Professional Documents
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Orthognathic surgery of
adults and facial aesthetics
Jean-Baptiste CHARRIER
ABSTRACT
Orthognathic surgery has as its objective the repositioning of basal bone in
the framework of maxillo-mandibular deformities. Its results are both esthetic
and functional. For adults, improved aesthetics results is becoming increasingly
important in these procedures to the point where some patients seek only an
esthetic amelioration and not a functional one. To achieve their aesthetic
purpose, it is becoming progressively more necessary for orthodontists, oral
surgeons, and general dentists to collaborate effectively in a well-coordinated
effort. In what has now become a true sub-specialty, orthognathic surgeons
must master the complementary techniques of rhinoplasty, osseous apposition,
aesthetic facial surgery, fat injection or injectable anti-aging tratments. In this
article we propose a diagnostic classification based on the aesthetics of the
adult smile and describe the therapeutic modalities appropriate for each
element.
KEY WORDS
Orthognathic surgery,
Aesthetics of the face,
Orthodontic and orthognathic treatment.
1 – INTRODUCTION
Orthognathic surgery, or surgery of max-
illo-mandibular bones, has for its purpose
correction of malpositions of basal bone and Conflicts of interest declared by author: NONE
the malocclusions that is often associated Article received: 12-2011.
with them. Accepted for publication: 02-2012.
2 – GENERAL COMMENTS
The term ‘‘orthognathic’’ comes gnathos (jaw). This straight jaw sur-
from the Greek ortho (straight) and gery developed only recently, largely
during the exuberant growth of med- border of the eyebrows, the sub-nasal
ical and dental science over the last point, and the sub-mental point. The
thirty years, when it emerged from area of activity of orthognathic sur-
maxillo-facial surgery, to become a geons is primarily the lower third of
sub-specialty of its own, orthognathic the face, which is itself divided into
surgery was aided by collaboration of three stages of equal height:
dento-facial orthopedic colleagues. – the first stage extends from the
This joint effort of surgeons and from the free edge of the columella
orthodontists has made it possible to the intercommisural line of the
for team members to establish cor- lips;
rective treatment plans with precision – the two other stages extend from
and to execute them with rigor. the intercommisssural line to the
Beauty, which is a central concept free edge of the chin (Fig. 1).
in all cultures, and physical appear-
ance have always played key roles in
the development of individual self 2 – 2 Sagittal analysis
esteem, in the establishment of inter-
personal relations, and even the qual- In the sagittal plane, a lack of
ity of life, are, accordingly carefully balance of the profile is often corre-
considered in these treatment plans. lated with a lack of facial balance. The
So the competence of orthognathic esthetic considerations of the profile
surgeon in no way limits itself to a of the visage act so that a harmonious
mechanical occlusal or stomatological visage ought to be presented. Current
approach but integrates knowledge of esthetic standards seek, above all, to
the techniques of cosmetic surgery of present the lower third of the face that
the visage with procedures for cor- is synonymous with youth. Actually,
recting basal bone. The orthognathic from an esthetic point of view ‘‘any-
surgeon is, above all, a surgeon of the thing that retreats grows older, every-
face who is philosophically committed thing that advances rejuvenates.’’
to incorporating surgery of the jaws Why do older people look old? Be-
with plastic surgery and reconstruc- cause of the atrophy of fatty cheek
tion of the face. tissue and drooping of the cheek’s
cutaneous covering that reduce the
projection of the middle stage of the
face and because loss of teeth
2 – 1 Vertical analysis deprives lips of support as bi-maxillary
From a frontal view, the maxillo- retrusion takes place.
mandibular jaws, composed of the Accordingly, there is often a correla-
two maxillary bones and the mandible, tion between the esthetic approach
occupy the middle and lower thirds of for the visage of the face and the
the face. Artists consider the face to profile because the normo-divergent
be divided in three stages of equal transfacial profile with contact of the
height, whose respective cutaneous upper and lower lips at rest corre-
limits are the anterior zone of the sponds most closely to contemporary
insertion of the hairline, the upper esthetic norms.
