The Constant Comparative Method of Qualitative Analysis

Author(s): Barney G. Glaser

Source: Social Problems, Vol. 12, No. 4 (Spring, 1965), pp. 436-445
Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for the Study of Social
Problems
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 436 SOCIAL PROBLEMS

ters. Even here it increased

may attention to residence and
be attenuated
in areas with strong religious
status in investigating and
illegitimacy. It
family controls. may well be that the generalizations
Restriction of this
basedanalysis
largely on studies to of a par-
urban popu-
ticular metropolitan
lations do notarea apply precludes
uniformly either
to all segments
generalization of the findings of the urban
to the social
country as a whole.structure
The or to the suburbs.
findings point
to the desirability, however, of giving

THE CONSTANT COMPARATIVE METHOD

OF QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS*

BARNEY G. GLASER
University of California
Medical Center, San Francisco

Research into social problems, prob-

topics, stigma, and legality, and because
lems of deviation, of control and of in these situations are usually
people
crisis, and the like-the generaladept
sub-at covering the facts when nec-
ject matter to which Social Problems
essary, often the only way a researcher
is devoted-is still mainly feasible
can obtain any data, or data that is
through methods which yield qualita- accurate, is some combination of ob-
tive data. Because these areas raise serving what is going on, talking in
problems of secrecy, sensitivity, taboo
rather loose, sharing, fashion with the
people in the situation, and reading
* This paper developed out of problems
of analysis arising during the study of some form of document that they have
terminal care in hospitals; particularly the written. These methods best allow the
interaction of staff and dying patients. researcher either to gain the trust of
The study is sponsored by the National the people in the situation or, if nec-
Institutes of Health, Grant GN9077. An-
selm Strauss, Fred Davis, and Stewart essary, to accomplish clandestine re-
Perry have been strong sources of encour-search. In view of this distinctive rele-
agement in the preparation of this paper.vance of qualitative data collection
I am particularly indebted to the extensive
and analysis for many areas of social
editorial work of Robert K. Merton. Sub-
problems,
stantive papers from this study are: Anselm the constant comparative
Strauss, Barney G. Glaser, and Jeanne method of qualitative analysis will in
Quint, "The Non-Accountability of Ter- particular, I trust, increase the battery
minal Care," Hospitals, 36 (Jan. 16, 1964), of alternative approaches useful to re-
pp. 73-87; Barney G. Glaser and Anselm searchers in these areas.
Strauss, The Social Loss of Dying Pa-
tients," American Journal of Nursing, 64 My other purpose in presenting the
(June, 1964) pp. 119-121; Barney G. constant comparative method may be
Glaser and Anselm Strauss, "Awareness stated by a direct quotation from
Contexts and Social Interaction," AmericanRobert K. Merton-a statement he
Sociological Review, 29 (Oct. 1964), pp.
made in connection with his own
669-678; Barney G. Glaser and Anselm
Strauss, "Temporal Aspects of Non-Sched- qualitative analysis of locals and cos-
uled Status Passage," (to be published in mopolitans as community influentials:
the American Journal of Sociology); and
a forthcoming book, Barney G. Glaser and This part of our report, then, is a bid
Anselm Strauss, Awareness of Dying: A to the sociological fraternity for the
Study of Social Interaction, Chicago: Aldine practice of incorporating in publications
Press. a detailed account of the ways in which

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 Constant Comparative Method of Analysis 437

