A Comparative Analysis Among Different Biodiesel Feedstocks Found in India,

Bangladesh and Malaysia: A Review

Md. Abu Mogira1*, Amad Hussen1 , Md. Abu Hasnat Rashed1

1
Department of Petroleum & Mining Engineering
Shahjalal University of Science & Technology, Sylhet 3114, Bangladesh

Abstract: Ever-increasing energy demand is an indication of a power shortage for future

days. As fossil fuels are getting diminished day by day it is high time to look for renewable
energy sources. From many renewable sources, biodiesel is a promising alternative. Biodiesel
is swiftly biodegradable and entirely non-toxic, explaining spillages represent far less of a
risk than fossil diesel spillages. Biodiesel can be produced from straight vegetable oil,
rendered animal fats, leather industry wastes, tallow, restaurant waste oils, corns, microalgae,
and so on. Transesterification is the most acceptable process for biodiesel production among
all other options. Biodiesel is a potential source of renewable energy for India, Bangladesh,
and Malaysia The feedstocks are easily available feedstock for Asian countries like India,
Bangladesh, and Malaysia. In these work biodiesel feedstocks of these three countries have
been analyzed and compared. The evolution of Biodiesel has been classified into four
generations according to European Academies' Science Advisory Council (EASAC). Edible
vegetables and crops are the sources of the 1st generation; non-edible sources like plants
anmal fats and municipal wastes are 2nd generation; Microalgae, macroalgae, microbes are
3rd generation; Forth generation of biodiesel produced from synthetic biology. Crop yield,
Cultivation in arid and semi-arid land or water, yield of biodiesel, energy content, the effect
on food supply carbon-neutral economy, easy availability are the major factors behind the
evolution of the feedstocks. The objective is to find the most suitable biodiesel feedstock for
each of these countries depending on their economy, availability, technology, culture, energy
demand, and feedstock generation.

Keywords: Biodiesel, Transesterification, Feedstocks.

1. Introduction: The world has an expletive dependence on fossil fuels as a prime source of
energy and these non-renewable reservoirs had been falling off, hence these circumstances
lead to the crisis of energy. This shortage of energy and security has become the major
anxiety all around this planet. Rather, excessive use of fossils fuels the major cause of global
warming and climate change. Malaysia, India & Bangladesh explicitly will be experiencing
sharp growth in population and economy. Moreover, the energy demand for industry,
transportation, and other purposes slightly increasing purposes. According to the International
Energy Agency (IEA), it is assumed that global energy consumption will rise by 53% by the
year 2030. ("World energy outlook 2020‖) Another study also acknowledged that global
fossil fuels resource will be exhausted within 40 years.(Höök & Tang, 2013) This condition
could outcome in an annual petroleum price will be jumping shortly. Consequently,
unconventional energy sources must be inaugurated to hold up the increasing commercial
energy demand. Biodiesel acts to be one of the replacements that can conclusively reduce the
domination of diesel due to its various benefits such as biodegradability, lower carbon
emissions, renewability, lower toxicity level, engine lubricant, and low flashpoint. Biodiesel
has received a lot of interest lately as a sustainable and reliable source of bio fuel. A recent
studying shows that the price for biodiesel (B99–B100) is about $3.46/gallon and biodiesel
(B20) is $2.87/gallon, meanwhile gasoline and diesel cost around $2.67/gallon and
$3.03/gallon respectively (US Department of Energy, 2018). However, reduction of biodiesel
production cost can be achieved by using an easily obtained and cheaper feedstock such as
waste cooking oil, palm oil, animal fats, rubber oil, Jatropha curcas oil, vegetable oil,
methanol, and microalgae. Though there are so many sources, a few of them are being fully
operational. In this study, we locate that microalgae can be the most efficient and feasible
source of biodiesel at the selective countries. Microalgae are microbial eukaryotes that
populate virtually all ecosystems found on Earth. They are well-adapted to survive under a
large spectrum of environmental stresses, including (but not limited to) heat, cold, drought,
salinity, photo-oxidation, anaerobiosis, osmotic pressure, and UV radiation. The production
of biodiesel from microalgae has so many advantages over the above resources due to oil
productivity a higher algal biomass, and the need for non-arable land for its growth.
Microalgae are prokaryotic (e.g. Cyanobacteria, Cyanophyceae) or eukaryotic (e.g. green
algae) and diatoms ( Bacillario- phyta) that can be grown rapidly and live in harsh conditions
due to their unicellular or simple multicellular structure. A study has estimated that more than
50,000 microalgal species exist, but only 30,000 are studied and analyzed as yet. (Guiry,
2012,) The European Algae Biomass Association is probably the best example as it was
created to promote the contentious development of technologies and increasing industrial
capacities encompassing microalgae. Biodiesel production can be a great weapon to survive
for a long time in the developed world and save a huge amount of foreign currency.