Figure 1
Classification of the anomalies of positions of teeth in the smile.
law of least effort induces children to loosen them perceptibly and some
choose mouth breathing leaving the patients keep this up for years. To
tongue free to push against teeth and prevent this from happening, the
risk of making them progressively treatment team must arrange for an
more mobile. Moreover, a sponta- anterior deep bite and try to train
neous lips closed posture at rest patients to permanently control their
confers a relaxed and refreshed ap- tongues from passing between upper
pearance to the visage and improves and lower teeth. Otherwise some
the esthetic aspect of the entire face. extent of relapse is inevitable.
A continuous thrusting of the ton-
gue between the incisor teeth can
initial consultation and also their com- morphological change will be criti-
plete agreement with and cooperation cal. Furthermore, the transforma-
with an arduous and lengthy protocol. tion of the visage generated by
surgery will modify the patient’s
personality in the eyes of others
3 – 2 – Classification of because they will have lost their
comical facial expression.
anomalies and position – Insufficient smile: The upper inci-
of teeth in the smile sors are not visible over their entire
We describe the principal anomalies length making the smile look older
of position of teeth in the smile below than he actually is. Sometimes
in terms of an ‘‘extra-oral’’ surgical these patients have had premolars
clinical approach to the lower third of extracted as a component of ortho-
the face, site of the principal action of dontic treatment in an effort to
the orthognathic surgeon. This is an avoid surgery but were not satisfied
arbitrarily chosen vertical approach to with the result. If any adjustment of
the frontal visage of the face; any maxillary vertical dimension is con-
sagittal anomalies, the visage of the templated, the surgeon will have to
profile, are almost always combined use bone grafts in order to avoid an
and coordinated with frontal faults. unstable result, one readily subject
The lower third of the face is itself to relapse.
divided into three stages. We deal first – Crowding: which gives the smile a
with the superior third and next disorderly aspect. Surgical expan-
correct the lower two thirds (Fig. 1). sion of the maxilla ultimately asso-
ciated with corticotomies, may
• Disharmony of the upper third make it possible for the treatment
It is imperative that any manage- team to avoid extracting teeth.
ment of these anomalies must include – Latero-maxilla, or maxillary
a surgical procedure for the maxilla. asymmetry: which can result from
– Gummy smile All smiles that agenesis or loss of teeth unilaterally
reveal more than two mm of (the term ‘‘latero-maxillo,’’ widely
gingiva are included in this cate- used by surgeons does not actually
gory. This gingival exposure lends a exist in accepted nomenclature,
somewhat comical character to a unlike the term ‘‘latero-mandible.’’
person’s visage, which, if pro- Latero-maxilla refers to asymme-
nounced, can be upsetting to that tries of the upper arch with a
individual. Patients of North African discrepancy between the upper
and Spanish descent are particularly midline and the sagittal midline of
sensitive on this subject. Many the visage.) In contrast to the
adults have consulted us about an mandibular midline, which is unno-
occasional gummy smile that is not ticed in a smile, an off-center
associated with an occlusal anom- maxillary midline can be quite un-
aly. Psychological management of attractive. If orthognathic surgery is
these patients must be executed contemplated, there is no need for
with extreme care because their the orthodontist to attempt to cor-
goal is exclusively esthetic and the rect this discrepancy.
4 – SURGICAL TECHNIQUES
The principal osteotomy techniques Epker modified the original mandib-
include segmentary and complete os- ular trans-ramal osteotomy that
teotomies of the maxillary table and the Dalpont and Obwegeser described
mandible, and also the more recent by proposing an internal corticotomy
technique of single interdental cortico- incision on the ramus in a lower
tomies, all, except the corticotomies, position than those of his predeces-
performed under general anesthesia sors, at a point facing the Spix spine
with naso-tracheal intubation. Sur- where the mandibular nerve enters
geons always gain access intraorally the mandible4,5.
thus leaving no visible facial scars. The And it is in the mandible that
choice of the surgical approach em- surgeons most frequently employ this
ployed depends on the established intervention where its objective is to
treatment plan but may be modified separate the dental arch and the two
during the course of preparatory ortho- rami from the body of the mandible,
dontic treatment in accordance with while always respecting the osseous
occlusion achieved by orthodontic passage of the inferior alveolar nerve.
