Pest control

Pest control is the regulation or management of a species

defined as a pest, a member of the animal kingdom that
impacts adversely on human activities. The human
response depends on the importance of the damage done
and will range from tolerance, through deterrence and
management, to attempts to completely eradicate the pest.
Pest control measures may be performed as part of an
integrated pest management strategy.

In agriculture, pests are kept at bay by cultural, chemical

and biological means. Ploughing and cultivation of the
soil before sowing mitigate the pest burden and there is a
modern trend to limit the use of pesticides as far as
possible. This can be achieved by monitoring the crop,
only applying insecticides when necessary, and by
growing varieties and crops which are resistant to pests.
Where possible, biological means are used, encouraging
the natural enemies of the pests and introducing suitable
predators or parasites.

In homes and urban environments, the pests are the

rodents, birds, insects and other organisms that share the An agricultural aircraft applies low-insecticide bait
habitat with humans, and that feed on and spoil against western corn rootworm.
possessions. Control of these pests is attempted through
exclusion, repulsion, physical removal or chemical
means. Alternatively, various methods of biological control can be used including sterilisation programmes.

Contents
History
In agriculture, horticulture, and forestry
Control methods
Biological pest control
Cultural control
Trap cropping
Pesticides
Hunting
Forestry
In homes and cities
General methods
Physical pest control
Poisoned bait
Fumigation
 Sterilization
Insulation
Methods for specific pests
Natural rodent control
Pantry pests
Clothes moths
Carpet beetles
Bookworms
Beetles
Termites
Mosquitoes
On airfields
Guidelines and legislation
Australia
Australian Capital Territory (ACT)
New South Wales
South Australia
Victoria
Western Australia
India
Malaysia
Singapore
United Kingdom
See also
References
External links

History
Pest control is at least as old as agriculture, as there has always been a
need to keep crops free from pests. As long ago as 3000 BC in Egypt,
cats were used to control pests of grain stores such as rodents.[1][2]
Ferrets were domesticated by 500 AD in Europe for use as mousers.
Mongooses were introduced into homes to control rodents and
snakes, probably by the ancient Egyptians.[3]
Bronze cat, Ancient Egypt. (664–525
The conventional approach was probably the first to be employed,
BC)
since it is comparatively easy to destroy weeds by burning them or
ploughing them under, and to kill larger competing herbivores.
Techniques such as crop rotation, companion planting (also known as
intercropping or mixed cropping), and the selective breeding of pest-resistant cultivars have a long history.[4]

Chemical pesticides were first used around 2500 BC, when the Sumerians used sulphur compounds as
insecticides.[5] Modern pest control was stimulated by the spread across the United States of the Colorado
potato beetle. After much discussion, arsenical compounds were used to control the beetle and the predicted
poisoning of the human population did not occur. This led the way to a widespread acceptance of insecticides
across the continent.[6] With the industrialisation and mechanization of
agriculture in the 18th and 19th centuries, and the introduction of the
insecticides pyrethrum and derris, chemical pest control became
widespread. In the 20th century, the discovery of several synthetic
insecticides, such as DDT, and herbicides boosted this
development.[6]

Biological control is first recorded around 300 AD in China, when

colonies of weaver ants, Oecophylla smaragdina, were intentionally
Red weaver ants, here feeding on a
placed in citrus plantations to control beetles and caterpillars.[5] Also
snail, have been used to control
in China, ducks were used in paddy fields to consume pests, as
pests in China, Southeast Asia, and
illustrated in ancient cave art. In 1762, an Indian mynah was brought Africa for many centuries.
to Mauritius to control locusts, and about the same time, citrus trees in
Burma were connected by bamboos to allow ants to pass between
them and help control caterpillars. In the 1880s, ladybirds were used in citrus plantations in California to
control scale insects, and other biological control experiments followed. The introduction of DDT, a cheap and
effective compound, put an effective stop to biological control experiments. By the 1960s, problems of
resistance to chemicals and damage to the environment began to emerge, and biological control had a
renaissance. Chemical pest control is still the predominant type of pest control today, although a renewed
interest in traditional and biological pest control developed towards the end of the 20th century and continues
to this day.[7]