qualitative analyses actually developed.his material.8 Not only would analysis

Only when a considerable body of suchafter a coding operation unnecessarily
reports are available will it be possible
delay and interfere with his purpose,
to codify methods of qualitative analysis
with something of the clarity with but explicit coding itself often seems
which quantitative methods have been an unnecessary, burdensome task. As a
articulated.1 result, the analyst merely inspects his
SOME DIVERSE APPROACHES TO data for new properties of his theo-
retical categories and writes memos on
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
these properties.
Two general current approachesIntothis paper, I wish to suggest a
the analysis of qualitative data are
third approach to the analysis of quali-
as follows: (1) If the analyst wishes
tative data, combining, by an analytic
to convert qualitative data into crudely
procedure of constant comparison, the
quantifiable form in order to test pro-coding procedure of the first
explicit
visionally an hypothesis, he codes the and the style of theory devel-
approach
data first and then analyzes opment
it. An of the second. The purpose of
effort is made to code "all relevant data
the constant comparative method of
[that] can be brought to bear oncoding
joint a and analysis is to generate
point," and then the assemblage, as-
theory more systematically than al-
sessment, and analysis of this data
lowedisby the second approach by using
accomplished systematically in a fashion
the explicit coding and analytic proce-
that will "constitute proof for adures.
givenAt the same time, it does not
proposition.' '2 forestall the development of theory by
(2) If the analyst wishes only to adhering completely to the first ap-
generate theoretical ideas-new con- proach which is designed for provi-
cepts and their properties, hypotheses sional testing, not discovering, of
and interrelated hypotheses-the anal- hypotheses.
ysis cannot usefully be confined to the
Systematizing the second approach
practice of coding first and then ana-
by this method does not supplant the
lyzing the data, since the analyst, in
skills and sensitivities required in in-
direct pursuit of his purpose, is con-
stantly redesigning and reintegrating spection. Rather the constant compara-
his theoretical notions as he reviews tive method is designed to aid analysts
with these abilities in generating a
1 Op. cit., p. 390. This is, of course, theory which is integrated, consistent,
also the basic position of Paul F. Lazars- plausible, close to the data, and in a
feld. See Allen H. Barton and Paul F.
Lazarsfeld, "Some Functions of Qualitative form which is clear enough to be
Analysis in Social Research," in Seymour M. readily, if only partially, operation-
Lipset and Neil J. Smelser (eds.), So-
ciology: The Progress of a Decade, Engle- 3 Constantly redesigning the analysis is
wood, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1961. It is thea well known normal tendency in qualita-
position that has stimulated the work of tive research (no matter what the approach
Becker and Geer, and Berelson cited in to analysis) which occurs throughout the
footnote 2. whole research experience from initial data
2 Howard S. Becker and Blanche Geer, collection through coding to final analysis
"The Analysis of Qualitative Field Data" and writing. It has been noted in Becker
in Human Organization Research, edited and Geer, op. cit., 270, Berelson, op. cit.,
by Richard N. Adams and Jack J. Preiss,125; and for an excellent example of how
Homewood: Dorsey Press, Inc., 1960, pp. it goes on, see Robert K. Merton, Social
279-289. See also Howard S. Becker, Theory and Social Structure, New York:
"Problems of Inference and Proof in Par- Free Press, 1957, pp. 390-392. However,
ticipant Observation," American Sociolog- this tendency may have to be suppressed
ical Review, Dec., 1958, pp. 652-660, and in favor of the purpose of the first ap-
Bernard Berelson, Content Analysis, Glen- proach, but in the second approach and
coe: Free Press, 1952, Chapter III, and the approach to be presented here, it is
page 16. used purposefully as an analytic strategy.

