THE WHAT, WHY AND HOW OF COMMUNICATION

Introduction

Have you ever opened up with a friend about a problem only to realize that he/she just
doesn’t seem to grasp why the concern or issue means a lot to you? Have you ever presented a
novel or innovative idea to a group and it’s met with other confusion? Or maybe, you’ve been in
an argument when the other person suddenly accuses you of not listening to what he/she is
saying at all. What might be the problem? The answer is miscommunication. Whether we admit
it or not, in some form or another, we have all experienced it. It can lead to perplexities,
animosity, misunderstanding, and could actually even cost life! In fact, even if it’s face-to-face,
collocated communication with the speakers sharing a common language, communication may
still pose a great deal of challenges. The good news is, a basic understanding of what actually
happens in communication can help us make adjustments or offer interventions to solve
miscommunication. Hence, this lesson focuses on the processes involved in communication and
the components that constitute human interaction.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, learners are expected to:

a. Discuss the importance of communication;

b. Identify the different models and components of communication; and
c. Relate the communication models to their experiences and apply them to their everyday
communication.

Discussion

The world today is characterized by an ever growing number of contacts resulting in

communication between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds (Vega et al.,
2009). As such, it is a mistake to believe that communication is a simple process. Rather,
communication should be seen as a complex phenomenon. As an essential part of humans’
existence, it has been studied theoretically for thousands of years. Scholars have given a number
of definitions and metaphors for the term but a simplistic definition was offered by Bell (2010)
when he said “Communication is the transmission of information, by any means, whether
intentionally or not, from one person to another. It is a two-way activity; it is interaction,
involving at least two people.”
 It is not the definition of communication, however, that matters at the end of the day. A
rather relevant point to ponder on as regards communication as a process is whether or not
interlocutors know and understand the art of effective and purposeful communication.

Models of Communication

For communication to be meaningful,

effective and purposeful, one must have a
fundamental understanding of the models of
communication as these provide a framework
as to how communication elements interplay,
which consequently allows one to minimize
the possibilities of misunderstanding or
communication breakdown in general. Let us
look at some of the models and determine
whether they are inclusive enough to
incorporate the essential elements of the process of effective communication.

Some people think about

communication think about communication as
though it were water flowing through a pipe
(water-pipe model). Send it on its way, and if there are no obstructions, the message will reach
its destination intact. Still others view communication as a one-way phenomenon. The two
models are both one-way models. These models imply that once the speaker has developed and
presented the speech, his/her responsibility for the success of the speech ends. Competent
communication, however, as Hanna and Gibson (1989) opined, entails more than simply sending
a message on its way. Hence, the two models failed to include the essential elements of the
communication process.
 Aristotle’s model is considered to be the earliest model of communication. The great
philosopher
explains that speakers
should adjust their
messages according to their
audience and the occasion
to achieve a particular effect
(Uychoco & Santos, 2018).
He once quoted, “The
audience is the end and the
object of the speech.”

The figure above is the process/transactional model. It illustrates that communication is a

two-way phenomenon. In communication, the listeners should have an impact on the
communication event while the speaker is planning the speech and while the speech is being
delivered. It is important to note that without the understanding, one is unlikely to achieve a
speaking goal.

Elements of Communication

A communication cycle offers a model for communication. In its simplest form, the cycle
consists of a sender, a message, a channel and a recipient. Other models include the feedback,
context and noise and interference.
1. Communication Source or Sender – a sender is someone who encodes and sends a
message to a receiver through a particular channel. He/she is the initiator of
communication. It is said that if an audience was able to decode your message, you have
become a successful communicator.

2. Message – the word message comes from the Latin term ‘mittere’ which means to send.
Whatever information is communicated through the use of a channel is message. Messages
can be sent both verbally and non-verbally. You can say one thing with your words, but
depending on how you say it and the non-verbal cues such as posture and eye contact, you
may send an entirely different message to your audience.

3. Channel – is defined as the medium used to transmit the signal from the transmitter to the
receiver. In face-to-face communication, the channel is primarily audio using sound and
visual using light waves while in a speaking situation with remote audience via
videoconferencing, the channel will be computer-mediated audio and visual.

