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 04 Principles of Power System
whereq = charge on the line in coulomb
p,d. beJwecn the conductors
in volts
capacitance is uniformly distributed along the whole length
of the Iino and may tx: regarded
as a uniform series of capacitors connected between the conductors
as shown in Fig, 9.2(i). When an
alternatingvoltage is impressed on a transmission line, the charge
on the conductorsat any point
increases and decrascs with the increase and decrease of the
instantaneous-valueof the voltage
txtween conductors at that point. •ne result is that a current
(known as charging current) flows
between tp conductors [See Fig. enlis chargingcurrent flows in the line even when it is
open.cuited@e., supplying no load. It affects the voltage drop
along the line as well as the effi-
ciency and power factor of the line.

9.2 Resistance of a Transmission Line

The resistance of transmission line condactors is the most important cause of power loss in a trans-
mission line. resistance R of a line conductor having resistivityp, length I and area of cross-
section a is given by •
1

Thevariation of resisthnce of metallickconductors Withtemperature is practically linear over the

normal range of operation. Suppose RI and R2 are the resistancesof a conductor at and t20C
(h > h) respectively. If is the tgnperature coefficient at t1?C,then,

where

= temperature coefficient at 00 C
(i) In a single phase or 2-wire d.c line, the total resistance (known as loop resistance) is equal to
double the resistance of either conductor.
(T) In a 3-phase gansmission line,yesistance per phase is the resistance of one conduc-

9.3 Skin Effect

When a conductor iS carrying steady,direct current (d.c.), Xhiscurr?nt is uniformly distributed over
the whole X-section of the conductor. However, an alternating current flowing through the conductor
does not distribute uniformly, rather it has the tendency to concentrate near the surface bf the conduc-
tor as shown in Fig. 9.3. This is known as skin effect.
of alternatingcurrent to concentrate near the su ace o a conductor is knownas
skin effect.
Due to sEn effect, the effective area of cross-section of the con-
drough which current flows is reduced. Consequently, the re-
sistance of the conductor is slighdy increased when carrying an alter-
nating cun•ent. cause of skin effect can be easily explained. solid
ofalargenumberofmnds, Current No current
conductormaybe flows over
each carrying a small part of the current. Ille *inductance ofeach stand the surface
will vary according to its position. Thus, the strands near the cent•e are
surroun&d by a greater magneticflux and hence have larger induc- mg. 93
tance than that near the surface. The high reactance of inner strands
• a direct current, is zmo and tEnce the current distribute unifonnlyover the entir X-
sectionof cmdwtor.
 ElectricaLDeslgn ofiOverhead Lines 205
causes the alternating current to flow near the surface ofgonductor.4Thi8 crowding of curren near the
conductor surface is the skin effec The skin effect depends upon the following factors :
(i) Nature of material
(ii) Diameter of wire increases with the diameter of,wire.
Frequency Q$0} increåseé with the increase-infrequency.
(iv) Shape of Wire messfor stranded conductor than the,solid conductor.
It may be noted that skin effect is negligible when the supply frequency is low (< 50 Hz) and
conductor diameter is small •lcm).
9.4 Flux Unkages
As stated earlier, the inductance Offacircuit is defined,as the fluxpages per unit current.i%erefore,
in order to find the inductance of a circuit, the determinatibn'of flux linkages is of primary impor-
tance. We shall discuss two important cases of flux linkages.
1. Flux linkages due to a single currenicarrying conductor. Consider a long straight cylin-
drical conductor of radirus r metres and carrying a currentl.amperes (r.m.S.) as shown in Fig. 9.4 (D.
as
This current will set up magnetic field. The magnetiolines offorce wilLexistioside the conductor
well as outside the conductor. Both these fluxes will contribute to the inductance of the conductor.
(i) Flux linkagesdueto internålflux. Refer to fig. 9.4 (it) h'here the X•ectionoftheconduc-
tor is shown magnified for clarity. The magnetic field intensity at point x metres from the centre is
given by;

27tX
Assuming a uniform current density,

21tx. 2 it r

oidifio
Flux

(ii)
(Wig. 9.4

Acc«ding to Amp«e's law, m.m.f. (ampere-turns) armmd any closed path equals the curran aslosed by
the path. nrcurrentenclosed by is Is and m.m.f, Hxx2rx: H, x 2nx=Ir