In agriculture, horticulture, and forestry

Control methods

Biological pest control

Biological pest control is a method of controlling pests such as insects

and mites by using other organisms.[8] It relies on predation,
parasitism, herbivory or other natural mechanisms, but typically also
involves an active human management role. Classical biological
control involves the introduction of natural enemies of the pest that are
bred in the laboratory and released into the environment. An
alternative approach is to augment the natural enemies that occur in a
particular area by releasing more, either in small, repeated batches, or
in a single large-scale release. Ideally, the released organism will
breed and survive, and provide long-term control.[9] Biological
control can be an important component of an integrated pest Biological pest control: parasitoid
management programme. wasp (Cotesia congregata) adult with
pupal cocoons on its host, a tobacco
For example: mosquitoes are often controlled by putting Bt Bacillus hornworm Manduca sexta (green
thuringiensis ssp. israelensis, a bacterium that infects and kills background)
mosquito larvae, in local water sources.[10]

Cultural control
Mechanical pest control is the use of hands-on techniques as well as
simple equipment and devices, that provides a protective barrier
between plants and insects. This is referred to as tillage and is one of
the oldest methods of weed control as well as being useful for pest
control; wireworms, the larvae of the common click beetle, are very
destructive pests of newly ploughed grassland, and repeated
cultivation exposes them to the birds and other predators that feed on
them.[11]

Crop rotation can help to control pests by depriving them of their host
plants. It is a major tactic in the control of corn rootworm, and has
reduced early season incidence of Colorado potato beetle by as much Cultivation by ploughing exposes
as 95%.[12] insect pests to predators such as
black-headed gulls.

Trap cropping

A trap crop is a crop of a plant that attracts pests, diverting them from
nearby crops.[13] Pests aggregated on the trap crop can be more easily
controlled using pesticides or other methods.[14] However, trap-
cropping, on its own, has often failed to cost effectively reduce pest
densities on large commercial scales, without the use of pesticides,
possibly due to the pests' ability to disperse back into the main
field.[14]
Spruce budworm (adult and pupa
shown), a serious pest of forests,
Pesticides can be monitored using pheromone
traps.
Pesticides are applied to crops by agricultural aircraft, tractor-mounted
crop sprayers, aerial spray by modern aircraft or as seed dressings to
control pests. However, successful control by pesticides is not easy;
the right formulation must be chosen, the timing is often critical, the
method of application is important, adequate coverage and retention
on the crop are necessary. The killing of natural enemies of the target
pest should be minimized. This is particularly important in countries
where there are natural reservoirs of pests and their enemies in the
countryside surrounding plantation crops, and these co-exist in a
delicate balance. Often in less-developed countries, the crops are well
adapted to the local situation and no pesticides are needed. Where
progressive farmers are using fertilizers to grow improved crop Spraying pine logs with insecticide
varieties, these are often more susceptible to pest damage, but the against Ips sexdentatus, a pine
indiscriminate application of pesticides may be detrimental in the engraver beetle
longer term.[15]

The efficacy of chemical pesticides tends to diminish over time. This is because any organism that manages to
survive the initial application will pass on its genes to its offspring and a resistant strain will be developed. In
this way, some of the most serious pests have developed resistance and are no longer killed by pesticides that
used to kill their ancestors. This necessitates higher concentrations of chemical, more frequent applications and
a movement to more expensive formulations.[16]

Pesticides are formulated to kill pests, but many have detrimental effects on non-target species; of particular
concern is the damage done to honey-bees, solitary bees and other pollinating insects and in this regard, the
time of day when the spray is applied can be important.[17] The widely used neonicotinoids have been banned
on flowering crops in some countries because of their effects on bees.[17] Some pesticides may cause cancer
and other health problems in humans, as well as being harmful to wildlife.[18] There can be acute effects
immediately after exposure or chronic effects after continuous low-level, or occasional exposure.[19]
Maximum residue limits for pesticides in foodstuffs and animal feed are set by many nations.[20]