4. Receiver – someone who listens to, receives, interprets and decodes the message. The
process of decoding and receiving is arbitrary and unique. Even native speakers of a
language and their listeners do not have identical experiences with or definitions of the
same word. Hence, it is important to consider certain elements about the audience, called
demographics, for communication to be successful.

Gupit (2011) advised that the speaker must consider his/her audience and the speaking
occasion from the time he begins to prepare his speech to the time he/she is actually speaking.
Failure to do so may be disastrous to him/her. In analysing the audience and the occasion, there
are certain factors that should be taken into account. The following is adopted from Gupit (2011)
and

a) Age
An audience may be composed of more or less the same age level or of varying
ages. The speech must be attuned to the average age of the audience and embrace in its
reach the minimum and maximum ages of his listeners.
Age, it has been said, is a measure of the development of man, primarily with
reference to his cultural evolution. The age of a person determines to some extent his
capacity to understand, the fund of his knowledge, and the depth of his experiences.
The young are adventurous, generally optimistic, and like to take chances. Older people
tend to be conservative, critical and cautious.

b) Sex
The audience may be exclusively or predominantly male or female, or it may be
mixed. It may be a group of gays. Whatever the case may be, the speaker must take into
account the sex of his audience. Because of the disparity in their sexual structures, men
 and women have different tastes, interests, attitudes, prejudices, responses, methods of
thinking, etc. a common line of thought is that women tend to be emotional and sensitive,
whereas men like to arrive at conclusions through logical processes. The so-called third
sex is aligned with the women more in this regard.

c) Occupation
The audience may belong to certain occupations. They may be labourers, farmers,
teachers, lawyers, doctors, or businessmen. Each occupation has its own needs and
desires.
A speech before laborers should certainly be different in type and structure from a
speech before lawyers.
If the speaker talks on a topic that is familiar to the audience, he need not dwell too much
on the basic ideas of the subject. For instance, he need not define common legal terms to
lawyers, common medical terms to doctors, or common economic terms to economists.
On the other hand, the speaker should explain the legal terms to an audience composed of
non-lawyers.

d) Education
The audience may consist of elementary school children, or high school students,
or college undergraduates, or those with college degrees. The type and structure of the
speech should be suited to the educational attainment of the audience.
A speech appropriate for grade school pupils would generally bore or even insult
a college student.
Of course, the speaker should not merely consider the formal schooling of his audience.
A mature audience that has had no college education but is wise in the ways of life
should not be underestimated by the speaker.
e) Experience
The audience may be experienced in the field of the speaker’s topic. If so, the
speaker must be overly cautious. The audience may know a lot more than the speaker
does because of the audience’s personal experiences. The speaker should attempt to
equalize the situation through intensive research.
Likewise the listeners may have their own ideas about the subject. Before taking a
stand, the speaker should make sure that he has considered all possible theories.
For example, it would be difficult to talk on law to the practitioners on the profession,
unless the speaker himself has had a rich practice, the best thing that the speaker can do is
to prepare himself well.

f) Size
Audiences may range from a small intimate group to large crowds. On the size of
the audience depends the speaker’s manner of delivery. With a small audience, the
speaker can and should be restrained in his actions. With a big-sized audience, the
 speaker needs to speak slower to be understood, to talk louder to be heard, and to be a
little more exaggerated with his gestures.
A large audience may also mean that the listeners come from all walks of life.
Thus, there’s a great diversity of opinions and views. The speaker in such a case is
obliged to make broad statements.
Moreover, the smaller the audience, the more it thinks in isolation. The result is
that it tends to react intellectually. The bigger the audience, the more it is socially
conscious. The result is that it tends to react emotionally.

g) Interests
The members of an audience have their own personal interests. The listeners are
people and people have interests. The speaker must be aware of them.
The audience may consist of a particular group of teachers interested in salary
increases, or of a civic club interested in community development, or of a political
association interested in clean elections, or of a sports group interested in physical
development.
Above all the speaker must be some sort of a psychologist who knows the general
likes and dislikes of human beings. Striking a wrong chord may turn your audience off.

