CHAPTER 10

Differential Equations and Similarity

Dimensional analysis has been developed principally by British and

American scientists. In continental Europe, model laws have been derived
almost exclusively from the differential equations that govern phenomena.
Differential equations occasionally provide a deeper insight into the laws
of similarity than a mere knowledge of the variables that enter the problems
On the
-particularly, if laws of similarity for distorted models are sought.
other hand, the method of differential equations is restricted in its generality,
since the differential equations that govern many phenomena (e.g. turbulent
ffow) are unknown.

66. MoDEL LAW FOR UNSTEADY MoTION OF A BoDY IN AN INcoMPRESSIBLE

VISCOUS FLUID
In the first half of the nineteenth century, the question of the effect ot
the buoyancy and the resistance of air on the motion of the pendulum
of a clock attracted much interest. George G. Stokes derived the
model law for pendulums in viscous fluids by means of the dfterenta
equations that are now known as the Navier-Stokes equations.
Stokes' work is of historical interest, since it seems to be the origin ot th
out
expression "dynamic similarity" in scientific literature. Also, it points
alled
the significance of the ratio of viscosity to density, which is now n
"kinematic viscosity." Significantly, Stokes' work antedates, by
more tnat
fact
thiry years, the work of Osborne Reynolds in calling attention to e
not
that "Reynolds' number" whether
is the criterion for determining o
fluid motions are
dynamically similar.
Stokes' analysis determines the ncom-
general model law tor ow
viscous fluids with fixed boundaries. For simplicity, plane dow
flow
pressible
will be considered. Then, if the pressure and the body force
theare
difere
elim

nated from the Navier-Stokes equations by the cation of the differet

G . G. Stokes, On the Effect of the Internal Friction of Fluids on the9,

Mottion of
1850)

Fendulums, Trans. Cambridge Phil. Dec. 9, 1850)

Soc., Vol. IX, Part 2, 1856.
144
 UNSTEADY MOTION IN A FLUID 145
tial operator "curl," the following well-known equation is obtained:

(a)
in which u and v are the velocity components in the x and y directions,
and w is the local angular velocity (vorticity) of the fluid. The same
ential equation applies for a model; i.e.
differ

+u + /(8o
=

(b)
aya
in which primes refer to the model.
It is desired to determine the necessary and suficient conditions for the
existence of scale factors Kz, Ki, etc., such that

K Ky Ky KL

-1 -

If these constants exist, Equation a may be written

K do
K. orKyK.
or

+ K(8
KK,\a'2 ay'a (c)
aKyK.
By Equation 12, the ratio Kz/(KyK) is invariably unity. Accordingly,
Equations b and c show that kinematic and dynamic similarity of flows
with similar boundary conditions are insured by the following condition:

K 1 (d)
KK,
This is the relationship that Stokes derived. It is equally valid for steady
and unsteady flows of liquids with fixed boundaries. Also, since the details
ot turbulent flow are probably governed by the Navier-Stokes equations, it
may be expected to remain valid for turbulent flow.
Since Ky = Kz/K, Equation d may be alternatively expressed,

KLKV 1 (e)
K,
This equation means that the scale factor for Reynolds' number is unity;
model and
1.e., if dynamic similarity exists, the Reynolds numbers of the
140 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
the prototype must be equal. This form of the law of similarity is
commonly
used in cases of stcady flow.
There is another common method for deriving laws of similarity from
differential equations that is intrinsically the same as the foregoing method
but differs from it formally. The basic idea of the alternative method is to
express the differential equations in dimensionless forms, In the present
Case, this is accomplished by introducing a characteristic length L, a char-
acteristic time period T, a characteristic velocity V, a characteristic angular
velocity , and a characteristic value N of the kinematic viscosity. For
example, in the case of periodic flow in a closed conduit, L might be the
diameter at a certain section, T might be the period of a cycle, V might be
the maximum velocity at a certain section, etc. Dimensionless variables
, 7, etc., may be defined as follows:
= TL, y JL, = iT, 4 = uV
= öV, w= d , v = DN

In terms of the new variables, Equation a is expressed as follows:

()
If homologous points and homologous times are considered, the dimen-
sionless variables 7, 7, , 7, 7, , Dhave the same values for a model and its
prototype. Hence, if the systems are similar, the coefficients VT/L and
NT/L? must be the same for the two systems; i.e.,
V'T'
NT N'T

in which the primes refer to the model. Since V'/V = Ky, etc., these
equations may be expressed,
KyK= KL, K,K = K2

The first of these equations is automatically satisfied, by virtue of Equa-

tion 12. The second equation is identical to Equation d, which was de-
rived by the other method.
Of the two methods, the first has the advantage that it requires fewer
notations. Differential equations, of course, have no inherent advantage
for the treatment of the foregoing problem. The same results may be de-
rived by the method of Chapters 2 and 3.