Hunting

Pest control can also be achieved via culling the pest animals —
generally small- to medium-sized wild or feral mammals or birds that
inhabit the ecological niches near farms, pastures or other human
settlements — by employing human hunters or trappers to physically
track down, kill and remove them from the area. The culled animals,
known as vermin, may be targeted because they are deemed harmful
to agricultural crops, livestock or facilities; serve as hosts or vectors
that transmit pathogens across species or to humans; or for population
control as a mean of protecting other vulnerable species and
A contemporary wood engraving of
ecosystems.[21] varmint hunters shooting passenger
pigeons, a varmint species that was
Pest control via hunting, like all forms of harvest, has imposed an known to damage crops. Overhunting
artificial selective pressure on the organisms being targeted. While resulted in complete extinction of the
varmint hunting is potentially selecting for desired behavioural and species.
demographic changes (e.g. animals avoiding human populated areas,
crops and livestock), it can also result in unpredicted outcomes such
as the targeted animal adapting for faster reproductive cycles.[22]

Forestry

Forest pests present a significant problem because it is not easy to access the canopy and monitor pest
populations. In addition, forestry pests such as bark beetles, kept under control by natural enemies in their
native range, may be transported large distances in cut timber to places where they have no natural predators,
enabling them to cause extensive economic damage.[23] Pheromone traps have been used to monitor pest
populations in the canopy. These release volatile chemicals that attract males. Pheromone traps can detect the
arrival of pests or alert foresters to outbreaks. For example, the spruce budworm, a destructive pest of spruce
and balsam fir, has been monitored using pheromone traps in Canadian forests for several decades.[24] In some
regions, such as New Brunswick, areas of forest are sprayed with pesticide to control the budworm population
and prevent the damage caused during outbreaks.[25]

In homes and cities

Many unwelcome animals visit or make their home in residential buildings, industrial sites and urban areas.
Some contaminate foodstuffs, damage structural timbers, chew through fabrics or infest stored dry goods.
Some inflict great economic loss, others carry diseases or cause fire hazards, and some are just a nuisance.
Control of these pests has been attempted by improving sanitation and garbage control, modifying the habitat,
and using repellents, growth regulators, traps, baits and pesticides.[26]

General methods

Physical pest control

Physical pest control involves trapping or killing pests such as insects
and rodents. Historically, local people or paid rat-catchers caught and
killed rodents using dogs and traps.[27] On a domestic scale, sticky
flypapers are used to trap flies. In larger buildings, insects may be
trapped using such means as pheromones, synthetic volatile chemicals
or ultraviolet light to attract the insects; some have a sticky base or an
electrically charged grid to kill them. Glueboards are sometimes used
for monitoring cockroaches and to catch rodents. Rodents can be
killed by suitably baited spring traps and can be caught in cage traps
for relocation. Talcum powder or "tracking powder" can be used to Dog control van, Rekong Peo,
establish routes used by rodents inside buildings and acoustic devices Himachal Pradesh, India
can be used for detecting beetles in structural timbers.[26]

Historically, firearms have been one of the primary methods used for pest control. "Garden Guns" are smooth
bore shotguns specifically made to fire .22 caliber snake shot or 9mm Flobert, and are commonly used by
gardeners and farmers for snakes, rodents, birds, and other pest. Garden Guns are short-range weapons that
can do little harm past 15 to 20 yards, and they're relatively quiet when fired with snake shot, compared to
standard ammunition. These guns are especially effective inside of barns and sheds, as the snake shot will not
shoot holes in the roof or walls, or more importantly, injure livestock with a ricochet. They are also used for
pest control at airports, warehouses, stockyards, etc.[28]

The most common shot cartridge is .22 Long Rifle loaded with #12 shot. At a distance of about 10 ft (3.0 m),
which is about the maximum effective range, the pattern is about 8 in (20 cm) in diameter from a standard rifle.
Special smoothbore shotguns, such as the Marlin Model 25MG can produce effective patterns out to 15 or 20
yards using .22 WMR shotshells, which hold 1/8 oz. of #12 shot contained in a plastic capsule.

