5.

Coordination
Coordination
Neurones:

Central Nervous System: This contains the brain and spinal cord and is what gives out orders
to other parts of the body.
How neurones work:
An electrical impulse is sent from a nerve receptor and travels along the axon. At the nerve
ending, there is a gap (synapse). A synapse works as the electrical impulse triggers the
release of neurotransmitters. These chemicals diffuse across the synaptic cleft and binds
with receptors on the second neurone. This forms a neurotransmitter-receptor complex
which stimulates the second neurone to transmit the electrical impulse.The unused
neurotransmitters are then either reabsorbed or broken down by enzymes.
The brain:
The brain is made up of two cerebral hemispheres divided by a longitudinal fissure. The
left hemisphere (relative to patient) controls the motor function of the right side of the
body and vice versa. The right hemisphere is usually responsible for music, visual imagery
and spatial awareness while the left is responsible for language, maths and logic.

The cerebellum is located at the back of the brain and is responsible for coordinating
voluntary movements. It controls posture, balance, speech etc… and damage to it will
cause lack of balance, slower movements and an inability to do complex physical tasks.
The mid-brain is located at the lower middle part of the brain and is responsible for
hearing, vision, arousal and all of the responses related to sensory information. It is also
partly responsible for motor control and body temperature regulation.
The pituitary gland, located infront of the mid-brain, is responsible for secreting hormones
that either regulate the activities of organs or of other glands. e.g. growth hormones.
The hypothalamus, located above the pituitary gland connects the nervous and endocrine
systems and is responsible for homeostasis, sleep-wake cycle and some motor control.

Spinal cord: the spinal cord marks the site of coordination where information sent from
sensory neurones are passed via relay neurones to motor neurones for the impulses to be
sent to effectors. The middle of the spinal cord consists of grey matter as it consists of many
nerve cell bodies which a grey colour. The outer part of the spinal cord is called white matter as it
has a white appearance due to the presence of many axons with fatty myelin sheath.
Reflex Arc:
1. Receptor cells detect stimulus

2. Receptor stimulated and an electrical impulse sent along sensory neurones to the central
nervous system (CNS).

3. At the CNS it travels along synapses to the relay neurone.

4. The relay neurone passes it to the motor neurone.

5. The impulse travels via the motor neurone to the target muscle or gland effector. 6. This
creates an effect.

Examples of this are the knee jerk reflex and the withdrawal reflex. Both of these are spinal
reflexes and so are involuntary. This is because you only receive information (to your brain)
after the reflex has occurred due to the speed. In fact the knee jerk reflex can take just
50ms.

The body contains receptors that detect light, temperature, pain and taste stimulus.
Hormones:
Pituitary:
• Anti-Diuretic Hormones (ADH) – involved in osmoregulation by controlling the
permeability of collecting ducts.
• Gonadotrophin – controls the production of sperm and ovulation and triggers sexual
maturation.
Adrenal:
• Adrenaline – prepared the body for the “fight or flight” response in times of stress. It
increases heart rate, raises blood pressure, enlarges pupil size, and raises the body’s
metabolism.
Thyroid gland:
• Thyroxine – controls the body’s metabolic rate.
Pancreas (islets of Langerhans):
• Insulin – helps control the body’s blood sugar level by signalling the liver, muscle and
fat cells to take in glucose and convert it to glycogen.
• Glucagon – helps control the body’s blood sugar level by telling the liver to convert
stored glycogen into glucose which is then released into the blood stream.
Testes:
• Testosterone- controls the development of male secondary sexual characteristics
Ovary:
• Oestrogen- controls the development of female secondary sexual characteristics
• Progesterone- regulates the menstrual cycle

Hormones are vitally important for growth and development. The main hormones involved are
the pituitary growth hormone, thyroid hormone and sex hormones.