h) Beliefs and Attitudes

The beliefs and attitudes of people are affected by their economic status, social
position, religious and political ideologies. The speaker must look into them.
People have set opinions and views on many subjects. A speaker can use them to
bring home his point. For instance, a proposal to prohibit church ministers from
campaigning may hang on the generally held belief that the church should be separated
from the state.
The speaker should also be conscious of the attitude of the audience toward
himself and his subject. The audience may be friendly but may not respect the speaker, or
vice-versa. The job of the speaker is to attain both friendliness and respect.
The speaker, too, should do something about an audience with a we-do-not-care
attitude toward the subject of the speech.
The speaker should lay down the connection between his topic and the interest of the
audience.
Ask yourself always: in relation to you and/or your subject, is the audience
interested, apathetic or hostile? These are the three kinds of audience you may possibly
have – interested, apathetic, and hostile. A perceptive answer to the question enables you
to act accordingly.
i) Race/Culture
Race refers to groups of people who are distinguished by shared physical
characteristics such as skin color and hair type. Culture, on the other hand, refers to the
customs, habits and value systems of groups of people. People of the same race may not
 share the culture; similarly, a culture is not necessarily comprised of people of the same
race. While the two are separate demographics, one informs the other and vice-versa.
Race and culture can influence everything from colloquialisms to which hand gestures
may or may not be appropriate as you communicate.

5. Feedback – is the return message sent by the receiver back to the sender. Feedbacks let
encoders and decoders correct and control errors in the message exchange. Like message, it
can be both verbal and non-verbal.
6. Context – refers to the communication environment. It may refer to the actual reason for
why you are speaking and the physical space in which you are speaking. For instance, you
wouldn’t deliver a eulogy at a wedding or a stump speech at a friend’s wedding. Or, you
may not be able to fully communicate your thoughts because there are intervening factors
such as temperature, lighting, room size, etc.

7. Noise and Interference – are inevitable elements and at the same time barriers to effective
communication. Noise may be anything jarring and unpleasant and is usually an
interruption or distraction when it occurs. It blocks the sending or receiving of a message.

References:

Gupit, Fortunato, Jr. (2011) Elements of Public Speaking 5th Edition. Rex Book Store, Inc.,
Sampaloc, Manila.

Hanna, Michael S. and James Gibson. (2001) Public Speaking for Personal Success. C
Brown Publishers: USA.

Uychoco, Marikit Tara A. and Maria Lorena Santos. (2018). Communication for Society. Rex
Book Store, Inc.: Sampaloc, Manila

Vega, Violeta A. et al. (2009). Social Dimensions of Education. Lorimar Publishing, Inc.:
Quezon City, Manila.

http://ianpbell.wordpress.com/communication-in-vi-children/
 THE ROADBLOCKS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Introduction

We all communicate in every day of our lives for communication is indispensable says
Barrot (2011). Communication per se may appear to be simple but it is actually not. It is not
without any challenge. In fact, as has already been emphasized in Lesson 1, communication
poses myriad challenges to interlocutors due to a wide array of reasons. So, we might ask “How
then can we communicate effectively”. This seems to be a tough question to answer because
there is no such thing as perfect communication. Communication is complete and perfect when
the receiver understands the message in the same sense and spirit as the communicator intends to
convey. In communication, ideas and information reached to and responded by receiver remain
unaltered and undistorted. But practically it has been noticed that such perfect and complete
communication does not take place because of certain obstacles or other factors known as
communication barriers. These barriers make the communication incomplete, weak and
ineffective. Proper identification of these barriers is as important and imperative as diagnosis of
ailment for its remedy. Hence, this lesson highlights the barriers of communication and some
general ways of overcoming or reducing them with special emphasis on listening skills.
Listening is dealt with at a later part of the discussion of this lesson.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, learners are expected to:

d. Identify the major obstacles to effective communication;

e. Describe the listening process and its levels; and
f. Provide ways of overcoming barriers to effective communication and listening.