Poisoned bait

Poisoned bait is a common method for controlling rats, mice, birds,

slugs, snails, ants, cockroaches, and other pests. The basic granules,
or other formulation, contains a food attractant for the target species
and a suitable poison. For ants, a slow-acting toxin is needed so that
Rodent bait station, Chennai, India the workers have time to carry the substance back to the colony, and
for flies, a quick-acting substance to prevent further egg-laying and
nuisance.[29] Baits for slugs and snails often contain the molluscide
metaldehyde, dangerous to children and household pets.[30]

Warfarin has traditionally been used to kill rodents, but many

populations have developed resistance to this anticoagulant, and
difenacoum may be substituted. These are cumulative poisons,
requiring bait stations to be topped up regularly.[29] Poisoned meat
has been used for centuries to kill animals such as wolves[32] and
birds of prey.[33] Poisoned carcasses however kill a wide range of
carrion feeders, not only the targeted species.[32] Raptors in Israel
were nearly wiped out following a period of intense poisoning of rats
and other crop pests.[34]
Bait being placed in a rodent bait
box.[31]
Fumigation
Fumigation is the treatment of a structure to kill pests such as wood-
boring beetles by sealing it or surrounding it with an airtight cover
such as a tent, and fogging with liquid insecticide for an extended
period, typically of 24–72 hours. This is costly and inconvenient as
the structure cannot be used during the treatment, but it targets all life
stages of pests.[35]

An alternative, space treatment, is fogging or misting to disperse a

liquid insecticide in the atmosphere within a building without Tent fumigation of a house in
evacuation or airtight sealing, allowing most work within the building America
to continue, at the cost of reduced penetration. Contact insecticides are
generally used to minimize long-lasting residual effects.[35]

Sterilization

Populations of pest insects can sometimes be dramatically reduced by the release of sterile individuals. This
involves the mass rearing of a pest, sterilising it by means of X-rays or some other means, and releasing it into
a wild population. It is particularly useful where a female only mates once and where the insect does not
disperse widely.[36] This technique has been successfully used against the New World screw-worm fly, some
species of tsetse fly, tropical fruit flies, the pink bollworm and the codling moth, among others.[37]

Laboratory studies conducted with U-5897 (3-chloro-1,2-propanediol) were attempted in the early 1970s for
rat control, although these proved unsuccessful.[38] In 2013, New York City tested sterilization traps,[39]
demonstrating a 43% reduction in rat populations.[39] The product ContraPest was approved for the
sterilization of rodents by the United States Environmental Protection Agency in August 2016.[40]

Insulation

Boron, a known pesticide can be impregnated into the paper fibers of cellulose insulation at certain levels to
achieve a mechanical kill factor for self-grooming insects such as ants, cockroaches, termites, and more. The
addition of insulation into the attic and walls of a structure can provide control of common pests in addition to
known insulation benefits such a robust thermal envelope and acoustic noise-canceling properties. The EPA
regulates this type of general-use pesticide within the United States allowing it to only be sold and installed by
licensed pest management professionals as part of an integrated pest management program.[41] Simply adding
Boron or an EPA-registered pesticide to an insulation does not qualify it as a pesticide. The dosage and
method must be carefully controlled and monitored.

