analyze and interpret tje research object of Bob Marley Songs. The

result of rhis study describes the lexical and contextual meaning that found

in songs of Bob Marley, but not all the types of lexical and contextual are

existed in that song.

The third research is done by Mohsen Mobaraki in him article with

the title "The Production of Lexical Categories (VP) and Finctional

28
Jennifer L.Smith. 2001. Lexical Categpry and Phonological Contrast.
University of Massachusetts, Amherst. PELT 6 : Proceedings of The Workshop on the
Lexicon in Phonetics and Phonology.
29
Dwiki Rifardi. 2017. Study of Lexical Meaning on “Bob Marley” Songs.
Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang.

34
Categories (Copula) at the Initial stage of Child L2 Acquisition". 30 This is

a longirudinal case study of two farsi-speaking children learning English:

'Bernard' and 'Melissa', who were 7;4 and 8;4 at the start of data collection.

The research deals with the initial state and further development in the

child second language (L2) acquisition of syntax regarding the presence or

absence of copula as a functional category, as well as the role and degree

of L1 influence in lexical and functional categories.

The fourth research is done by Luca Onnis, Morten H. Cristiansen

on their journal with the title "Lexical categories at the edge of the

word".31 This journal shows that, using simple statistical procedures,

significant correlations exist between the beginnings and endings of a

word and its lexical category in English, Dutch, French and Japanese. This

article also presents a simple 2-layer connectionist model that, once trained

with an initial small sample of words labeled for lexical category, can infer

the lexical category of a large peoportion of novel words using only word-

edge phonological information, namely the first and last phoneme of a

word.

The last research is done by Fitriani Ponno et.al., with the ritle

"Lexical and contextual meanings contained in religious song lyrics at

quiver center academy (QCA)".32 This research is about the theme, lexical

30
Mohsen Mobaraki. 2014. The production of Lexical Categories (VP) and
Functional Categories (Copula) at the Initial Stage of Child L2 Acquisition. Birjard
University. IJEAP, 2015. Vol1, No.4, 47-61.
31
Luca Onnis,et.al.,. 2006. Lexical Categories at the Edge of the word.
Department of Psychology, Cornell university. ISSN:0364-0213 print/1551-6709 online.
32
Fitriani Ponno,et,al., Lexical and contextual Meanings Contained Religious
Song Lyrics at Quiver Center Academy (QCA)

35
and contextual meaning in the lyrics ofbthe songs frequently song in

quiver center academy (QCA) school located in Gading Serpong,

Tanggerang city. This research uses descriptive analisis method. The

analysis result in the conclusion that noun is the most category word that

has lexical and contextual meaning in the song. The main reason why

these words have lexical and contextual meaning is to know the meaning

of the song in a deeper way. Moreover, they also support the

understanding of the theme in QCA's are divinity, destiny, integrity,

victory, struggle, and dedication.

In the first research is about lexical category and phonological

contrast. This research is done by Jennifer L. Smith, she discusses about in

a number of languages, nouns show phonologically privileged behavior

compared to verbs. The second study is about study of lexical meaning on

Bob Marley songs. This research is done by Dwiki Rifardi, he discusses

about analysis of lexical and contextual meaning of songs by Bob Marley

for explain the context found in his song. The third research is about the

production of lexical categories (VP) and functional categories (copula) at

the initial stage of child L2 acquisition by Mohsen Mobaraki, he discusses

about a longitudinal case study of two farsi-speaking children learning

English:'Bernard' and 'Melissa', who are 7;4 and 8;4 at the start of data

collection. The fourth research is about lexical categories at the edge of the

word by Luca Onnis, et.al., he shows that, using simple statistical

procedures, significant correlations exist between the beginnings and

36
 endings of a word and its lexical category in English, Ducth, French, and

Japanese. The last research is about lexical and contextual meanings

contained in religious song lyrics at quiver center academy (QCA) by

Fitriani Ponno et.al., he discusses about the theme, lexical and contextual

meaning in the lyrics of the songs frequently song. So, all of researchs are

about lexical categories with different discussing. And the different with

this research is this research focuses on the analysis of lexical categories in

the short story "Three Questions" by Leo Tolstoy.

C. Conceptual Framework

37
 Conceptually, the framework of the research is illustrated as the following

figure:

Lexical Categories in Leo Tolstoy’s Short story “Three Questions”

Noun Verb Adjective Vocabulary

An Analysis of Lexical Categories in Leo Tolstoy’s Short Story

“Three Questions”

What are the categories and various types of meaning of speech

employed on Leo Tolstoy’s Short Story, “ Three Questions”?

