Professional Documents
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Prof. J. Ramkumar
Mechanical Machining
Electro-Thermal Machining
I Complex shapes
I Machining in inaccessible areas
I Low tolerances (say, 0.01 mm)
I Better surface integrity (no surface defects, etc.)
I High surface finish (Nano-level Ra value)
I Miniaturization of products (examples: landline phone &
mobile, old computers & laptop, etc.)
I High MRR
I High production rate while processing difficult to machine.
I Low cost of production .
I Precision and ultraprecision machining
I Requires material removal in the form of atoms and / or
molecules
Machining of Complex Shaped Workpieces
Important characteristics of Advance Machining Processes
I Carrier Gas:
I Assumptions:
1. Abrasives are spherical in shape and rigid.
2. Kinetic energy of particle is used to cut the material.
3. Brittle materials are considered to fail due to brittle fracture
and fracture of volume is considered to be hemispherical with
diameter equal to chordal length of indentation.
4. For ductile material volume of material removal is assumed
to be equal to the indentation volume due to particulate
impact.
5.Abrasive particles are assumed to be spherical in shape
having diameter dg (grit diameter).
Mathematical Modelling of AJM
AB 2 = AC 2 + BC 2
!2 !2
dg dg (1)
= − δ + r2
2 2
Mathematical Modelling of AJM contd.
!2 !2
dg dg
− −δ = r2 (2)
2 2
!2 !2
dg dg dg
− − (δ)2 + 2δ = r2 (3)
2 2 2
r 2 = −δ 2 + dg δ (4)
As δ is small, we can neglect δ 2
r 2 = dg δ (5)
p
r = dg δ (6)
Mathematical Modelling of AJM contd.
1 4 3 1 4 3 1 4 3 2 3
ΓB = πr = π(r 2 ) 2 = π(dg δ) 2 = π(dg δ) 2
2 3 2 3 2 3 3
(7)
Assume the grits Velocity(V). So the Kinetic Energy is
1
KE = MV 2 (8)
2
where M is expressed by this expression
M = mass of single abrasive grit=volume of grit * Density of
abrasive material(ρa )
Mathematical Modelling of AJM contd.
Here, you can see that the force is linearly varies with δ
(F = aδ)
Rδ
Work done = 0 aδdδ = 2a δ 2
As F = aδ, so a = Fδ
So, the work done is F2δ
So, Work done by the single grit during such indentation is
Fδ
W = (10)
2
Mathematical Modelling of AJM contd.
I For Brittle material contd.:
Also we know the flow stress/Brinell hardness of
material(σw ). So,
Fδ σw πdg δ 2
W = = (12)
2 2
It is assumed that kinetic energy of the abrasives is fully used
for material removal.
Kinetic energy of the particle = Work done by the particle
Using Eq. 9 and Eq. 12, we get
!
1 2 1 π 3 σw πdg δ 2
MV = dg ρa V 2 = (13)
2 2 6 2
Mathematical Modelling of AJM contd.
I For Brittle material contd.:
Simplify the equation 13. we get δ as
r
ρa
δ = Vdg (14)
6σw
I MRR in AJM: MRR=(Volume of material removed per
grit)*(Number of abrasive particle impacting per unit time).
6ṁa
Z(Z = πd 3 ρ ) is the number of abrasive particle impacting per
a
g
unit time.(where ṁa is the abrasive mass flow rate)
2 3
MRR = π(dg δ) 2 ∗Z (15)
3
using δ from Eq. 14, we get
3
2 3 ρa 4
MRR = πZ dg3 V 2 (16)
3 6σw
Mathematical Modelling of AJM contd.
ṁa V 3/2
MRR∝ 1/4 3/4
(17)
ρa σw
I A model proposed by Neema & Pandey: Assumption:
Material removal by normal impact only (abrasive particles hit
the work surface at different angles).
πdg δ 2
2 dg δ
ΓD = πδ − = (19)
2 3 2
Home Work: Derive the MRR for ductile material in AJM
Process?
Given: ΓD , Eq. 19
Hint: Similar to Brittle material
ṁa V 2
MRRD = (20)
2σw
Mathematical Modelling of AJM contd.