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438 SOCIAL PROBLEMS

alized for testing combines the first and second ap-re-

in quantitative
search. Depending asin it
proaches still
a manner does
different from on
the skills and sensitivities of the ana- the constant comparative method.4
lyst, the constant comparative method Analytic induction is concerned with
is not designed (as methods of quanti- generating and proving an integrated,
tative analysis are) to guarantee that limited, precise, universally applicable
two analysts working independently theory of causes accounting for a spe-
with the same data will achieve the cific phenomenon, e.g., drug addiction
or embezzlement. Thus, in line with
same results; it is designed to allow,
the first approach, it tests a limited
with discipline, for some of the vague-
ness and flexibility which aid the crea-
number of hypotheses with all availa-
tive generation of theory. ble data, which are numbers of clearly
If the person applying the first defined and carefully selected cases of
approach wishes to discover some the
or phenomena. In line with the
second approach, the theory is gene-
all of the hypotheses to be tested, his
discoveries are typically made by using
rated by the reformulation of hypoth-
the second approach of inspection and eses and redefinition of the phenomena
memo-writing along with explicit forced by constantly confronting the
coding. In contrast, the approach pre-theory with negative cases.
sented here cannot be used for provi-In contrast to analytic induction, the
sional testing as well as discovering constant comparative method is con-
theory, since the collected data, as will
cerned with generating and plausibly
be seen in the foregoing description, suggesting (not provisionally testing)
are not coded extensively enough many to properties and hypotheses about
yield provisional tests, as they are in
a general phenomenon, e.g., the distri-
the first approach. The data are codedbution of services according to the
social value of clients. Some of these
only enough to generate, hence, to sug-
gest, theory. Partial testing of the
properties may be causes; but unlike
theory, when necessary, is left to more
analytic induction others are conditions,
rigorous, usually quantitative, ap- consequences, dimensions, types, proc-
proaches which come later in the sci-esses, etc., and, like analytic induction,
entific enterprise. they should result in an integrated
The first approach differs in another
theory. Further, no attempt is made to
way from that presented here. The first
ascertain either the universality or the
approach is usually concerned with proof
a of suggested causes or other
few hypotheses at the same level properties.
of Since no proof is involved,
generality, while the constant compara-
the constant comparative method, in
tive method is concerned with many contrast to analytic induction, does not,
hypotheses synthesized at different
as will be seen, require consideration
levels of generality. The reason for this
of all available data, nor is the data re-
difference is that the first approach stricted to one kind of clearly defined
must keep the theory tractable for case. The constant comparative method
provisional testing in the same pre- may be applied for the same study to
sentation. Of course, the analyst usingany kind of qualitative information, in-
the first approach might, after either cluding observations, interviews, docu-
proving or disproving his hypotheses, ments, articles, books, and so forth.
attempt to explain his findings with As a consequence, the constant com-
some more general ideas suggested by
his data, thus achieving some synthe-4 See Alfred R. Lindesmith, Opiate
Addiction, Bloomington: Principia, 1947,
sis at different levels of generality.
pp. 12-14, and Donald R. Cressey, Other
Another approach to qualitative People's Money, New York: Free Press,
analysis is "analytic induction," which1953, p. 16 et passim.

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 Constant Comparative Method of Analysis 439

TABLE I
USE OF APPROACHES TO QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
Provisional Testing of Theory
Yes No

(2) Inspection for hypotheses (2) Inspection for hypotheses

along with (1) coding for
Generating test, then analyzing data
Theory Yes (3) Constant Comparative
(4) Analytic Induction Method
No (1) Coding for test, then ana- Ethnographic Description
lyzing data