67. DIsTORTED MoDELs OF RIvERS AND ESTUaRIEs.

Questions concerned with the releasing of waters that are impounded by
dams, general problems of flood routing, questions of the effects of levees
 MODELS OF RIVERS AND
ESTUARIES 147
and cut-offs,and many other problems are studied
A
by means of models of
rivers and estuaries. typical scale factor for the horizontal in a
rivet model 1/1000, whereas the scale factor for vertical lengthslengths
is
is usually
not less than 1/100. The most notable feature of a distorted model of a
river is the steepening of the banks, bottom slopes, and other inclinations.
Obviously, the scale factor for any slope is equal to the distortion factor.
Since the bottom slopes are increased and the depths are relatively increased,
the water tends to flow too rapidly in a distorted model.
Consequently,
it is necessary to roughen the walls of the model with
corrugations or stucco,
in order to retard the tiow. Frequently, screen wire is used to simulate
the roughness due to brush, weeds, and trees on the banks.
In all cases of flow with a free surface, equivalence of Froude numbers is a
necessary condition for similarity. The Reynolds numbers are usually of
secondary importance. Accordingly, the Scaling of models of open channels
is said to be governed by "Froude's law." However, with a distorted model,
the question arises whether a horizontal length, a vertical length, or somne
weighted average of these two lengths should be employed for calculating
Froude's number. Reynolds conjectured that a vertical length should be
used, since the vertical length scale determines the relative wave speeds.
The equivalence of Froude numbers of a river model and its prototype is
accordingly expressed by the equation, (V")*/L'g = V'/Lg, in which L' and
L are vertical lengths of the respective systems. Hence, the scale factor
K, for vertical lengths is related to the scale factor Ky for horizontal veloc
ities by the equation,
Ky =VRK. (a)
Also, by Equation 12, K-/K, = Kv, in which K, is the scale factor for
horizontal lengths and K, is the time scale factor. It follows that

K:= K (b)
VK.
For example, let K, = 1/1000 and K, = 1/50. Then, by Equations a
and b, Ky = 0.142 and Ki = 0.00707; i.e., the horizontal velocities in the
model are about 14 percent of the corresponding velocities in the proto-
type, and the time periods in the model are about 0.71 percent of the cor-
responding periods in the prototype. For a model of an estuary with these
proportions, the period from high tide to high tide is about 5 min. The
tide-generating machine must be adjusted to give the proper tidal period
for the model. The velocities then automatically assume the correct
values, if the roughnesses of the banks and the bottom are correct. The
adjustment of the roughnesses is a trial procedure that usually consumes a
large amount of time.
148 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

A rigorous analysis of distorted models of open channels has been pre-

sented by A. T. Doodson. Doodson based his argument on the con-
tinuity equation and the momentum equation. If the velocity V of the
current is assumed to be constant at any instant on any cross section of the
stream, the continuity equation is

a(VA) = 0
(c)
in which a is a horizontal coordinate in the downstream direction, z is the
elevation of the free surface at section a (with reference to a horizontal
datum plane), b is the width of the free surface at section a, and A is the cross-
sectional area of the stream at section a. This equation merely expresses
the fact that the net rate of flow into the region between cross-sectional
planes with coordinates a and a + dx is the rate at which the volume of
water in this region is increasing.
The momentum equation expresses the fact that the net force on the
slab of fluid between cross-sectional planes with coordinates x and a + d«
is equal to the net rate at which momentum is convected out of the region
between these planes plus the time rate of change of momentum. The
momentum equation may be expressed

&V2
-sR (d)
in which R is the hydraulic radius at section x and kpV? is the average shear-
ing stress on the banks and the bottom at section . Although k depends
on Reynolds' number, there is only a simall error in assuming that k is
constant.
If Equation and d could be solved, subject to given time-dependent
c

boundary conditions for the sections * = 0 and x = o, the flow at any

time any section in the interval (0, o) would be determined. How
and
at
ever, this is a very difficult problem.
On the other hand, Doodson has shown that it is easy to deduce the law
of similarity for models of open channels by means of Equations c and d.
To this end, the following substitutions are
introduced
K K tK
A' R' '
A = KK V
Kv R-
R KR k=K
2
A. T. Doodson, Tide Models, Dock and Harbour
Authority, Vol. XXIX, no. 339,
p. 223, Jan. 1949. Doodson's analysis is reproduced here through the courtesy of the
Dock and Harbour Authority.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC PHENOMENA 149
hich primes refer to the model. Substitution of these
Equations c and d yields expressions in