I The NTD not only affects the MRR from the work surface but
also the shape and size of the cavity produced.
I when the NTD increases, the velocity of the abrasive particles
impinging on the work surface increases due to their
acceleration after they leave the nozzle. This increases the
MRR. With a further increase in the NTD, the velocity
reduces due to the drag of the atmosphere which initially
checks the increase in MRR and then decreases it.
Parametric Analysis in AJM
I Low MRR
I Intricate Details Can be Produced
I Narrow Slots (0.12 to 0.25 mm) can be made
I Low Tolerances (−0.12 to +0.12mm) can be obtained
I Minimization of Taper Angle of Nozzle wrt Work Piece
I Thin Sectioned, Brittle Material, Inaccessible areas can be
easily machined
I Almost no surface damage
Applications of AJM
I Assumptions:
1. The rate of work material removal is proportional to the
volume of the work material per impact.
2. The rate of work material removal is proportional to the
no. of particles making impact per cycle.
3. The rate of work material removal is proportional to the
frequency (no. of cycles per unit time).
4. All impacts are identical.
5. All abrasive grains are identical and spherical in shape.
Thus, volume of work material removal rate (Q)
Q ∝ VZ ν (23)
Since the abrasive has irregular shape. So, the actual indentation is
occurs by the effect of spherical projections(with diameter d1 ) as
shown in the figure.(it is observed that d1 = µd 2 )
So, the actual Volume of material removal from the work piece is:
3
2 D 2
Γw = π = π(d1 hw )3/2 (29)
3 2 3
So, Actual MRR from Eq. 29 2
MRRw (Q) = Γw Z ν = π(d1 hw )3/2 Z ν (30)
3
M.C. Shaw Model of USM Contd.
I Since the mean speed of the tool is low, the mean static feed
force F applied to the tool must be equal to the mean force of
the tool on the grains.
I Duration of an impact is ∆T and the maximum value of the
impact force F is Fmax .
M.C. Shaw Model of USM Contd.
h = hw + ht (32)
If A is the amplitude of oscillation of the tool. then the average
velocity of the tool during the quarter cycle O to B is given by
A/(T /4)
M.C. Shaw Model of USM Contd.
8FA
Fmax ≈ (35)
hw + ht
M.C. Shaw Model of USM Contd.
Fmax
σw = (36)
πZd1 hw
Using the Equation 33 in 34, we get
8FA
σw = (37)
πZd1 hw (hw + ht )
M.C. Shaw Model of USM Contd.
2 8FA
hw = (39)
πZd1 Hw (1 + λ)
M.C. Shaw Model of USM Contd.
3 3 1
2 1 3 1 dF 4 A 4 C 4
MRR(Q) = π 4 µ 4 χ 4 3 ν (43)
3 4
Hw (1 + λ)
3
4
3 3 1
dF 4 A 4 C 4
MRR(Q) ∝ 3 3
ν (44)
Hw4 (1 + λ) 4
d is the nominal diameter, d1 is the average diameter of
projection(diameter of the indenting projections), C: concentration
of the abrasive grains in the slurry. F: mean static feed force, A:
amplitude of oscillation of tool, Hw : work piece hardness, λ = HHwt ,
χ is a constant, Z: number of grains are simultaneously in contact
USM Process Parameters
I Frequency
I Amplitude
I Static loading (feed force),
I Hardness ratio of the tool and the workpiece,
I Grain size,
I Concentration of the abrasive in the slurry.
USM MRR vs Frequency and Amplitude
I Tool Electrode:
1. Good Electric conductivity, High thermal Diffusivity, High
melting and boiling point, good machinablity etc
2. Examples are graphite, brass, copper, tungsten etc
I Work piece Material: Any material which is electrically
conductive can be machined through EDM
I Power Supply: Resistance capacitance(RC) and Transistor
type circuits are used. Transistor circuits(TC) are incapable to
produce nano pulses. TC is used where high MRR required.
I Servo System: To maintain a constant spark gap between
electrodes.