2. History of Biodiesel: Since the invention of the internal-combustion engine in the 1890s,
the diesel engine became most preferred due to its reliability and high fuel economy,
worldwide. As petroleum wasn't available at that time the French government and Dr. Diesel
ran initial experiments on vegetable oils. The working rule of a diesel engine is compression
ignition. After the compression of air in the high temperature and pressure in the engine’s
cylinder, the fuel is injected to that continuously. Rapid burning of fuel inside the cylinder
drives the piston back off converting the chemical energy into mechanical energy. In 1900
otto company made a peanut fuel-driven diesel engine. After the oil boom of petroleum, the
costs of petroleum fuels went down, and therefore, the attention shifted from vegetable oils to
petroleum fuels. However, the use of vegetable oil was a waste because it's an edible source
of fuel. Now the designs of the engines have changed, and that they cannot run vegetable oil
directly because of much higher viscosity. Pyrolysis, blending with solvents, and even
emulsifying the fuel with water, or alcohol was used to force vegetable oils to run in modern
diesel engines, but the attempts weren't feasible. In 1937 transesterification process was
introduced by Belgian scientist George Chavanne to convert vegetable oils into carboxylic
acid alkyl esters and use them as a diesel fuel replacement ( Knothe 2001). In 1941 Ford
developed, ―Soybean Car‖ which could run by ethanol derived from corn. In the 1940s many
countries of Africa started producing crops for energy generation ( Knothe 2001). Biodiesel
may be produced from non-edible sources like algae, jatropha, chicken waste, waste cooking
oil, etc. In 1977, the Brazilian scientist Expedito Parente developed the primary industrial
process for biodiesel production. In 1989 Austria used rapeseed as a biodiesel feedstock. In
1996 United Staes began to process biodiesel from waste grease in Hawaii. . In 2001, the
energy security awareness and high surge prices of petroleum popularize biodiesel on the
worldwide fuel market. In 2006, the by, Renewable Fuels Standards (RFS) Program, the
usage of ethanol and biodiesel is ready to be twofold by the end of 2012. (Dewangan et
el.,2018)

3. Generations of Biodiesel Feedstock: Feedstock selection plays a major role in biodiesel

feasibility as feedstock carries about 70% of the total cost of production. (Hanifzadeh &
Nabati, 2019). Some common feedstocks with generations are tabulated in Table 1.

3.1 First Generation: First-generation biodiesel is identified by its ability to be blended with
petroleum-based fuels, combusted in existing internal combustion engines, and distributed
through existing infrastructure. The first generation feedstocks are the edible vegetable oils
such as mustard oil, sunflower oil, safflower oil, rapeseed oil, coconut oil, palm oil, soybean
oil, canola oil, etc. The first generation biodiesel was unsustainable because it was a potential
threat to the food commodities. While many countries didn’t have edible oil for food, it was
not feasible to produce oil from edible sources. Moreover, the limitation of using Land space
was also an issue. (Dewangan et al., 2018)

3.2 Second Generation: Second-generation biodiesel includes waste cooking oil, animal
fats, and non-edible vegetable oils. The potential feedstocks are (i) non-edible vegetable oil:
Jatropha, Karanja, Mahua, Linseed, Lottonseed, Neem, Camelina, and wonder leaf tree/
polenta; (ii) waste or recycled oil: cooking oil, frying oil, vegetable oil soapstocks, and
pomace oil (iii) animal fats: tallow, pork lard, yellow grease, chicken fat and by-products
from fish oil. (Dewangan et al., 2018)

3.3 Third Generation: : The unsustainability and inefficiency of a edible and nonedible oil
result in the development of third-generation feedstock which is derived from algae and
microalgae. They're easy to cultivate and have a quick reproduction rate, and the yield of oil
is higher than compared to other conventional feedstock. Further, using third-generation
feedstock causes a reduction in atmospheric CO2 levels ( Marousek 2015; Patil, Tran, and
Giselrd 2008).
Table 1: Biodiesel Feedstocks of 1st,2nd and 3rd generations.(Kumar,M., & Sharma, M. P.,2016)

4. Biodiesel Feedstocks in India, Bangladesh and Malaysia: Biodiesel Feedstocks in

India, Bangladesh, and Malaysia: India, Bangladesh, and Malaysia have different land space,
geographical influence, culture, transportation, economy, and technological advancement.
The biodiesel feedstocks of a country changes due to these parameters. Despite differences,
the three countries show some feedstocks in common. Jatropha curcas, waste cooking oil,
algae, rubber oil, wild date palm are the major feedstocks of these countries. This paper
focuses on the comparative analysis of these five feedstocks.