forces and residual growth potential. The nerve’s route starts buccally
behind the upper lip in the form of a
4 – 1 – Mandibular osteotomies bird’s wing so that it can take a V-Y
shape as the lips close. The osseous
• Epker’s trans-ramal sagittal incision line is more or less high,
osteotomy situated in the position that best
described, can be used to improve the called for a bimaxillary osteotomy and
appearance of the visage or, as Cole- a genioplasty. Before and after facial
man put it, apply rejuvenation in a and intraoral photographs are shown
syringe, especially in the zygomatic below in Figures 2 and 3.
area. It must be done at a safe • Patient n 2
distance from the site of the osteot- Gummy smile, with excess anterior
omy and can be performed at the vertical dimension and no malocclu-
same time as the rhinoplasty. Other sion. She wants only esthetic im-
synthetic filling materials, such as provement. Our orthodontic-and
hyaluronic acid, polylactic acid, or orthognathic treatment, to be per-
botulin toxin have been used for formed in collaboration with Dr. Bedar
esthetic purposes, such as wrinkle of Drancy, calls for a bimaxillary
removal, with well documented good, osteotomy and a genioplasty (Fig. 4).
but relatively short lasting results.
• Patient n 3
Insufficient smile, Class II dental and
skeletal. Our orthodontic-and orthog-
5 – 3 – Osseous apposition and nathic treatment, to be completed with
sinus filling collaboration of Dr. Popelut, of Melun,
called for bimaxillary osteotomy, auto-
Alveolar osseous grafts, which are logous bone grafts, and then a rhino-
used for edentulous areas, can be plasty. Frontal, profile, and three
completed before surgery as is done quarter photos (Fig. 5) and intraoral
for sinus filling that must be com- photos (Fig. 6).
pleted before a Fort 1 is started or
after removal of orthodontic appli- • Patient n 4
ances. Insufficient smile, Class II dental and
skeletal. Our orthodontic-and orthog-
Implantologists, prosthodontists, nathic treatment, to be completed with
and technicians who construct set- collaboration of Dr. Ohana-Toledano, of
ups on articulators most work in close Suresnes, called for bimaxillary osteot-
collaboration in treating complex omy and autologous bone grafts.
edentulous cases by following a care- Photographs of the face (Fig. 7) and
fully defined treatment plan but the intraoral photos (Fig. 8).
implants themselves are almost never
positioned until all other treatment is • Patient n 5
completed. Crowding of teeth, in a Class II
skeletal and dental malocclusion with
maxillary asymmetry and a mandible
5 – 4 – Clinical cases that was laterally displaced after it was
fractured when she was a child. . Our
• Patient n 1 orthodontic-and orthognathic treat-
Gummy smile, with excess anterior ment, to be completed with collabora-
dimension with no occlusal anomalies. tion of Dr. Bedar of Drancy maxillary
Patient wanted only esthetic improve- palate splitting, corticotomies, bimax-
ment. With the cooperation of Dr. De illary osteotomy, and a genioplasty.
Papé of Paris we prepared an ortho- Facial photos (Fig. 9) and intraoral
dontic-and orthognathic treatment that photos (Fig. 10)
Figure 2
Frontal, profile, and three-quarter views of patient n 1 before treatment (left column) and after bimaxillary
osteotomy, and genioplasty (right column).
Figure 3
Patient n 1, intraoral photos before treatment (upper row) and after treatment (lower row).
Figure 4
Patient n 2, frontal, profile, and three-quarter photos, before treatment (left columns) and after bimaxillary osteotomy
and genioplasty (right columns).
Figure 5
Patient n 3 frontal, profile, and three-quarter photos, before treatment (left columns) and after bimaxillary osteotomy
with bone grafts, genioplasty, and rhinoplasty (right columns).
Figure 6
Patient n 3, intraoral photographs before treatment, with appliance in place (upper row)
and after treatment (lower row).
Figure 7
Patient n 4, full face, profile, and three quarters photos, before in the left columns and after bimaxillary osteotomy,
and genioplasty with bone grafts, in the right columns.
Figure 8
Patient n 4, intraoral photographs before treatment, with appliance in place (upper row) and
after treatment (lower row).
Figure 9
Patient n 5 frontal, profile, and three-quarter photos, before treatment (left columns) and after bimaxillary osteotomy
preceded by corticotomies (right columns).
Figure 10
Patient n 5, intraoral photographs before treatment, (upper row) and after treatment (lower
row).