parisons required by both methods tive method: while coding an incident

differ with respect to breadth of pur- for a category, compare it with the
pose, extent of comparing, and what previous incidents coded in the same
data and ideas are compared. category. For example, as the analyst
codes an incident in which a nurse
Clearly the purposes of both these
methods for generating theory supple- responds to the potential "social loss"
ment each other as well as the first -loss to family and occupation-of
a dying patient, he compares this inci-
and second approaches in providing
dent with others previously coded in
diverse alternatives to qualitative analy-
sis. Table I locates the uses of these the same category before further
coding.6 Since coding qualitative data
approaches to qualitative analysis and
provides a scheme for locating other takes some study of each incident,
this comparison can often be based
approaches according to their purposes.
on memory. There is usually no need
THE CONSTANT COMPARATIVE to turn back to every previous incident
METHOD for each comparison.
This constant comparison of the in-
The constant comparative method
cidents very soon starts to generate
can be described in four stages: (1)
theoretical properties of the category.
comparing incidents applicable to each
One starts thinking in terms of the
category, (2) integrating categories
full range of types or continua of
and their properties, (3) delimiting
the category, its dimensions, the con-
the theory, and (4) writing the theory.
ditions under which it is pronounced
Although this method is a continuous
or minimized, its major consequences,
growth process--each stage after a
the relation of the category to other
time transforms itself into the next--
categories, and other properties of the
previous stages remain in operation
category. For example, in constantly
throughout the analysis and provide
comparing incidents on how nurses
continuous development to the follow-
respond to the social loss of dying
ing stage until the analysis is termi-
nated. patients, we saw that some patients
are perceived as a high social loss and
1. Comparing incidents applicable
some as a low social loss and that
to each category. The analyst starts by care tended to vary positively
patient
coding each incident in his data in as degree of social loss. It was also
with
many categories of analysis as possi-
apparent that some of the social attri-
ble.5 To this procedure I add the basic,
butes which nurses combine to es-
defining rule for the constant compara-
tablish a degree of social loss are seen
5 I follow the procedure for selection 6 Illustrations in the paper will refer to
and coding of categories given in Becker"The Social Loss of Dying Patients," op.
and Geer, op. cit., pp. 271-82. cit.

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440 SOCIAL PROBLEMS

immediately (age, properties

ethnic, of the category
social which class)
re-
and some are learned after
sulted from a time
initial comparison with
of inci-
dents. For example,
the patient (occupational in comparing inci-
worth, mari-
dent with This
tal status, education). incident wefurther
discovered the led
us to the realization that
property that perceived
nurses are constantly
recalculating
social loss can change as anewpatient's attributes
social loss as
of the patients arethey learn more about him.
learned. It From
also then be-
came apparent underon each incident
what on calculation was
conditions
(types of wards andto hospitals)
compared accumulated knowledge we
on calculating,
would find clusters not to all other with
of patients inci-
different degreesdents
of of calculation.
social Thus, once we
loss.
After coding for found that age was the most
a category important
perhaps
three or four times, characteristic
the in calculating
analyst socialwill
loss,
experience a conflict we could discern
in how age affected theof
emphasis
recalculation of social loss as the nurses
thought. He will both muse over these
theoretical notions and try to con- found out more about the patient's
centrate on the study of the next inci- education. We found that education
dent to determine the alternate ways was most important in calculating the
in which it should be coded and com- social loss of a middle year adult, since
pared. At this point, the second rule at this time in life education was likely
of the constant comparative method is: to be of most social worth. This exam-
stop coding and record a memo on ple also shows that the accumulated
ideas. This rule is designed to tap the knowledge on a property of the cate-
initial freshness of the analyst's theo- gory-because of constant comparison
retical notions and to relieve the con- -readily starts to become integrated;
flict in thought. In doing so, the that is, related in many diverse ways,
analyst should take as much time as resulting in a unified whole.
necessary for reflecting and taking his In addition, the diverse properties
thinking to its most logical (grounded of the category start to become inte-
in the data, not speculative) conclu- grated. We soon found that calculating
sions. If one is working on a team, and recalculating social loss was re-
it is also a good idea to sit down with lated to the development of a social
a teammate and discuss theoretical no- loss "story" about the patient. When
tions with him. The teammate can asked about a patient, nurses would
help bring out points missed, addtell what amounted to a story about a
dying patient, the ingredients of which
points he has run across in his own
coding and data collection, and cross-were her continual balancing out of
check points. He, too, begins to com-social loss factors as she learned more
about the patient. We also found that
pare the analyst's notions with his own
the
ideas and knowledge of the data, calculus of social loss and the
which generates more theoretical ideas. social loss story were related to her
With clearer ideas on the emerging strategies for coping with the upset-
theory systematically recorded, the ana- ting impact on her professional com-
lyst then returns to the data for more posure of, say, a dying patient with
coding and constant comparison. a high social loss (e.g., a mother with
2. Integrating categories and their two children). This example further
properties. This process starts out in shows that the category becomes inte-
a small way; memos and possible con- grated with other categories of analy-
ferences are short. But as the coding sis: the social loss of the dying patient
continues the constant comparative is related to nurses maintaining their
units change from comparison of inci- professional composure while attend-
dent with incident to incident with ing his dying. Thus the theory devel-