5.Comparative analysis of Biodiesel feedstocks:

5.1 Jathropa Curcas: Jatropha curcas (hereafter mentioned as Jatropha) comes from the
family of Euphorbiaceae, a sort of highly adaptable sub-tropical seed plant that thrives
excellently in tropical land and it is a big advantage within the biofuel industry since lower
maintenance cost during the farming process is often favorable. It needs little water to grow
which makes it a perfect candidate to be used for biodiesel. The oil content in Jatropha varies
betting on the soil and climate. With 27-40% oil content, averaging at 34.4% In some
investigations, the oil content of its fruit is reported to be as high as 66.4%. although Jatropha
is loaded with qualities that enable it to be extensively utilized as feedstock, reports are
questioning the sustainability of Jatropha for biodiesel production As an example, India still
fail to meet the national implementation of 20% Jatropha biodiesel and petro-diesel blending
through their National Biodiesel Mission despite the widespread of Jatropha cultivation since
2003.( Kumar,et al., 2012) Contrary to the initial notion that Jatropha may be a pest-resistant
and hardy plant, there are reports on the vulnerability of Jatropha to diseases and pest attacks,
as experienced by farmers in Senegal, India, and the Republic of South Africa. Jatropha can
be cultivated in the wasteland. India's all-out land zone is around 329 million hectares. Of
this, the legislature characterizes 90 million hectares as "wastelands" — that is, non-
beneficial land. Initially, jatropha curcas used to be cultivated on a small scale in remote
areas but by the end of 2012 jatropha curcas was cultivated in the area of 11.2-13.4 million
hectares. (Avinash et al., 2014). Despite being a good source of biodiesel feedstock j.cucas
has some agro economical & economical Limitations. limitations i. Jatropha plantation
activities were discontinued for having high cultivation costs, low productivity, no proper
availability of seeds, and improper marketing channels. Until 2015, it has been stated that
Malaysia has a total of 259,906 hectares of Jatropha crop plantation, and the current planted
crops are capable of producing 4.27 tons of dry seeds every year. Bangladesh has less effort
in Jatropha production compared to Malaysia and India.

Table 2: Comparison between Sunflower, Soybean, palm & Jatropha oil. (Hanif et al., 2019)

5.2 Waste Cooking Oil: By using waste oil (WCO) as another feedstock can eventually
reduce the worth of biodiesel as waste cooking oil(WCO) contains a less expensive price and
high availability compared to oil, soybean, and oil as pure refined oil needed extra
purification cost (Gupta et al., 2016). WCO is oil that's used to cook, or fry food and it's
extremely unhealthy to reuse. it's going to cause environmental problems due to improper
waste management and find obviate WCO from households and restaurants direct into the
drainage. Such actions would cause serious environmental issues like water and soil pollution
which consequently affecting the health of humans, plants, and most of the aquatic life, plus
generating higher cost for wastewater treatment so on get eliminate WCO.WCO biodiesel
production doesn't include agriculture since it's collected directly from the WCO distribution
center. But it is a limited source & can't be increased easily rear. Though It costs cheaper
prices there are some limitations at methodology by using heterogeneous catalysts. The
recovery rate isn't satisfactory. A recent study from the Food Safety and Standards Authority
of India portrays that about 225 lakh many oil is being consumed within the country. About
30% of the whole oil becomes waste oil. These waste oils could also be recycled and
converted to fuel. Moreover, the report indicates that as many as 64 companies, 200
aggregators, 350 hubs, and a few 26 plant initiatives in 101 locations across India to allow the
gathering and conversion of used oil into biodiesel. (Godson & Vinoth,.2015). u. s.
Department of Agriculture (USDA) published a report on the Bangladesh Oilseeds and
Products Annual 2019. This report shows that the number of edible oil (soybean and palm
oil) consumption is increasing once a year by about 11%. it's predicted that the amount will
reach 1.85 lakh tonnes during this 2019-2020 economic year. Waste oil encompasses a good
potentiality in Bangladesh. The operation cost and investment return are tabulated below. In
Malaysia, Hanish K found that 17% of respondents discarded the WCO into the dustbin while
another 7% and 60% discarded the WCO onto soil and into the system, respectively. The
remaining 16% sold the WCO and/or consumed it completely in their cooking. So an
outsized amount of WCO is wasted. Proper management can make WCO a great source of
biodiesel in India, Malaysia, and Bangladesh. The financial benifits of WCO is tabulated in
Table 3.