Discussion

Communication should be straightforward. What can make it complex, difficult, and

frustrating are the barriers. At any point in the communication process a barrier can occur.
Communication is not always successful. Several things can prevent the message from reaching
the intended recipient or from having the designed effect on the recipient. There may be some
fault in the communication system which may prevent the message from reaching. Some of these
defects are in the mechanical devices used for transmitting, that is, the medium; while some
others are in the nature of the persons who are engaged in communication, that is, the sender and
recipient. Barriers keep as from understanding others’ ideas and thoughts. Barriers can appear at
any point of the communication loop. Barriers keep the message from getting through when
communicating; one should watch out for barriers and monitor the actions of the receiver. The
body language of the speaker should be checked to make sure that the message the receiver
received is the same with what was sent.

Below is a chart showing the barriers of communication according to Roebuck, (1998) as

cited in Barrot (2012)

Stage Barrier Example Solution

Constructing the Incomplete message You forgot to give a Make sure the
message deadline for a project message is complete
and accurate.
You gave a wrong
Inaccurate message telephone number

Matching the message Not tuned message Your language is too Make sure you adjust
appropriate to the jargonistic for a non- the level of
audience technical audience information, style, and
tone of delivery to the
intended audience.

You spoke too fast

Preparing the receiver Receiver not ready to The receiver was busy Make sure the
accept the message doing another task. audience is ready to
receive the message.
Practice the right
timing of the delivery

Sending the message Inappropriate channel You used text Make sure the channel
messaging for a very to be used is
sensitive issue which appropriate
can be delivered
effectively through a
face-to-face talk

Receiving the Problems in the The email was Ensure that the
message arrival of the message delayed because of channel will deliver
technical problems the message to the
right place at the right
time

Interpreting the Misunderstood You did not tell the Try to understand the
message message receiver that perceptions and
something was assumptions of the
 important because you receiver
thought that it was
already obvious

Confirming the No confirmation of You did not check Never fail to check
message message or failure to whether the receiver whether the receiver
seek and listen to understood the understood and
feedback message that results in received your
failure to complete the message
task

Meanwhile, Vega et al., (2009) identified the following barriers to effective communication and
possible ways of overcoming them:

Barriers Overcoming Barriers

1. Semantics 1. Clarify ideas before sending

2. Filtering of negative information
3. Lack of credibility of sender
4. Mixed signals
5. Different frames of reference
6. Value judgements
7. Information overload
8. Poor communication skills
2. Motivate the receiver
3. Discuss differences in frames of reference
4. Foster informal communication
5. Communicate feelings behind the facts
6. Be aware of non-verbal communication
7. Obtain feedback
8. Adapt to other person’s communication
style
9. Engage in meta-communication

The following are barriers of communication in the context of organization as provided

by (https://www.scribd.com/document/111812600/)

1. Perceptual and Language Differences

Perception is generally how each individual interprets the world around him. All
generally want to receive messages which are significant to them. But any message which is
against their values is not accepted. A same event may be taken differently by different
individuals. For example: A person is on leave for a month due to personal reasons (family
member being critical). The HR Manager might be in confusion whether to retain that employee
or not, the immediate manager might think of replacement because his team’s productivity is
being hampered, the family members might take him as an emotional support. The linguistic
differences also lead to communication breakdown. Same word may mean different to different
individuals. For example: consider a word “value”.

a. What is the value of this Laptop?

b. I value our relation
c. What is the value of learning technical skills?

“Value” means different in different sentences. Communication breakdown occurs if there is

wrong perception by the receiver.

2. Information Overload

Managers are surrounded with a pool of information. It is essential to control this

information flow else the information is likely to be misinterpreted or forgotten or overlooked.
As a result communication is less effective.

3. Inattention

At times we just not listen, but only hear. For example a traveller may pay attention to
one “NO PARKING” sign, but if such sign is put all over the city, he no longer listens to it.
Thus, repetitive messages should be ignored for effective communication. Similarly if a superior
is engrossed in his paper work and his subordinate explains him his problem, the superior may
not get what he is saying and it leads to disappointment of subordinate.