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 Constant Comparative Method of Analysis 441

ops as different categories and their we were also discovering that our
properties tend to become integrated theory could be generalized to one
through constant comparisons which which concerns the care of all, not
force the analyst to make some relatedjust dying, patients by all staff, not
theoretical sense of each comparison. just nurses. Even more generally, it
3. Delimiting the theory. As the could be a theory of how social values
theory develops, various delimiting of professionals will affect the dis-
features of the constant comparative tribution of their services to clients:
method set in to curb what could for example, how they decide who
otherwise become an overwhelming among many waiting clients should
task. This delimiting occurs at two next receive a service and what calibre
levels: (1) the theory and (2) the of the service to give him. Thus, with
reduction of terminology and conse-
original list of categories proposed for
coding. First, the theory solidifies inquent generalizing which are forced by
the sense that major modifications be- constant comparisons-some of which
come fewer and fewer as one compares can now be based on incidents found
the next incidents of a category in to the literature of other professional
areas-the analyst starts to achieve two
properties of it. Later modifications are
mainly on the order of logical clarity;foremost requirements of theory: (1)
paring off non-relevant properties; in-parsimony of variables and formula-
tion and (2) scope in the applicability
tegrating elaborating details of proper-
ties into the major outline of interre-of the theory to a wide range of situa-
lated categories; and most important, tions,7 while keeping a close corre-
reduction. By reduction I mean that spondence of the theory to data.
a higher level, smaller set of concepts, Second, delimiting the theory results
based on discovering underlying uni- in a delimiting of the original list of
formities in the original set of cate-proposed categories for coding. As
gories or their properties, might occurthe theory grows, reduces, and increas-
to the analyst by which to write the ingly works better in ordering a mass
theory, hence, delimiting its termino- of qualitative data, the analyst becomes
logy and text. An illustration showing committed to it. This commitment now
both integration of more details into allows him to delimit the original list
the theory and some consequent reduc- of categories for coding according to
tion is the following. We decided to the boundaries of his theory. In turn,
elaborate the theory by adding detailedhis consideration, coding, and ana-
strategies which the nurses used to lyzing of incidents become more select
maintain their professional composure and focused. He can devote more time
while taking care of patients with to the constant comparison of incidents
varying degrees of social loss. We dis-clearly applicable to a smaller set of
covered that the rationales which they categories.
used among themselves could all beAnother factor, which then further
considered "loss rationales." The un-
delimits the list of categories for cod-
derlying uniformity was that all ra-
ing, is that categories become theo-
tionales indicated why the patient, retically saturated. After one has coded
given his degree of social loss, would,
incidents for the same category a num-
if he lived, now be socially worthless;
ber of times, it becomes a quick opera-
in spite of the social loss, he would be tion to see whether or not the next
better off dead. (For example, he applicable incident points to a new
would have brain damage, be in con- aspect of the category. If yes, then
stant, unendurable pain, or have no
the incident is coded and compared.
chance for a normal life.)
By further reduction of terminology 7 Merton, op. cit., p. 260.