The diagram above explains the conceptual framework. The lexical

categories in Leo Tolstoy's short story "Three Questions" as an the object

of research. Lexical category divided into four categories, there are noun,

consists of proper noun, common noun, and pronoun. Verb, consists of

dynamic verbs, and stative verb. Adjective, consists of attributive and

predicative. Vocabulary, consists of high frequency words, academic

words, technical words and low frequency words.

CHAPTER III

38
 RESEARCH METHOD

A. Kind of The Research

In designing this research the researcher uses content analysis with

qualitative approach. First of all the qualitative research is concerned with

qualitative phenomena that related to quality or variety. It involves looking

in depth at non-numerical data and more naturalistic or anthropological. 33,

In simple way the qualitative research related to how the researcher

processed the data in words not in numerical. Furthermore qualitative

research aims to comprehend the social phenomena based on the people

perspective.ñ

The qualitative method is used to research about the natural

objective condition. In this method, human can be an instrument of the

reseach.34 In qualitative method the researcher as the key instrumentation

shall have the knowledges and theories to analyze the data in order to get

the information depply. The result of qualitative method will be analyzein

words that the researcher concludes from the data that has been found in

the text.

The researcher aims to use the qualitative research to explore the

knowledge about stylistic especially lexical categories. The researcher

means that not only to know about the types of lexical categories but also

33
Donal Ary, Introduction to Research in Education .USA, Mc Graw
Hill, 2006, p.322.
34
Prof. Dr. Suryana, M. Si, Metodologi Penelitian Model Praktis
Penelitian Kuantitatif dan Kualitatif, (Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, 2010),
p.40.

39
 the meaning of sentences that contained in it. Therefore, the researcher

collects the data from the original text by read the text many times and

finds the sources about lexical categories and its meaning.

Content analysis helps the researcher to give meaning of the

information that has been collected and to identify patterns in the text.

Content analysis is a broad area of research. It includes both quantitative

and qualitative approaches to analysis. Krippendoff has stated, “Content

analysis to be simply a research technique for making replicable and valid

inferences from data to their context.”35 To collect the data into a content

analysis, the data are classified into categories. These categories includes:

noun, verb and adjective. Finally the textual data will be interpreted and

the result of the analysis provides.

B. Source of Data

The object of this research is a short story by Leo Tolstoy entitle

Three Questions. It consists of 6 pages. The researcher finds the short

story from http:www.SR9Questions.pdf. at sunday, July, 12, 2020, at

23:17 pm. Which consists of 2 pages. The reason of why the researcher

choose s this short story as the object of the research is in the story, there

are variations of language use such as types of lexical analysis which

includes to the stylistic categories. This research for identify the problems

are the analyzing of language use itself. Sometimes, we are difficult to

comprehend the hidden meaning and the types of lexical categories in that

35
David Wilkinson and Peter Birmingham. 2003. Using Research Instruments:
A Guide for Researchers. London: RoutletgeFalmer. P.68.

40
 story. Next, to know the meaning of each sentences and phrases that

belongs to the types of lexical categories.

C. Technique of Data Collection

In this step, the researcher collects the data by several steps below:

1. Reading

In this step, the researcher reads the short story from beginning until

the end many times to comprehend the story and finds there were any

types of lexical categories in the short story.

2. Coding

For this step, the researcher codes the words, phrases and sentences in

the short story which belong to the categories and the types of lexical

categories by underlined it.

3. Classifying

The next step, the researcher classifies the words, phrases, and

sentences which has coded before into the categories and the types of

lexical categories by put them in the table of the datasheet.

4. Analyzing

The last step, the researcher analysis each words, phrases and

sentences and gives each of their meanings and formulates the data

through the table below.

Table 3.1 Data Sheet of Types of Lexical Categories in Three

Questions by Leo Tolstoy Short Story.

D. Research Instrument

41
 Instrumentation is one of important parts in a research. The instrument

is needed to answer the research questions. The instrument of the research

should be designed optimally to get the read data. The researcher uses the

key instrument as one of the characteristics of a quantitative research.

1. Key Instrument

As one of the characteristics of quantitative research, the researcher

also uses key instrument as the instrumentation to collect the data

which is the researcher itself. As key instrumentation, the researcher

collects the data by read the short story many times and finds that the

author uses variations of language in the text. Furthermore the

researcher focuses on one category of stylistics, lexical category, and

classifies it into several types of lexical category.