Comparison of nervous and endocrine (hormonal) system:

• Both move instructions around the body and participate in homeostasis.
• Neurones use electrical impulses while hormones use chemicals.
• Neurones target specific collection of cells while hormones target specific cells.
• Hormones are relatively slow while neurones are very fast and rapid.
• Hormonal effects are relatively long lasting while neurones only create a short effect.
The Eye:

Function:
The eye is an photoreceptor (detects changes in light) and transduces light energy into electrical
impulses. These are then interpreted as images by the brain. The eye is also able to respond to
changes in light and is able to focus and bend light reflected of objects to allow the brain to
produce a discernible image.

Focusing near and distant objects:

If an object is near, ciliary muscle will contract which relaxes the suspensory ligaments so that
the lens becomes fat and slightly curved (convex). If the object is far, ciliary muscle will relax,
making the suspensory ligaments tighten so that the lens stretches out and becomes thin and flat.

Responding to changes in light intensity:

In dim light, the iris dilate the pupil to allow more light to reach the retina. It does this by
contracting the radial muscles and relaxing the longitudinal muscles. In bright light, the iris will
shrink the pupil.

Stereoscopic vision: This refers to the ability of humans to see the same scene with both eyes in
different ways and results in our ability to perceive depth and distance. Stereoscopic vision allows
us to play sports and judge distance.

Some eye defects occur when light cannot focus on the retina.
1.long sight 2.short sight
3. Astigmatism a minor defect in the structure of the eye that causes blurred vision. There
are two types of astigmatism, called regular and irregular.

Regular astigmatism occurs when the surface of the cornea or lens is not a perfectly
spherical shape like a football, but is rounder in one direction than the other. This is easily
corrected by wearing glasses or contact lenses.

Irregular astigmatism is where the curvature of the surface of the cornea or lens is
uneven in more than one direction. This cannot be corrected by wearing glasses, but it
can be corrected with contact lenses.

4. Cataracts means clouding of the lens of the eye. This can often occur congenitally (from birth)
but can also develop over time. It restricts vision and can be treated by replacing the lens of the
eye in surgery.

CORNEAL TRANSPLANTS

When a cornea is diseased or damaged by an injury, it is possible to carry out a corneal

transplant. The diseased cornea is removed from the patient and replaced with a cornea
taken from a donor.. The majority result in restored vision and there is a low rate of
rejection of the donated tissue, with the replaced corneas lasting many years or a
lifetime. In a small number of cases, where transplant of a living cornea is not possible,
artificial corneas made of transparent plastic have been used.
The Ear:

Function:
The ear as an organ of hearing.

• The ear has three parts; the outer, middle and inner ear. The outer ear directs sound
waves to the ear drum at the end of the auditory canal, causing it to vibrate. The
vibrations are passed across the ear ossicles: the malleus, incus and staples. These bones
amplify the vibrations as they pass across them. The staples transmit the vibrations to a
membrane-covered opening called the oval window, which is at one end of a coiled
structure called the cochlea. The Eustachian tube connects the middle ear with the throat
and allows the air pressure to be equalised on either side of the eardrum.
• A structure called the organ of Cort runs along the whole length of the coiled cochlea.
The receptor cells in the organ of Cort convert the vibrations to nerve impulses.
• The outer fluid-filled canal runs from the oval window to the top of the cochlea, around
the end of the cochlea and back to the round window at the end of the cochlea.
• Vibrations of the oval window are transmitted to the fluid in the outer canal causing the
sensory hairs to be stretched. The receptor cells respond by producing nerve impulses.
• The round window vibrates with the opposite phase to the vibrations entering the inner
ear through the oval window. This allows for pressure changes between the middle ear and
the cochlea.
• The brain determines the frequency of the sound by detecting which hair cells are being
stimulated. Those nearest to the oval window are sensitive to high-frequency sounds,
while those near the round window are sensitive to low-frequency sounds. The loudness
of sound is determined by the amplitude of vibrations of the hair cells. Loud sounds
produce high amplitude vibrations which result in more nerve impulses per second in the
sensory neurones.
• The ossicles transfer vibrations from the eardrum across the middle ear to the oval
window and amplifies the vibrations transferred.
 • The eustachian tube allows air to pass from the throat. This equalises the pressure on
either side of the ear drum and this helps keep the malleus in contact with the ear drum.
• The cochlea converts vibrations to nerve impulses and transfers them to the brain via the
auditory nerve.
• Sound is directed through the outer ear by the pinna down to the ear drum. The ear drum
vibrates and transfer vibrations to the ear ossicles in the middle ear which are the
malleus, incus and staples. These transmit the sound to the structure of the inner ear
called the cochlea. Tiny hairs inside this structure move and the sound of the lion’s roar
reaches the brain via the auditory nerve.
• Prolonged hearing means hearing is reduced as information from cochlea is not detected.
Therefore, the impulse is transmitted to the auditory nerve in the brain. The auditory
nerve is damaged.