Methods for specific pests

Natural rodent control

Several wildlife rehabilitation organizations encourage natural form of

Brown rat infestation
rodent control through exclusion and predator support and preventing
secondary poisoning altogether.[42] The United States Environmental
Protection Agency notes in its Proposed Risk Mitigation Decision for
Nine Rodenticides that "without habitat modification to make areas
less attractive to commensal rodents, even eradication will not prevent
new populations from recolonizing the habitat."[43] The United States
Environmental Protection Agency has prescribed guidelines for
natural rodent control[44] and for safe trapping in residential areas with subsequent release to the wild.[45]
People sometimes attempt to limit rodent damage using repellents. Balsam fir oil from the tree Abies balsamea
is an EPA approved non-toxic rodent repellent.[46] Acacia polyacantha subsp. campylacantha root emits
chemical compounds that repel animals including rats.[47][48]

Pantry pests

Insect pests including the Mediterranean flour moth, the Indian

mealmoth, the cigarette beetle, the drugstore beetle, the confused flour
beetle, the red flour beetle, the merchant grain beetle, the sawtoothed
grain beetle, the wheat weevil, the maize weevil and the rice weevil
infest stored dry foods such as flour, cereals and pasta.[49][50]

In the home, foodstuffs found to be infested are usually discarded, and

storing such products in sealed containers should prevent the problem
from reoccurring. The eggs of these insects are likely to go unnoticed, The red flour beetle, Tribolium
castaneum, attacks stored grain
with the larvae being the destructive life stage, and the adult the most
products worldwide.
noticeable stage.[50] Since pesticides are not safe to use near food,
alternative treatments such as freezing for four days at 0 °F (−18 °C)
or baking for half an hour at 130 °F (54 °C) should kill any insects
present.[51]

Clothes moths

The larvae of clothes moths (mainly Tineola bisselliella and Tinea

pellionella) feed on fabrics and carpets, particularly those that are
stored or soiled. The adult females lay batches of eggs on natural
fibres, including wool, silk, and fur, as well as cotton and linen in
blends. The developing larvae spin protective webbing and chew into
the fabric, creating holes and specks of excrement. Damage is often
concentrated in concealed locations, under collars and near seams of
clothing, in folds and crevices in upholstery and round the edges of
carpets as well as under furniture.[52] Methods of control include
using airtight containers for storage, periodic laundering of garments,
trapping, freezing, heating and the use of chemicals; mothballs contain
volatile insect repellents such as 1,4-Dichlorobenzene which deter
Larva, pupa and adult clothes moth
adults, but to kill the larvae, permethrin, pyrethroids or other Tineola bisselliella with characteristic
insecticides may need to be used.[52] damage to fabric

Carpet beetles

Carpet beetles are members of the family Dermestidae, and while the adult beetles feed on nectar and pollen,
the larvae are destructive pests in homes, warehouses, and museums. They feed on animal products including
wool, silk, leather, fur, the bristles of hair brushes, pet hair, feathers, and museum specimens. They tend to
infest hidden locations and may feed on larger areas of fabrics than do clothes moths, leaving behind specks of
excrement and brown, hollow, bristly-looking cast skins.[53] Management of infestations is difficult and is
based on exclusion and sanitation where possible, resorting to pesticides when necessary. The beetles can fly
in from outdoors and the larvae can survive on lint fragments, dust, and inside the bags of vacuum cleaners. In
warehouses and museums, sticky traps baited with suitable pheromones can be used to identify problems, and
heating, freezing, spraying the surface with insecticide, and fumigation will kill the insects when suitably
applied. Susceptible items can be protected from attack by keeping them in clean airtight containers.[53]

Bookworms

Books are sometimes attacked by cockroaches, silverfish,[54] book mites, booklice,[55] and various beetles
which feed on the covers, paper, bindings and glue. They leave behind physical damage in the form of tiny
holes as well as staining from their faeces.[54] Book pests include the larder beetle, and the larvae of the black
carpet beetle and the drugstore beetle which attack leather-bound books, while the common clothes moth and
the brown house moth attack cloth bindings. These attacks are largely a problem with historic books, because
modern bookbinding materials are less susceptible to this type of damage.[56]

Evidence of attack may be found in the form of tiny piles of book-dust and specks of frass. Damage may be
concentrated in the spine, the projecting edges of pages and the cover. Prevention of attack relies on keeping
books in cool, clean, dry positions with low humidity, and occasional inspections should be made. Treatment
can be by freezing for lengthy periods, but some insect eggs are very resistant and can survive for long periods
at low temperatures.[54]