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442 SOCIAL PROBLEMS

If no, the incident is notit,

saturate coded, sinc
if the ca
it only adds bulk to the
to the coded dat
theory.
Theoretical
and nothing to the theory.8 Forsatura
exam
ple, once we had established
another problem age a
con
If calculating
the base line for the analyst socia has
loss, it was no data,
longer thennecessaryhe willt
from time to
code incidents referring to time o
age in
observed or heard that
calculating social loss. However, i were not re-
we came acrosscorded.
a case What does he do? If the age d
where
not appear to beunrecorded incident applies to
the baseline (aan nega
es-
tive case), it was
tablished coded and
category, it can, the
after com-
compared. In theparison,
case either
of be neglected
an 85-yea as a
old, dying womansaturated
who point or, if consider
was it is a new
property
a great social loss, we of the category, it can be h
discovered
added into the next memooutweigh
"wonderful personality" and thus
integrated important
her age as the most into the theory. If the re-
facto
membered
in calculating her socialincidentloss.
generates a new
The fact that category, both incident and category
categories become
can be includedcan
theoretically saturated in a memo
bebearing
employ
as a strategy in on their place in the
coping theory. This
with may
another
be enough data if thewill
problem: new categories category emer
is
minor. However, if the category be-
after hundreds of pages of coding. T
comes a central
question is whether or partnot of theto theory,
the memo becomes a directive eithergo bac
and re-code all previously coded page
The answer for for returningstudies
large to the notes for more
is "no,"
coding, or for
not until starting to code for returning to the field or
the ne
library for
category at the page
more datait
when
or for future
occurs, an
research.
waiting for a few hundred pages o
The universe of data used in the
coding, or when the remaining da
have been coded toconstant
see comparative
whether method is or
based not
the new category on the reduction
has ofbecomethe theory and thetheo
delimination and saturation of cate-
retically saturated. If yes, then it is no
gories.
necessary to go back Thus, the collected universe
because of
theoretic
data is theoretically
saturation suggests that what delimited and,
hasif bee
necessary, carefully
missed will in all probability hav extended by a re-
little modifying turn to data collection
effect onaccording
theory. to I
theoretical requirements.
the category does not saturate, th This theo-
retical
it is necessary to go delimiting
back of the and
universe econ-
try to
omizes research resources, since it
8 If the purpose of the analyst, besidesforces the analyst to spend his time
developing theory, is also to count inci-and effort on data relevant only to his
dents for a category to establish provisional
proofs, then he must code the incident.
categories. For large field studies with
Furthermore, Professor Merton has made long lists of possibly useful categories
and thousands of pages of notes em-
the additional point in correspondence that
counting for establishing provisional proofs
bodying thousands of incidents, each
may also feed back to the development of
of which could be coded a multitude
theory, since frequency and cross-tabulation
of frequencies can also generate new theo-of ways, theoretical criteria are of
retical ideas. See Berelson on conditions great necessity in paring down an
under which one can justify time consum- otherwise monstrous task to the re-
ing, careful counting, op. cit., pp. 128-134.
sources of the people and the pro-
See Becker and Geer for a new method of
counting frequency of incidents, op. cit.,
ject's allotted time and money. With-
pp. 283-287. out these criteria the delimiting of a

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 Constant Comparative Method of Analysis 443