The ear as an organ of balance

The semi-circular canals as well as the sacculus and utriculus are the parts of the ear involved
with the sense of balance. In the swellings at the end of the semi-circular canals there are more
hair cells, with their hairs embedded in a jelly-like mass called a cupula.

Movement of the fluid in the semi-circular canals causes the cupula to pull on the hair cells,
which stimulates them to send nerve impulses to the brain. The canals are arranged in the planes
at right-angles to each other, so that they can detect movement in any direction. The sacculus
and utriculus also contain hair cells. Their hairs are embedded in a jelly containing calcium
carbonate crystals called an otolith. The weight of the otolith pulls on the hair, stimulating the hair
cells and producing nerve impulses. This gives information to the brain about the position of the
head.

LOUD NOISE CAN DAMAGE THE EAR

long lasting – can be very harmful to the ears. They can damage the sensitive structures within
the ear, producing noise-induced hearing loss, or NIHL.

A one-off exposure to a very loud noise, such as an explosion, can rupture (tear) the eardrum or
damage the delicate bones in the inner ear, although the ear can recover from this. Exposure to
loud noise for longer periods of time can cause temporary deafness. It may also cause a ringing or
buzzing sound in the ears, called tinnitus. What is less well understood by many people is that
prolonged exposure to moderately loud or very loud noise can cause damage to the ears that
results in permanent hearing loss

NIHL is caused by damage to the delicate hair cells in the inner ear. This is a gradual process:
when it starts to happen, the person may not notice, or they may ignore the signs of hearing loss
until they become worse. Over time, sounds become distorted or muffled, so the person may
struggle to follow a conversation, or may have to turn up the volume on their television
Drugs are chemicals that affect the normal chemical reactions taking place in a person’s body.
They may have a physiological effect when taken into the body.

Legal Drugs

1. Paracetamol

It is a painkiller than inhibits an enzyme controlling the production of chemicals in the body
called prostaglandins. These chemicals are beneficial for the body but can cause side effects
such as pain and fever hence paracetamol is used to control the side effects.

Prostaglandins are produced by the body in response to injury and certain diseases. It is
sensitive to nerve endings so when the area is stimulated it causes pain. Paracetamol reduces
nerve sensitising prostaglandins in the brain and spinal cord. It reduces fever by affecting the
area of the brain regulating the temperature (hypothalamus).

Illegal Drugs

1. Cannabis

It is obtained from a plant called Cannabis sativa. The dried leaves are smoked as Marijuana
or Hashish. It contains a psychoactive substance called THC or tetrahydrocannabinol.

Cannabis can make the user confused or disorientated and can cause hallucinations.
Moreover, they can become anxious, depressed and even suicidal.

- Confusion
- Disorientation
- Hallucination
- Anxious
- Depressed
- Suicidal
- Slow reaction time
- Increased heart rate
- Increased risk of stroke
2. Heroin

Heroin is both a legal and illegal plant. It is a modified form of morphine and is used as a pain
killer in hospitals.

Heroin is a narcotic and is usually injected into a vein but can also be smoked or inhaled.
Users of heroin develop a tolerance to heroin i.e. they will need to consumer more heroin to
get the same effect and this leads to addiction.