K *K«K
1 a('A')
=0
KK, atKyK, (C)
KKy 8V'
K 8T a
= -

KR V'2
K,8x KKz (d')
If the scale factors exist, Equations c' and d' must
reduce, respectively,
Equations c and d, except for the primes on the terms. Equation
to
c' auto-
matically satisfies this condition, since the relationship K, = K./Ky follows
from Equation 12. Equation d' accordingly may be expressed,
Kv8:, Kr '2
K, 8x'K;K," R
This reduces to the form of Equation d if, and only if,
K2 = 1
K (e)
Kr
and
KK1 (E)

Equation e is the result that was previously derived by Froude's law.

Thus, the basing of Froude's number on a vertical length is justified.
Equation f yields
Kr
K

For any given shape of cross section, Kz is expressible in terms of K, and K,

by means of geometrical relationships. For a wide shallow channel, Kr is
practically equal to K. Accordingly, Equation g shows that K, is approx-
imately equal to the distortion factor. Since k cannot be increased in-
definitely, there is consequently a limit to the amount of distortion thata
model may have, if it is to operate satisfactorily. xperience with models
of rivers and estuaries indicates that the friction coefficient &automatically
increases to some extent as the distortion factor increases. This is possibly
aue to the fact that turbulence and eddying are increased by distortion.

08. MoDEL LAW FOr ELECTrOMAGNETIC PHENOMENA

A typical general boundary value problem of electromagnetic theory is
C TOlowing: In a system of conductors and dielectrics, the initial values
150 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONSS
of the field vectors E and H are given, and, on a certain
boundary, the tan-
gential components of E are prescribed functions of time. It is required to
derive the solution of Maxwell's equations that satisfies the initial
and the boundary conditions.
conditions
If the materials are isotropic and
nonmagnetic,
Maxwell's equations may
be expressed as follows:
OH
curl E + = 0
(a)
OE
curl H KE
(b)
Consider two geometrically similar systems that have similar
electro
magnetic properties; i.e. similar distributions of e, 4, and x. Furthermore,
let the initial conditions and the boundary conditions for the two
systems
be similar.
If one of the systems (called the model) is designated by primes, its be-
havior is governed by the differential equations,

curl' E' + 0 (a")

curl' ' dE = K'E'

(6)
in which the notation curl' indicates that derivatives are taken with respect

to the accented coordinates. the scale

If factors, Ks E'/E, etc., are
introduced, Equations a and b may be alternatively written,
=

Cur'
curl E+ K
TK.K"a =0
0
KB
OE'
curl'
Ka
curl'H'
H- Ae
A E
KKE
(d)

In order that Equations c and d shall reduce respectively to Equations a'

and b', it is necessary and sufficient that

KpK 1, KHK 1, K (e)

KKuK KKEKL
Equations e yield

.-
K-K,VKK, - (
 INTERPRETATION OF PRODUCTS 151
Eauation f shows that,when Kz is
K may not be assigned independently.prescribed, the factors K,, Kp, and
nrototype are made ot the same materials Conversely,
if the model and
the
KI 1. Accordingly, if it is desired that the
KL =
= 1. (i.e., K, Kp K, 1), then
=
= =

shall have different sizes, the two model and the

systems may not be made of prototype
the same
materials.
materials. The equation
K KzVKK, =

Scale factor is identical to the scale factor for signifies

that the
the speed of
velocity
waves, since the speed of an electromagnetic
electromagnetic wave is 1/Veu.
69. INTERPRETATION OF DIMENSIONLESS PRODUCTS IN FLUID MecHANICS
In fluid mechanics, the total force on a
force Fa, viscous friction force F1,
particle is decomposed into gravity
pressure force Fp, and inertia force Fi.
Each of these forces is represented by a term in the
Navier-Stokes equa-
tions. Writing the first of the Navier-Stokes
process and multiplying by a volume element dQ, we get
for a equations steady-flow

Ou
PgCOS a dQ-d+udQ -» at4=0
y
The four terms in this equation are, respectively, the *-components of the
gravity force, the pressure force, the viscous friction force, and the inertia
force on the particle dQ; i.e.,

F,=Pg cos a dQ,

F = V u dQ

In a class of geometrically similar systems with kinematically similar

iows, a velocity field is determined by a single velocity V that specifies
of and a
flow, L that specifies the size of the system.
single length
ne speed
Set
= L+, y= L7,
u = Vk, w= Vw