4. Time Pressures

Often in organizations the targets have to be achieved within a specified time period, the
failure of which adverse consequences. In a haste to meet deadlines, the formal channels of
communication are shortened, or messages partially given, i.e., not completely transferred. Thus
sufficient time should be given for effective communication.

5. Distraction/Noise

Communication is also affected a lot by noise to distractions. Physical distractions are

also there such as poor lightning, uncomfortable sitting, unhygienic room also affects
communication in a meeting. Similarly use of loud speakers interferes with communication.

6. Emotions
 Emotional state at a particular point of time also affects communication. If the receiver
feels that communicator angry he interprets that the information being sent is very bad. While he
takes it differently if the communicator is happy and jovial (in that case the message is
interpreted to be good and interesting).

7. Complexity in Organizational Structure

Only the people at the top level can see the overall picture while people at low level just
have knowledge about their own area and a little knowledge about other areas.

8. Poor retention

Human memory cannot function beyond a limit. One can’t always retain what is being
told specially if he is interested or not attentive. This leads to communication breakdown.

Still, other barriers to effective communication as well as possible ways of overcoming

them are offered by: http://phicare.com/competencies/communicationbarriers.php

Language Barriers

Clearly, language and linguistic ability may act as a barrier to communication. However,
even when communicating in the same language, the terminology used in a message may act as a
barrier if it is not fully understood by the receiver(s). For example, a message that includes a lot
of specialist jargon and abbreviations will not be understood by a receiver who is not familiar
with the terminology used. As nurses, we are especially prone to making this mistake. We must
remember to use language that can be understood by the receiver.

Psychological Barriers

The psychological state of the receiver will influence how the message is received. For
example, if someone has personal worries and is stressed, they may be preoccupied by personal
concerns and not as receptive to the message as if they were not stressed. Stress management is
an important personal skill that affects our interpersonal relationships. Anger is another example
of a psychological barrier to communication. When we are angry it is easy to say things that we
may later regret and also to misinterpret what others are saying. More generally, people with low
self-esteem may be less assertive and therefore may not feel comfortable communicating - they
may feel shy about saying how they really feel, or read negative sub-texts into messages they
hear.

Physiological Barriers
 Physiological barriers may result from the receiver’s physical state. For example, a
receiver with reduced hearing may not grasp the entirety of a spoken conversation, especially if
there is significant background noise.

Physical Barriers

An example of a physical barrier to communication is geographic distance between the

sender and receiver(s). Communication is generally easier over shorter distances as more
communication channels are available and less technology is required. Although modern
technology often serves to reduce the impact of physical barriers, the advantages and
disadvantages of each communication channel should be understood so that an appropriate
channel can be used to overcome the physical barriers. Physical barrier may also include any
noise caused by the environment such as heavy downpour, poor lighting, etc.

Attitudinal Barriers

Attitudinal barriers are behaviors or perceptions that prevent people from communicating
effectively. Attitudinal barriers to communication may result from personality conflicts, poor
management, resistance to change, or a lack of motivation. Effective receivers of messages
should attempt to overcome their own attitudinal barriers to facilitate effective communication.

Overcoming Barriers

Most of the above mentioned barriers can be overcome by the skilled communicator.
Obviously, bridging gaps in geography and communicating through disabilities are a topic for a
different discussion. Below, we will look at some tools that can be used to bridge barriers in
everyday communications.