universe of collected data, if done at also attempting provisional proofs,

all, can become very arbitrary, lessaccompanying crude tables. If the
likely to yield an integrated product; theory encompasses a multitude of
and the analyst is more likely to wasteideas, it becomes too cumbersome to
time on what might later prove to beillustrate each idea and, even if space
irrelevant incidents and categories. were allowed, too burdensome to read
4. Writing theory. At the end ofmany illtustrations which interrupt the
this process the analyst has coded data,flow of general ideas.1' Thus qualita-
a series of memos, and a theory. The tive analysts will usually present only
discussions in the memos provide the enough material to facilitate compre-
content behind the categories, which hension, which is typically not enough
are the major themes of the theory as data to use in evaluating all sugges-
written in papers or books. For exam-tions.
ple, the major themes (section titles) Another way to convey credibility
or our paper on social loss are "cal- of the theory along with the use of
culating social loss," "the patient's illustrations is to use a codified proce-
social loss story," and "the impact of dure for analyzing data, such as pre-
social loss on the nurse's professional sented here, which allows readers to
composure." To start writing one'sunderstand how the analyst obtained
theory, it is first necessary to collate thehis theory from the data. In qualitative
memos on each category, which is analyses the transition from data to
easy since the memos have been written theory is hard, if not impossible, to
according to categories. Thus, allgrasp when no codified procedure is
memos on calculating social loss were used.12 And in his turn the reader is
brought together for summarizing likely to feel that the theory is some-
and, perhaps, further analyzing beforewhat impressionistic, even if the ana-
writing about it. The coded data islyst strongly asserts he has based it
the resource to return to when neces-
on hard study of data gathered during
sary for validating a suggested point, months or years of field or library
"pinpointing" data behind an hypoth- research.
esis or gaps in the theory,9 and pro- Even such codified procedures as a
viding illustrations. search for negative cases or a con-
sideration of alternative hypothesesla
DISCUSSION will leave a reader at a loss, since these
Conveying credibility. A perennial analytic procedures are not linked with
problem with qualitative analysis is procedures for using qualitative data.
conveying the credibility of a theory.1? 11 See detailed discussion on this point
The standard approach to this problem in Strauss, et al., op. cit.
is presenting data as evidence for con- 12 Following Merton's quotation (page
clusions, thus indicating the way by 437), we need more descriptions of methods
which the analyst obtained the theory of transition from qualitative data to quali-
tative analysis. Barton and Lazarsfeld (op.
from his data. However, since qualita- cit.) delimiting the various functions of
tive data do not lend themselves to
qualitative analysis indicate a full range
ready summary, the analyst usually pre- of purposes for which other methods of
sents characteristic illustrations and,transition
if can be developed. In focusing
discussion on these purposes they hit upon
o On "pinpointing" see Anselm Strauss,what might be considered elements of
Leonard Schatzman, Rue Bucher, Danuta possible such methods. To analyze a pur-
Ehrlich and Melvin Shabshin, Psychiatric pose and the analytic operations involved
Ideologies and Institutions, New York: in its final achievement is not, however,
Free Press of Glencoe, 1964, Chapter 2, to be construed as a method of transition
"Logic, Techniques and Strategies of Teamthat guides one the full route from raw
Fieldwork." qualitative data to accomplished purpose.
to Becker, op. cit., p. 659. 18 Becker, op. cit., p. 290.

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444 SOCIAL PROBLEMS

incidents,
They do not specify howthe analyst
and learnshow
to see hislong
to search for negative cases
categories as having or how
both an internal
to find alternative hypotheses
development given
and changing relations to a
specified body of other categories. For example,
qualitative data. as theThus
the analyst cannurse still be
learns more suspect
about the patient, in
making his theory her calculations
appear of social loss change;
credible by
and recalculations
biasing his search for negative change her social
cases
or his reasonable loss stories, her loss rationales
alternative hypoth- and
eses. The constanther care of the patient. Thus,
comparative while
method
joins standard analytic this methodprocedures
can be used to generate with
directives for using static theories,
the itdataespecially system-
facilitates
atically. the generation of theories of process,
In addition, keeping track of one's sequence, and change which pertain to
ideas, as required by the constant com- organizations, positions, and social in-
teraction.
parative method, raises the probability
that the theory will be well integrated This is an inductive method of
and clear, since the analyst is forced to theory development. In making theo-
make theoretical sense of each com- retical sense of much diversity in his
parison. Making sure the categories data, the analyst is forced to develop
and their properties of the theory are ideas on a level of generality which
meaningfully interrelated is difficult is higher than the qualitative material
enough; keeping all the interrelations being analyzed. He is forced to bring
clearly delineated is an added difficulty. out underlying uniformities and diver-
The integration and clarity of the sities and to account for differences
theory will in turn raise the proba- with single, higher level concepts. He
bility that it will be understood and is forced to engage in reduction of
believed credible by colleagues. terminology, as discussed above, to
Properties of the theory. The con- achieve mastery of his data. If the
stant comparative method raises the analyst starts with raw data, he will
probability of achieving a complex at first end up with a substantive
theory which corresponds closely to theory: a theory for the substantive
the data, since the constant compari- area on which he has done research-
sons force consideration of much di- for example, patient care or gang be-
versity in the data. By diversity, I mean havior. If the analyst starts with the
that each incident is compared to other findings from many studies which per-
incidents or to properties of a category tain to an abstract sociological category,
by as many of its similar and diverse he will end up with a formal theory
aspects as possible. This way of com- for a conceptual area such as stigma,
paring may be seen in contrast to deviance, lower class, status congru-
coding for crude proofs, which only ency, or reference groups. To be sure,
establishes whether or not an incident the level of generality of a substantive
indicates the few properties of the cate- theory can be raised to a formal theory
gory which are being counted. (our theory of social loss of dying
The constant comparisons of inci- patients could be raised to the level
dents on the basis of as many of their of how professional people give ser-
similarities and differences as possible vice to clients according to their social
tend to result in the analyst's creating a value). This requires additional analy-
developmental theory.14 In comparing
Sociological Review, June, 1964, p. 332;
14 Recent calls for more developmental, Howard S. Becker, Outsiders, New York:
as opposed to static, theories have been Free Press, 1962, pp. 22-25; and Barney G.
made by Wilbert Moore, "Predicting Dis- Glaser and Strauss, Awareness Contexts
continuities in Social Change," American and Social Interaction, op. cit.