Then (7, , 2) and (7, 8, ®) are dimensionless.with

similar pressure distribu-
also restrict
us attention to systems
et dimensionless. Accordingly,
the
which p is
OSThen, p PÙ, in =
without altering
constant pressure may
be impressed on a system
ce arbitrary
an for kinematic
distributions is not necessary
W the condition of similar pressure

similarity.
152 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

equations for Fo, F» Fs, and F; may be written,

FoPEcos a dQ

F-7

F +
Accordingly, the ratios of these forces are

R to
F

F
+ +

FF-F- COS a

in which R= = Reynolds' number

7 pressure coefficient

F=TFroude's
L8
number
The factors containing derivatives are dimensionless, and they conse-
quently have the same values for all systems. Accordingly, the following
principle is established:

In geometrically similar systems with kinematically similar steady fows

and similar pressure distributions, the ratios of inertia force to friction
force are identical if the Reynolds umbers are equal, the ratios of inertia
force to pressure force are identical if the pressure coetficients are egual,
 THEOREM ON DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY
153
and the ratios of inertia force to gravily force
numbers are equal.
are identical if the Froude

70. DIFFERENTIAL THEOREM ON DIMENSIONAI, HOMoGENEITY

In Article 19, it was
demonstrated that an equation y =f(x1, *2, *, n)
is dimensionally homogeneous if, and only if, the relationship,
Kf(1, *2,, n) =j(K1*1, Kgt2,*, K,a*n) (a)
is an identity in the variables xi,
2,*, ny A, B, C, in which
K = A°B'C*
and K; = A*i Bb:C°«, i =
1,2, ,n
where A, B, C are any positive numbers, and the dimensional matrix is

M a

L b b ba bn
T C2 Cn
This theorem establishes a relation between the mathematical use of the
word "homogeneity'" and the use of this word in dimensional
analysis.
For, if the variables ( , , n) all have the same dimension and if the
dimensional exponents of y are proportional to the dimensional exponents
of the x's, Equation reduces to the
a simpler form,
Cf1, a , , n)(Ca1, Ca, , C,)
in which the symbol = signifies that the equality is an identity in the vari-
ables ( , * , * , *n, C). Functions with this property were studied by
Euler. They are known as "homogeneous functions" (more specifically,
functions that are homogeneous of degree N). Equation a consequently
shows that dimensionally homogeneous functions are a generalization of
the
homogeneous functions of Euler.
Euler derived a differential theorem concerning homogeneous functions,
which is readily generalized to include the class of dimensionally homo-
geneous functions. To derive this theorem, we write Equation a in the
form,
- f , T , ,Tn) (6)
in which = Ky, T= Kai, i= 1, 2 , ,
Differentiation of Equation b with respect to A yields

(c)
3A
154 DIFFER ENTIAL EQUATIONS
Let us introduce the above values of 7, F1, F , * , Tn in Equation c, performn
the indicated differentiations, and then set = B =C =1. This yields

ay = a a i at1
dy
+ + an'n
ay

Similarly, two other equations are derived by assigning to B and C the role
of A in the above derivation. Thus, the following theorem is proved:
I fa function y = f(m, , * , *,) is diferentiable and dimensionally
homogeneous, it is a solution of the diferential equations,

ay 1a1ax

by =by +bev + + ba. (35)

3x1

The converse of this theorem may also be proved; i.e.

lf a function satisfes Equation 35, it is dimensionally homogeneous.

However, the proof of this theorem will be omitted, sinceit cannot be

accomplished without recourse to the general theory of linear first order
partial differential equations.
In the class of functions that possess first derivatives, Equations 8 and
35 are completely equivalent. Observe that these equations are identically
satisfied, if the variables are dimensionless.

PROBLEMS
1. If a flat elastic plate vibrates freely, the deflection w at the time t and at the point
, y) of the middle plane is determined by the differential equation,

0
dz aya T a t
in which C is a constant that depends on the elastic properties of the material, the density
of the material, and the thickness of the
plate. Prove that a model of the plate that pre-
serves kinematic similarity can have no distortion of planform. Prove that, when the
planforms of two plates are geometrically similar, Ki does not depend on Ku. Hence,
express K1 as a function of K, and Ko. If K, and K, = i0, what is the value
of Kc?
2. Prove the theorem on dimensional homogeneity of a sum of terms (Article 20) by
means of the theorem in Article 70.
3. The equation y = f(«) is dimensionally homogeneous. By means of the theorem
in Article 70, determine the most general form of this equation.