a. Active Listening - Active listening is a skill that can be acquired and developed
with practice. However, this skill can be difficult to master and will, therefore,
take time and patience. 'Active listening' means, as its name suggests, actively
listening. That is fully concentrating on what is being said rather than just
‘hearing’ the message of the speaker. Active listening involves listening with all
senses. As well as giving full attention to the speaker, it is important that the
‘active listener’ is also ‘seen’ to be listening - otherwise the speaker may conclude
that what they are talking about is uninteresting to the listener. By providing this
'feedback' the person speaking will usually feel more at ease and therefore
communicate more easily, openly and honestly. There are both verbal and non-
verbal cues that convey active listening. Non-verbal signs include smiling (if
appropriate), making eye contact, nodding at appropriate times, and avoiding
distractions. Theses non-verbal cues convey the message that you are interested in
what the speaker has to say, and that your attention is fully invested. Offering
 verbal signs of active listening can also be useful. Reflecting on something the
speaker has said by asking a clarifying question is a terrific way to do this.
Paraphrasing involves finding slightly different words to repeat the main idea of
the speaker, and is also great way to show active listening.

b. Use Simple Language - It’s important to remember the audience that you’re
speaking to, and use language that can be easily understood. Avoid using medical
terminology or jargon when speaking to clients and their families. People are
often intimidated by such language, and can be afraid to admit that they don’t
understand the message being delivered. An important tool to use when speaking
is to pause occasionally and ask questions to ensure that your message is being
understood as intended. You may also allow the listener to ask questions to clarify
any points.
c. Give Constructive Feedback - Remember that feedback was part of the
communication chain we looked at on the first page. While the feedback that you
give the speaker/sender may occasionally be negative, it is important that it be
constructive in nature. The intent of the feedback should be to further the abilities
of the speaker. This will strengthen the interpersonal relationship, and enhance
future communications.

EFFECTIVE LISTENING

As you may have observed, one of the main reasons why communication fails is because
of our inability to listen. A research study has revealed that most people are shockingly poor
listeners. We fake paying attention. We can look right at someone, appear interested in what that
person says, even nod our head or smile at the appropriate moments --- all without really
listening (Lucas, 2004).

Listening is an active process of gathering information that involves hearing/attending,

comprehending and responding (Barrot, 2011). It is paying close attention to, and making sense
of, what we hear (Lucas, 2004). It is different from hearing which is the physical action or the
physiological process of gathering sound waves. Listening is not only about accuracy but also
empathy especially if you are in a people-oriented environment.

Barrot (2011) shares that the listening process goes through four stages namely sensing,
interpreting, evaluating and responding.

a. Sensing – is the physical action of receiving sound waves. It is also known as hearing.
b. Interpreting – is extracting meaning from the words.
c. Evaluating – is judging the message based on the situation
d. Responding – is turning listening into a two-way process.
Lucas (2004) and Barrot (2011) have identified kinds of listening (appreciative, emphatic,
comprehensive, critical).

Appreciative Listening – listening for pleasure and enjoyment, as when we listen to

music, to a comedy routine, or to an entertaining speech.
Emphatic Listening – listening to provide emotional support for the speaker, as when a
psychiatrist listens to a patient or when we lend a sympathetic ear to a friend in distress.
Comprehensive listening – listening to understand the message of a speaker, as when we
attend a classroom lecture or listen to directions for finding a friend’s house.
Critical listening – listening to evaluate a message for purposes of accepting or rejecting
it, as when we listen to the sales pitch of a used-car dealer, the campaign speech of a
political candidate, or the closing arguments of an attorney in a jury trial.

Barriers to Effective Listening

Environmental

a. Nonhuman initiated
b. Human initiated

Physiological/Mental

c. Congenital Hearing impairment

d. Ear infection
e. Hunger and thirst
f. Thought speed
g. Information overload
h. Vocabulary load
i. Other common illnesses

Psychological

j. Biases and faulty assumptions

k. Preoccupation
l. Psychological distractors

How do you know if you are a poor listener? Hannah and Gibson (2001)and Barrot (2011) cite
the following symptoms:

1. You allow your mind to wander

2. Other people prefer to speak or be served by someone else
3. You respond emotionally to the speaker
 4. You let your problems paralyze your listening skills
5. You let your biases interfere with your listening
6. You find yourself missing key details of the conversation
7. You often ask people to repeat information.
8. You walk away from personal encounters not completely knowing what action is
required of you.
9. People often say to you “Did you hear what I said?”
10. You find yourself daydreaming or distracted as other people speak.
11. You miss accompanying non-verbal cues sent by the speaker.
12. You give false feedback.
13. You listen only for facts.
14. You just want to be entertained when listening.
15. You are easily distracted by the speaker’s mannerisms.