Beetles

Various beetles in the Bostrichoidea superfamily attack the dry, seasoned

wood used as structural timber in houses and to make furniture. In most cases,
it is the larvae that do the damage; these are invisible from the outside of the
timber but are chewing away at the wood in the interior of the item. Examples
of these are the powderpost beetles, which attack the sapwood of hardwoods,
and the furniture beetles, which attacks softwoods, including plywood. The
damage has already been done by the time the adult beetles bore their way
out, leaving neat round holes behind them. The first that a householder knows
about the beetle damage is often when a chair leg breaks off or a piece of
structural timber caves in. Prevention is through chemical treatment of the
timber prior to its use in construction or in furniture manufacture.[57]

Termites
House timber split open to
Termites with colonies in close proximity to houses can extend their galleries reveal larvae of the house
longhorn beetle, Hylotrupes
underground and make mud tubes to enter homes. The insects keep out of
bajulus, in their burrows,
sight and chew their way through structural and decorative timbers, leaving
which are partially filled with
the surface layers intact, as well as through cardboard, plastic and insulation
frass
materials. Their presence may become apparent when winged insects appear
and swarm in the home in spring. Regular inspection of structures by a trained
professional may help detect termite activity before the damage becomes
substantial.;[58] Inspection and monitoring of termites is important because termite alates (winged
reproductives) may not always swarm inside a structure. Control and extermination is a professional job
involving trying to exclude the insects from the building and trying to kill those already present. Soil-applied
liquid termiticides provide a chemical barrier that prevents termites from entering buildings, and lethal baits can
be used; these are eaten by foraging insects, and carried back to the nest and shared with other members of the
colony, which goes into slow decline.[59]

Mosquitoes
Mosquitoes are midge-like flies in the family Culicidae. Females of most
species feed on blood and some act as vectors for malaria and other diseases.
Historically they have been controlled by use of DDT and other chemical
means, but since the adverse environmental effects of these insecticides have
been realized, other means of control have been attempted. The insects rely on
water in which to breed and the first line of control is to reduce possible
breeding locations by draining marshes and reducing accumulations of
standing water. Other approaches include biological control of larvae by the
use of fish or other predators, genetic control, the introduction of pathogens, Mosquito (Aedes aegypti)
growth-regulating hormones, the release of pheromones and mosquito biting a human
trapping.[60]

On airfields
Birds are a significant hazard to aircraft, but it is difficult to keep them
away from airfields. Several methods have been explored. Stunning
birds by feeding them a bait containing stupefying substances has
been tried,[61] and it may be possible to reduce their numbers on
airfields by reducing the number of earthworms and other
invertebrates by soil treatment.[61] Leaving the grass long on airfields
rather than mowing it is also a deterrent to birds.[62] Sonic nets are
being trialled; these produce sounds that birds find distracting and
seem effective at keeping birds away from affected areas.[63]
Jet engine fan blades damaged by
bird strike
Guidelines and legislation
Guidelines and legislation regarding the usage permitted methods of application and the storage conditions of
pesticides and chemicals vary from country to country, often being legislated by each state of territory.

Australia

Australian Capital Territory (ACT)

Environment Protection Act 1997 ACT[64]

New South Wales

[65][66]

South Australia

Pesticides Regulations 2003 SA Pursuant to Controlled Substances Act 1984 SA[67]

Victoria

Health (Pest Control) Regulations 2002 Vic pursuant to the Health Act 1958 Vic[68]
Western Australia

Health (Pesticide) Regulations 1956 WA pursuant to Health Act 1911 WA[69]

India

The Insecticides Act 1968[70]

Malaysia

Pesticide Act 1974[71]

Singapore

Control of Vectors and Pesticides Act[72]

United Kingdom

Prevention of Damage by Pests Act 1949[73]

See also
Bee removal
Electronic pest control
Garden guns
IPM CRSP
Nuisance wildlife management
Rabbits in Australia

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External links
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