Table 3: Biodiesel production benefits (Expanses vs Return) (Islam et al., 2020)

5.3 Rubber Oil: Among many non-edible feedstocks, rubber oil stands out from 2nd
generation biodiesels. sources. Rubber is one of the potential sources for biodiesel production
due to its high productivity and availability in the Asian subcontinent. In India Bangladesh,
Malaysia Srilanka & Indonesia rubber is available. About 40% to 50% of rubber is oil
content. But this oil needs to be processed before using it to the conventional diesel engines.
Transesterification process based on Alkali was performed to yield rubber oil biodiesel. This
increased the viscosity of rubber oil. India is the fourth largest rubber producer in the world.
Rubber oil comparison with Diesel is shown in Table 4. Traditional rubber-growing states
comprising Kerala and Tamil Nadu account for 81% of production. Major non-traditional
rubber growing regions are the North-Eastern states of Tripura, Assam and Meghalaya,
Odisha, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and West Bengal. Malaysia produces approximately 640
thousand metric tons of biodiesel in 2019. Malaysia is the fifth rubber oil produces in the
world. Malaysia yields 46% of the total rubber production of the world. The weather in
Malaysia is perfect for rubber growth. In 2009-10 Bangladesh produces only 13,500 tonnes
of rubber while total consumption was 44400 tonnes. So the production of biodiesel from
rubber is not feasible for Bangladesh. Malaysia is the fifth top rubber producer in the world
so the rubber can be a good source of biodiesel for Malaysia. In 2017-18, rubber imports
stood at 4,69,760 tonnes of India. Due to this shortage rubber can’t be a potential biodiesel
feedstock for India. (Chhabra et al.,2020)

Table 4: Rubber oil comparison with Diesel.

5.4 Micro Algae: Microalgae has clear advantages over higher plants in terms of oil
production. Besides synthesizing storage lipids in the form of triacylglycerols, they can be
induced to accumulate substantial amounts thereof via several forms of stress, e.g. N-
limitation, up to yields of 60% of their dry biomass, as fully discussed elsewhere. Despite
being grown in aqueous media, microalgae require lower rates of water renewal than
terrestrial crops need as irrigation water .they can be cultivated in brackish water (so do not
necessarily demand freshwater), they do not need application of pesticides and they do not
require arable land as field crops do. Finally, their low environmental impacts are emphasized
by the possibilities of waste upgrade. The average oil yield is reported between 1% and 70%
but under certain conditions, some species can yield up to 90% of dry biomass weight.The
processing of microalgae is shown in Fig 1. The microalgae are considered as one of the most
promising feedstocks for future bio-diesel production. The advantages of microalgae are their
widespread availability, higher oil yields, and reduced pressure on cultivable land. The
difficulty in efficient biodiesel production from algae lies not only in the extraction of the oil
but also in developing an algal strain with a high lipid content and fast growth rate.

Fig 1: Microalgae processing by Transesterfication (Researchgate: Process diagram of producing biodiesel from algae. (2020, January 23)

5.5 Palm Oil: Palm oil is a 2nd generation biodiesel feedstock. Palm grows lots in Indonesia
& Malaysia as these two have many islands which is suitable for palm trees. Palm has high
organic nutrients which may be converted into biofuel. Malaysia produced 17.32 million
tonnes of crude palm oil from five.74 million hectares of land in 2016. Wild date palm is
sugar-based an edible oil for bioethanol production. A male plant produced 140.42 kg sugary
biomass annually with 29.85% total sugar whereas a female plant yielded 195.56 kg,
containing a mean of 43.61% of total sugar. Most of the lands of the chosen site are used for
the cultivation of rice, wheat, jute, and sugarcane; in addition to various fruits and vegetables.
The wild date palm trees over the whole study area are growing naturally on crop fields, crop
field boundaries, and sloping terrain sides of crop fields. In Bangladesh 20 species of palm
grows naturally. Out of the approximately 14 species don't seem to be edible. A hectare of
fully-grown wild date palm plants comprising 100 male and 400 female plants could yield
92269.04 kg sugary biomass, with 39.02% total sugar that might yield a minimum of 8076.62
L of bioethanol.( Swaraz et al., 2020). In India Currently, the country has only about 3.3 lakh
hectares under oil palm, while the potential identified for its 19.3 lakh hectares within the
states of Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Kerala,
Mizoram, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, and also the other N-E States. supported the above findings,
we will conclude that oil contains a great potentiality for Malaysia due to its geographical
environment. India still needs some development in palm tree plantation. Bangladesh
produces a negligible amount of palm trees. Though it's a feasible biodiesel source for
Malaysia, it's not feasible for Bangladesh and India.