Strategies for Improved Listening

1. Do not overtalk
2. Be motivated
3. Show genuine interest
4. Make eye contact
5. Show willingness to listen
6. Show empathy
7. Listen for concepts
8. Be patient
9. Send positive non-verbal cues and avoid distracting actions
10. Do not argue unless needed
11. Take notes, if necessary
12. Ask questions
13. Paraphrase

References

Barrot, Jessie S. (2011) Speak Successfully: A Guide to Effective Speaking for College
Students. Rex Book Store, Inc., Sampaloc, Manila.

Gupit, Fortunato, Jr. (2011) Elements of Public Speaking 5th Edition. Rex Book Store, Inc.,
Sampaloc, Manila.
Hanna, Michael S. and James Gibson. (2001) Public Speaking for Personal Success. C
Brown Publishers: USA.

Lucas, Stephen E. (2004). The Art of Public Speaking. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.: New
York.

Vega, Violeta A. et al. (2009). Social Dimensions of Education. Lorimar Publishing, Inc.:
Quezon City, Manila.

http://phicare.com/competencies/communicationbarriers.php

(https://www.scribd.com/document/111812600/)

ETHOS IN COMMUNICATION

Introduction

Many people have the propensity for cheating and lying. Students more often than not download
materials taken from the internet and turn them in as assignments. Some resort to copying from
their classmates during exams when they failed to review the night before. There are teachers
who shortchange their students by not religiously coming to class. We hear of broken marriages
here and there because of cheating. We are witnesses to politicians ransacking people’s money
and doing underground activities. We are held victims of the proliferation of fake news. Cheating
and lying come in different forms, and they happen rather frequently than one might think. In
fact, even when communicating, people tend to distort information, make or fabricate stories just
so their desires may be satisfied. Questions of ethics come into play when communicating our
thoughts or ideas. In an ideal world, as the Greek philosopher Aristotle noted, all speakers would
be truthful and devoted to the good of the society. Yet history has it that the power of speech is
often abused and sometimes with disastrous results just as Adolf Hitler remains to be the
ultimate example of why the power of words needs to be guided by a strong sense of ethical
integrity (Lucas, 2004). In this lesson, we explore the importance of ethics in communication, the
ethical obligations of speakers and listeners, and the practical problem of plagiarism and how to
avoid it.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, learners are expected to:

 a. Determine the importance of knowing the guidelines for ethical communication;
b. Understand the nature and the implications of plagiarism;
c. Learn the various ways of avoiding plagiarism; and
d. Use these various techniques in writing a specific text.

Discussion

Ethics is the discussion of the judgments we make about the appropriateness, the right or wrong,
of our actions and policies be those actions communicative, political, social, personal, or a
mixture of areas. Ethics is the study of what, ultimately, is the best course of action: How should
we behave to have the most positive effect upon society and to become the best individuals we
can
(http://j647commethics.weebly.com/uploads/6/4/2/2/6422481/ethics_in_communication.pdf)?

Communicating with others carries with it certain ethical problems for the speaker. Is it right to
influence another person’s behaviour? Are right and wrong absolutely opposite, or do they reside
as shades of gray along a continuum? Do the worthy goals of a speaker justify the means by
which the speaker achieves those goals?

As a communicator, say Gibson and Hanna (2001), you will have opportunities to take advantage
of your listeners. However, you have an obligation to be honest. Below are what they think
people in our society generally agree about as unethical:

a. It is unethical to falsify or invent evidence.

b. It is unethical to distort information.
c. It is unethical to deliberately use specious or deceptive reasoning in order to
persuade.
d. It is unethical to deliberately deceive the listeners about your purpose or intention.

Meanwhile, they say, the following are ethical:

a. it is ethical to support an idea resulting from reflective thinking and systematic

study.
b. It is ethical to reject an idea if it has been shown by evidence or logical analysis to
be doubtful.