- Addition/Drug craving
- Depression
- Anxiety
- Stomach cramps
- Sweating
- Insomnia
- Diarrhoea
- Fever
- Muscle spasm
- Nausea and vomiting
- Increased blood pressure and heart rate
3. Cocaine

Cocaine can cause many health problems such as nosebleeds, dizziness, nausea, fever,
seizures, breathing difficulties, tremors and muscle twitches. In addition, it can cause many
problems such as a breakdown of the large intestine due to reduced blood flow.

- Increase heart rate and blood pressure

- Cause nosebleeds
- Dizziness
- Nausea
- Fever
- Seizures
- Breathing difficulities
- Tremors
- Muscle twitches
- Addiction
- Breakdown of large intestine in long run due to reduced blood flow
 Alcohol

It is a recreational drug. It slows down the nervous system and increases the reaction time.

Large amounts of alcohol can interfere with the drinker’s balance and muscular control.
Regular consumption of alcohol in large volume causes cirrhosis. Alcohol has to be detoxified
by the liver but drinking too much cannot be coped with by the liver and this damages the
liver.

Due to excessive drinking, fat builds up in the liver. Chemical reactions from the breakdown of
alcohol over a long period of time damage the liver causing cirrhosis. As a result there is
reduced response to insulin therefore less glucose is taken in and the liver is unable to
convert excess glucose to glycogen.

chemicals that inhibit enzymes that break down dopamine can be used.

Mental Illness

1. Schizophrenia

Symptoms:

- A lack of interest in things

- Becoming anxious and confused
- Feeling disconnected from the surrounding
- Difficulty in concentrating
- Wanting to avoid people
- Hallucinating
- Hearing voices
- Having delusions
- Suffering from paranoia

Causes:

- Dopamine – Low levels of dopamine can trigger schizophrenia

- Stress
- Heredity
- Drug Abuse – Can be caused by cannabis and cocaine

Treatments:

- Talking treatment
- Cognitive behaviour therapy
- Family intervention therapy
 2. Depression

Symptoms:

- Restless or irritable
- Low self-esteem
- Unable to relate to other people
- Unable to enjoy life or find pleasure in anything
- A sense of unreality

Causes: mental health problems, poor physical health, bad childhood experiences, life-changing
events (such as a death in the family) and drug or alcohol abuse

Treatment: antidepressants, therapy.

Diseases of the Brain

1. Alzheimer’s Disease

It causes dementia. It is caused by two proteins called amyloid and tau which build in the brain
and kill brain cells. As the disease progresses, more brain cells are damaged leading to the
symptoms of Alzheimer’s.

Symptoms:

- Forgetting recent events, names and faces

- Becoming repetitive
- Forgetting where things are or putting them in strange places
- Not knowing the date or time of day
- Being unsure with surroundings or getting lost
- Problems with speech and finding the right words
- Becoming anxious or irritable

Cure: There is no cure for Alzheimer’s, but it can be helped by a drug that increases the
amount of neurotransmitter called Acetylcholine.

2. Vascular Dementia

It is caused by diseased and damaged blood vessels in the brain. The blood vessels become
blocked or leak, reducing the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the brain cells.

Like Alzheimer’s, vascular dementia causes problems with memory loss, thinking and
reasoning. There are several different types of vascular dementia, affecting different areas of
the brain. Each type can produce a range of different symptoms.

No cure but drugs can be used to reduce high blood pressure or lower blood cholesterol and
reduce risk of stroke.
3. Parkinson’s Disease

It is caused by the death of certain neurones in the brain. These neurones produce a
neurotransmitter called dopamine. A decrease in dopamine causes abnormal brain activity
leading the symptoms of Parkinson’s.

a tremor (shaking) in the hand or fingers person’s movements become slow, steps shorten
and it becomes difficult for them to walk , which causes pain and slows movement. Their
posture (the way they hold their body) becomes bent over, and the person may have problems
with balance. There is a loss of automatic movements, such as blinking, smiling and the normal
swinging of the arms during walking. The person may have difficulty speaking clearly.

There is no cure, but the symptoms can be helped with the use of Levodopa which enters the
brain and is converted to dopamine. Moreover, dopamine agonists (mimic dopamine) and
chemicals that inhibit enzymes that break down dopamine can be used.