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 Constant Comparative Method of Analysis 445

sis of one's substantive theory, and the ample, two related properties of a
analyst should include material from dying patient are his social loss and
other studies with the same formal the amount of attention he receives
from nurses. This can easily be re-
theoretical import, however diverse the
substantive content.15 The analyst
stated as a proposition: patients con-
should be aware of the level of gene- sidered a high social loss compared
rality at which he starts in relation to
to those considered a low social loss
will tend to receive more attention
the level at which he wishes to end up.
from nurses.
The constant comparative method
can yield either property or proposi-
tional theory. The analyst may wish15 ". . the development of any one
to proliferate many properties ofofathese coherent analytic perspectives is
not likely to come from those who restrict
category or he may wish to write prop-
their interest exclusively to one substantive
ositions about a category. Property area," Erving Goffman, Stigma: Notes on
theory is often sufficient at the ex-the Management of Spoiled Identity, Engle-
ploratory stage of theory developmentwood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1963,
p. 147. See also Reinhard Bendix, "Con-
and can easily be translated into propo-
cepts and Generalizations in Comparative
sitions if the work of the reader
Sociological Studies," American Sociological
requires a formal hypothesis. For Review,
ex- August, 1963, pp. 532-539.

THE TEXTBOOK WORLD OF FAMILY SOCIOLOGY

HYMAN RODMAN
Merrill-Palmer Institute

Many things have been much said form important functions for individ-
about family sociology: it deals with uals and society, and as a consequence
sensitive issues and therefore the objec- family sociology is an important area
tivity of researchers and the acceptabil- of research and has produced some of
ity of research by the public have come the most important studies in the social
slowly; everybody is an expert in sciences.
family sociology, having lived most of The above issues have been dealt
his life in families, and therefore much with many times, and I shall therefore
of family sociology is trivial and com- not elaborate. Nor shall I go into a
monsensical; many groups have a general review of family research,
vested interest in "the family" and because the family area has perhaps
therefore family sociology is either had more than its fair share of such
subserviently conservative or insolently reviews and critiques. Textbooks, how-
radical; family sociology boasts of ever, have seldom been looked at crit-
many diverse studies but few binding ically, except in the course of reviews
theories; it has low status, unless sprin- about a single text at a time. I shall
kled with terms like "kinship" or therefore, in a critical vein, concentrate
"comparative" or "structural-func- upon family sociology textbooks, to the
tional"; it is popular with students relative neglect of readers, and of texts
(either because of intrinsic interest or that are primarily practical (family
easy grading) and therefore suspect. life) or cross-cultural (anthropolog-
Despite this rather gloomy picture, ical) in orientation. I have made no
families of one form or another are attempt to rank the texts in order of
universally found, and universally per-their excellence; all of those that I

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