Lewis (2015) developed Ten Basics of Ethical Communication

Seek to “elicit the best” in communications and interactions with other group members.
 Listen when others speak.

Speak non-judgmentally.

Speak from your own experience and perspective, expressing your own thoughts, needs, and
feelings.

Seek to understand others (rather than to be “right” or “more ethical than thou”).

Avoid speaking for others, for example by characterizing what others have said without
checking your understanding, or by universalizing your opinions, beliefs, values, and
conclusions, assuming everyone shares them.

Manage your own personal boundaries: share only what you are comfortable sharing.

Respect the personal boundaries of others.

Avoid interrupting and side conversations.

Make sure that everyone has time to speak, that all members have relatively equal “air time”
if they want it.

In so far as written communication is concerned, one of the most unethical and abused practices
by students and teachers alike is plagiarism or intellectual dishonesty.

What is plagiarism?

Calderon et al (2011) say that “Plagiarism occurs when a writer deliberately uses someone else’s
language, ideas, or other original material without acknowledging its source.”

The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines it as “the practice of taking someone else’s work or
ideas and passing them off as one’s own.”

When is Plagiarism committed?

According to Garber et al (2007), one is plagiarizing if he/she:

• Is copying from published sources without documentation

• Is purchasing and submitting pre-written papers
• Is letting someone else write his/her paper
• Is paying someone to write his/her paper
• Is submitting someone’s unpublished work as his/her own
• Is cutting and pasting from websites, and don’t give credit
• Changing words but do not give credit
Reasons for the commission of Plagiarism

• The pressure of “I need to graduate” or “I need to advance”

• Fear of failure
• Students may have poor time-management skills or they may plan poorly for the time
and effort required for research-based writing, and believe they have no choice but to plagiarize
• Notions that the consequences of cheating are unimportant
• Not wanting to do the work
• Failure of teachers and institutions to report and penalize cheating when it occurs.

Consequences of committing plagiarism

• Reprimand
• Failure
• Probation
• Suspension
• Expulsion

Ways to Avoid Plagiarism

Summarizing – reducing a longer text from the text to a brief restatement.

 Just give the most important ideas of the text and express them concisely
 Do not forget to cite the author

Paraphrasing – expressing your understanding of the original text in your own words.
 Step 1 – Locate a relevant and credible resource

Step 2 – Locate the paragraph

Step 3 – Write down key words and phrases

Step 4 – Formulate your own sentences

Step 5 – Compare it to the original

Step 6 – Cite the source!

Examples:

Original Sentence: The older citizens were honored with a parade for those once in the military.

Paraphrase: Senior citizens were honored with a march for veterans.

Original Sentence: She angered me with her inappropriate comments, rumor-spreading, and
disrespectfulness at the formal dinner table.

Paraphrase: Her impoliteness, gossiping, and general lack of respect at dinner infuriated me.

Quoting – is only used when summarizing and paraphrasing renders less effective in capturing
the thought of the original text.

 Direct Quotation
 Indirect Quotation
 Don’t forget to do attribution

Examples:
a. “Plagiarism is a major academic crime,” says Moratilla (2006).
b. In his book Introduction to Debate, Francisco (2010) viewed debate as “the sports of
mind” (p. 3).
c. In 2007, Verderber espoused that anxiety cannot be eliminated. It can only be reduced.
References:

Calderon, Tina. (2011). The Write Way: Academic Writing for College Freshmen.
Quezon City: Cornerstone of College of Arts and Sciences.

Garber, Gina et al,. (2007). Teaching students how to avoid plagiarism: Success
Strategies. Retrieved December 19, 2017 from
http://sc.edu/fye/events/presentation/annual/2007/pdf/35CT.pdf

Hanna, Michael S. and James Gibson. (2001) Public Speaking for Personal Success. C
Brown Publishers: USA.

Merriam-Webster Dictionary (2017)

http://j647commethics.weebly.com/uploads/6/4/2/2/6422481/ethics_in_comm unication.pdf