Figure 11
Patient n 6, frontal, three quarters, and profile photos before treatment (left columns) and after bimaxillary
osteotomy (right columns).
Figure 12
Patient n 6, intraoral photos before treatment, with appliance in place (upper row) and after
treatment (lower row).
Figure 13
Patient n 7, frontal, three quarters, and profile photos before treatment (left columns) and after bimaxillary
osteotomy (right columns).
Figure 14
Patient n 7, intraoral photos before treatment, with appliance in place (upper row) and after
treatment (lower row).
Figure 15
Patient n 8, frontal, profile, and three-quarters facial photographs before treatment (left columns) and after
mandibular osteotomy and genioplasty with bone grafts (right columns).
Figure 16
Patient n 9, frontal, profile, and three-quarters facial photographs before treatment (left columns) and after
mandibular osteotomy (right columns).
Figure 17
Patient n 9, intraoral photos before treatment, (upper row) and after treatment (lower row).
the consequences for the nose are insufficient smile. We believe that
quite different for the visage of a antero-posterior malocclusions with-
Caucasian than they are for the visage out open bite, whether they are Class
of a Black. For Blacks, the point of the II or Class III, have little tendency to
nose is essentially cutaneous and relapse because of faulty tongue
derives only modest support from posture or action, if the growth period
the cartilaginous septum and the has ended. For these patients, the
inferior lateral cartilages. The conse- labial and masseter muscle bundles
quences for Blacks of maxillary ad- are often hypertonic. For some of
vancement are often, accordingly, an them it might be advisable to concen-
enlargement of the wing of the nose trate on stability and esthetic improve-
and a lowering of the nasal tip with ment even without achieving lip
closing of the naso-labial angle, which contact at rest. So, in certain judi-
is highly unaesthetic. It is therefore ciously selected cases to leave the
necessary for Blacks with Class III lips parted after conclusion of surgical-
dental and skeletal malocclusions to orthodontic treatment. Take for exam-
be treated with surgical setback of the ple patient n0 3 (Fig. 5) who had
mandible rather than by maxillary presented with an excessively short
advancement. For the Caucasian vi- upper lip associated with an insuffi-
sage, on the other hand, the rigidity of cient smile. In order to ameliorate her
the inferior lateral cartilages and the smile, a maxillary bone graft was
support of the septum have a ten- required and, eventually, a rhinoplasty
dency to project the tip of the nose was performed. A satisfactory result
forward and open the naso-labial angle was achieved but, at rest, her lips
during a maxillary advancement caus- remained slightly parted. A year and a
ing a positive esthetic result, if the half after removal of orthodontic appli-
advancement is not too great. It is for ances, her occlusion remains stable
this reason that in cases of severe and she is still fully satisfied with the
mandibular prognathism, it is best for esthetic result achieved.
surgeons to devise a treatment plan
based on a bimaxillary osteotomy with
a modest maxillary advancement 6 – 2 – Perspectives
combined with a modest mandibular
Many researchers are now asses-
set-back rather than a strong maxillary
sing three dimensional cephalo-
advancement (see Fig. 13, with its
metrics using special software for
profile photographs of patient n0 7
incorporating scanner or cone beam
who did not have a rhinoplasty).
data in their three dimensional recon-
Treatment plans for this type of structions of maxillo-facial anatomic
surgery must be highly individualized, structures. The major benefit of these
based on a careful clinical and esthetic programs resides in the possibility of
analysis of each patient. precisely planning osteotomy opera-
It is useful to examine examples of tive procedures, of using them to
another circumstance in which es- construct intermediary splints,
thetic considerations should take pre- and, thus, controlling operative posi-
ference over functional issues, the tioning of the maxillae thanks to digital
7 – CONCLUSION
Orthognathic surgery, today a dis- ing to the functioning of all the other
tinct specialty of its own, depends for participants.
the smooth execution of its orthodon- For adult patients, esthetic consid-
tic-and orthognathic treatment on the erations form the most important
intimate collaboration of all the mem- aspect of contemplated orthognathic
ber of its interdisciplinary teams. surgery. So all team members must
In addition to that cooperation, the be prepared to coordinate their efforts
efficiency of that team effort requires to satisfy the aesthetic demands of
from each team member mutual and their joint operation even if that
progressively improving understand- requires their taking precedence over
functional and occlusal objectives.
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