6. Transesterification Process: Transesterification is the well-adopted process for biodiesel

production by the researchers. (Guerreiro et. al., 2006). The process is described by a schematic chat
(Fig 2) below.

Fig 2: Transesterification Process of Biodiesel production. (Ferdous et al., 2012)

7.Discussion: Though Jatropha curcas was cultivated in tropical areas and an honest
feedstock of biodiesel, there are some limitations like high cultivation cost, low productivity.
Waste cooking oil also a decent feedstock but it needs more resources. Rubber Oil is an
honest feedstock in Malaysia. Microalgae is the most efficient of biodiesel in 3. Microalgae
can be produced easily in countries like Malaysia Bangladesh and India. Microalgae
synthesize and accumulate large quantities of neutral lipids /oil[20-50% leclanche cell weight
( DCW)] and grow at high rates (e.g. 1-3 doublings/day). Responses to environmental issues
(including global warming) can't be delayed for much longer, otherwise Mankind could also
be at risk. Biodiesel produced from microalgae are one piece of the puzzle in what concerns
energy security since they'll eventually replace traditional fossil fuels. Combined with
measures on energy efficiency and savings, and with educated changes in consumer behavior,
they might be helpful to meet the energy demands of the near future sustainably. Microalgae
offer after all novel bioenergy systems, characterized by much higher oil yields and far lower
water demand than terrestrial biomass, additionally the maximum amount lower costs than
electrolysis of water. It's estimated that the value of hydrogen production via water
electrolysis lies within the range 3- $11.8/kg (depending on the primary price of electricity),
whereas hydrogen production by microalgae is estimated to be ca. $4.8/kg. In what pertains
to the costs of production of microalgal biodiesel, it's estimated to range between $2.95 and
$3.8/L of oil, for raceway ponds and photobioreactors, respectively, assuming that biomass
contains 30%(w/w) oil and CO2 is on the market at no cost (e.g. from flue gas). Compared
with second-generation biofuels, microalgal fuels have a far higher yield: 30e100 times more
energy per hectare is produced by microalgae if compared with terrestrial oil crops. However,
the processes currently available are marginal in terms of net energy balance and warming
mitigation, so there's still a protracted way before microalgae will entail a profitable
contribution as a source of biofuels. Research and development efforts aimed toward
improving reactor designs and integrating processes are required, which address both reaction
engineering and merchandise separation schemes. Breakthroughs are indeed necessary for the
planning and development of technologies able to reduce processing costs while increasing
product yields. Integrated studies within the sort of well-funded R&D programs could
eventually aid in selecting microalgal strains specifically adapted to regional conditions;
genetic improvement and process optimization will help fulfill this endeavor likewise.
Specifically, the biorefinery issue is central, because it allows upgrade of spent biomass via
production of other bulk, or fine chemicals e which might contribute positively to the general
economic feasibility of microalgal biotechnology. Careful life cycle assessments are so as,
since some biofuels may fail to produce a good contribution from the aim of view of world
sustainability. Assessment is thus seminal to provide an impartial picture of the scenarios
available and to eventually backup correct choices.

8. Conclusion: This paper reviewed the status of biofuel production in Malaysia, India, and
Bangladesh whose have an excessively increasing energy consumption and rapid economic
growth in South East Asia. The following conclusions can be drawn: Microalgae is one of
the main sources to produce biodiesel. It's potential is comparable with other sources in other
countries and could be considered as green since they can reduce GHG significantly. The
microalgae are considered as one of the most pro- missing feedstocks for future biodiesel
production. The advantages of microalgae are their widespread availability, higher oil yields,
and reduced pressure on cultivable land. The difficulty in efficient biodiesel production from
algae lies not only in the extraction of the oil but also in developing an algal strain with a
high lipid content and fast growth rate. As biofuel production and export are increasing year
by year in these countries, the government needs to have some initiatives for stakeholders to
facilitate their production by providing advanced technologies. The outlook of biofuel in this
area depends on several sectors, such as the government, industries, and stakeholders, which
need more integration to reach these country’s needs.

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