I Dielectric Fluid: It acts as the insulator medium between
tool and work piece. Examples are Kerosene, De-ionized
Water, air, mineral oil etc.
EDM: How Sparking Takes Place?
Variants of EDM process
Different power generators in EDM
I Resistance Capacitance based power supply
The RC circuit is basically a relaxation oscillator with a
resistor and a capacitor, as illustrated in Fig.. It is a simple,
reliable, robust, low-cost power source for EDM. It can
provide very small pulse energy and is used extensively in
micro EDM and finishing EDM to achieve fine surface finish.
The drawback of RC generator is the lack of precision control,
particularly for timing and slow charging.
Different power generators in EDM contd.
uo2
−t/τ τ −2t/τ
E= − τe + e + k(constant) (46)
R 2
uo2 τ 1 1 −2t/τ
−t/τ
E= + e −e (47)
R 2 2
Different power generators in EDM contd.
I Analysis of RC Circuit contd.: Suppose the energy E is
delivered to the discharging circuit for time t. then the
average power delivered (Pavg ) is given by
uo2 1 1 −2x
E −x
Pavg = = + e −e (48)
t xR 2 2
At t = tc , uc = ue
Different power generators in EDM contd.
I Analysis of RC Circuit contd.:
Material Removal Rate in RC Circuit contd.: Material
removal rate should be proportional to the total energy
delivered in the sparking per second.
1
MRR ∝ Ed fc = Cue2 fc (55)
2
Substitute the value of fc , and let K be a constant of
proportionality. Then,
" #
2 1 1
MRR = KCue . (56)
RC 1
ln 1−ue /uo
fr = 1/(tc + te ) (57)
where tc is the charge time and te is the discharge time
I For maximum MRR, a study by Barash has provided the
guideline that ue = 0.73uo and te = 0.1tc are the preferred
setup conditions
Different power generators in EDM contd.
DF = te /(te + td + to ) Ed = ue ie te (58)
Servo Reference Voltage in EDM
m ∝ ItE (63)
m IE
= ṁ = (65)
t F
Material removal in ECM
ya IE
MRRl = = (67)
t F ρa Aa
where, ρa is the density of anode, va = volume of material
removed from the anode in time t, Aa = cross-sectional area
on the anode from which material is being removed in time t,
ya is the thickness of material removed in time t.
Linear material removal rate in ECM
As J = I /Aa (current density),
ya JE
MRRl = = (68)
t F ρa
I (V − ∆V ) (V − ∆V ) (V − ∆V )
J= = = y =k (69)
Aa RAa A
kAa a y
I Die sinking
I Profiling and contouring
I Trepanning
I Grinding, Drilling and Micro-machining
Applications of ECM contd.
Laser Beam Machining
I Sun rays and a lens, burn a piece of paper
Laser Beam Machining
−8r 2
I (r ) = I0 exp (71)
w2
where I0 is the maximum intensity, r is defined as the distance
from the center of the beam in gaussian distribution of laser beam,
and w(minimum spot or gaussian beam diameter) is the diameter
at which the Intensity is 1/e 2 of its maximum value.
Types of LASERS
Gas assistance in LBM
ds = F l θ (73)
I where Fl is the focal length of lens and θ is the beam
divergence angle (rad).The area of the laser beam at focal
point, As , is
π
As = (Fl θ)2 (74)
4
Power Density and MRR in LBM
Lp = Es /∆t (75)
I where Es is the laser energy (in the unit of J) and ∆t is the
pulse duration of the laser.
I The power density of the laser beam, Pd (in the unit of
W/mm2 ), is given by
Lp 4Lp
Pd = = (76)
As π(Fl θ)2
Power Density and MRR in LBM
I The drilling feed rate f (in the unit of mm/s) can be described
as follows:
Cl L p Cl Pd
f = = (77)
Ev As Ev
I where the conversion efficiency Cl is a constant depending on
the material and conversion efficiency and Ev is vaporization
energy of the work piece material (J/mm3 ).
I The MRR can be calculated as follows:
Cl Lp
MRR = fAs = (78)
Ev
Parametric Analysis
LASER applications
LASER applications
...........
Thank You