E. Technique of Data Analysis

In this step, the researcher analyses the data that has been collects

to get the conclusion. Analysis of data is a process to analyze and interpret

the data to find the various information that is suitable with its function.36

So that, the data must be clear and relates with the purpose of the research.

The researcher adopts the theory of analysis data quantitative by Lisa M.

Given, there are several steps to analyzing the data, they are first,

gathering the data and the analysis of those data are iterative processes.

Second, both during and after collecting the data researchers engage in

memoring. Third any analysis of data involves some form of coding.

Wina Sanjaya. 2010. Pendidikan Tindakan Kelas : 2nd ed. Jakarta: Kencana
36

Persada Media Group. P.106.

42
 Fourth, quantitative researcher arrive at a more profound analysis of the

data when they engage in writing up the data as soon as possible. Fifth, all

data analysis must move toward developing concepts. More specific, the

researcher analyzes the data by several steps below:

1. Reading, in this step, the researcher reads the data to comprehend the

meaning of sentences which belong to the lexical categories.

2. In this step, the researcher classifies the sentences into categories and

the type of lexical categories.

3. The next step, the researcher finds out the meaning of each words by

denotative and connotative meaning.

4. For this step, the researcher explains the sentences overall, tells why

the sentences are categorized as lexical categories and the reason of

why the author used the types of lexical categories..

5. Conclusion. The last step, the researcher concludes the explanation by

tells the story around the sentences which belong to lexical categories.

References

43
 Chris Baldick. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms

Davidson, D. 1984. Inquiries into Truth and Interpretation. Clarendon

Press, Oxford

David Wilkinson and Peter Birmingham. 2003. Using Research

Instruments: A Guide for Researchers. London: RoutletgeFalmer

Donal Ary, Introduction to Research in Education .USA, Mc Graw Hill,

2006

Dr. Fuad Mas’ud. 1998. Essentials of English Grammar A Practical Guide.

Yogyakarta. BPFE Yogyakarta.

Dr. Nimer A. Abu Zahra.,et.al.,. 2015. Using Short Stories in The EFL

Classroom. IUG Journal of Humanities Research. Vol 24, No 1, 2016

Dwiki Rifardi. 2017. Study of Lexical Meaning on “Bob Marley” Songs.

Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang

Ellis, G., and Brewster, J. 1991. The Storytelling Handbook A Guide for

Primary Teacher of English. Hamondswath : Penguin

Fitriani Ponno,et,al., Lexical and contextual Meanings Contained

Religious Song Lyrics at Quiver Center Academy (QCA)

Ghasemi, P. 2011. Teaching The Short Story to Improve L2 reading and

Writing Skills: Approaches and Strategie. International journal of arts & Scinces.

Shiraz University, Iran.

44
 (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, Ltd, 1973).

J.A. Cuddon. 2013. A dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory,

Fifth Edition. British. A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication.

Jane Bcahma Gordon, Karen Kuehner, 1999. Fiction: The Elements of

Short Story, New York: Mc Graw Hill,

Jennifer L.Smith. 2001. Lexical Categpry and Phonological Contrast.

University of Massachusetts, Amherst. PELT 6 : Proceedings of The Workshop

on the Lexicon in Phonetics and Phonology

King, I. 2001. Beyond Cinderella : Using Stories with Secondary and

Adult Learners, BETA – IATEFL Language and Linguistic Studies, 4(2)

Leech and Short, Style in Fiction (London: Longman Group Limited 1981

Luca Onnis,et.al.,. 2006. Lexical Categories at the Edge of the word.

Department of Psychology, Cornell university. ISSN:0364-0213 print/1551-6709

online

Mario Klarer, An Introduction to Literary Studies (London and New York:

Routledge) 2004

M.H.Abrams, Geoffrey Galt Harpham. A Handbook of Literary Terms

Mohsen Mobaraki. 2014. The production of Lexical Categories (VP) and

Functional Categories (Copula) at the Initial Stage of Child L2 Acquisition.

Birjard University. IJEAP, 2015. Vol1, No.4, 47-6

45
 Prof. Dr. Suryana, M. Si, Metodologi Penelitian Model Praktis Penelitian

Kuantitatif dan Kualitatif, (Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, 2010)

Wina Sanjaya. 2010. Pendidikan Tindakan Kelas : 2nd ed. Jakarta: Kencana

Persada Media Group

46