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Puncochar Daniel E Evans Ken Interpretation of Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing Industrial Press 2011 PDF
Puncochar Daniel E Evans Ken Interpretation of Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing Industrial Press 2011 PDF
Puncochar Daniel E Evans Ken Interpretation of Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing Industrial Press 2011 PDF
Geometric Dimensioning
and Tolerancing
Third Edition
DANIEL E. PUNCOCHAR
INDUSTRIAL PRESS
NEW YORK
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Puncochar, Daniel E.
Interpretation of geometric dimensioning and tolerancing / Daniel E.
Puncochar. -- 3rd ed. / revised and updated by Ken Evans.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-8311-3421-1 (soft cover)
1. Engineering drawings--Dimensioning. 2. Tolerance (Engineering) I.
Title.
T357.P96 2011
620'.0045--dc22
2010029110
Copyright © 2011 by Industrial Press Inc., New York. Printed in the United States of America.
All rights reserved. This book, or any parts thereof, may not be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form without the permission of the publisher.
Notice to the reader: While every possible effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the in-
formation presented herein, the authors and publisher express no guarantee of the same. The authors and
publisher do not offer any warrant or guarantee that omissions or errors have not occurred and cannot be
held liable for any damages resulting from the use of this text by the readers. The readers accept the full
responsibility for their own safety in related activities in connection with the instructions in this text. The
reader should consult the appropriate standards that are used before any interpretations of engineering
drawings are attempted.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
PREFACE
Simply put, Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T) is a method for stat-
ing and interpreting design requirements. GD&T is an international system of symbolic
language, and is a crucial tool for making engineering drawings and computer-generated
three-dimensional solid models more reliable means of communication, starting with the
initial design through manufacturing and inspection. Some of GD&T’s advantages are:
uniformity in design practice, fewer misinterpretations, ensured interchangeability, and
maximum tolerance allocation. Also, with GD&T, design requirements are specified ex-
plicitly and the latest gaging techniques are accommodated to better ensure fit, form, and
function. These advantages contribute to higher production yields with less rework or
scrap.
To help the reader understand GD&T, Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing,
Third Edition, begins with basic principles and builds on these principles with applica-
tions-oriented concepts. Complex material is presented in a “building-block” approach,
with many graphic examples that illustrate each concept. End-of-chapter evaluations fur-
ther reinforce the explanations given in each section. It is imperative that each reader has
an adequate knowledge of basic blueprint reading methods prior to using this book. Some
examples are dimensioned and toleranced in inches and some in millimeters.
This book covers the material in ASME Y14.5-2009, but does not prescribe design
practices, state design requirements, specify inspection techniques, or specify any other
engineering practice. However, it is sometimes necessary to state how something is spec-
ified or inspected so that a concept can be discussed adequately. In addition, the drawings
in this text are not complete production drawings, but only present the concepts currently
under discussion.
It is hoped that this third edition of Interpretation of Geometric Dimensioning and
Tolerancing will assist the reader in becoming conversant in the techniques of GD&T
given in the latest ASME standard—techniques that can be integrated smoothly into engi-
neering design systems and modern inspection systems.
vii
Table of Contents
iii
Chapter 8 Tolerances of Location 93
Introduction 93
Concentricity 93
Symmetry 94
Position Introduction 95
Position Theory 96
Position of Multiple Cylindrical Features 99
Composite Positional Tolerancing 101
Two Single-Segment Feature Control 104
Frames
Multiple Patterns Located by Basic 105
Dimensions and Related to the Same
Datums
Patterns Positions From a Datum of Size 106
Introduction
Zero Tolerancing 110
Projected Tolerance Zone 111
Noncylindrical Features 112
Bidirectional Tolerancing 113
Coaxial Features 115
Summary 118
Evaluation 119
Appendix 129
Glossary 131
Answers 139
Index 141
iv
INTRODUCTION
1
History square tolerance zone. The idea caught on and
was adopted by the military. It became part of the
During the early period of manufacturing military standards and later was a Unified Amer-
there seldom were any drawings. A person had an ican Standard Association standard, ASA Y14.5.
idea for something that was needed for industry, This standard was released in 1956 and was ac-
farming, or mining, and made it. Usually there cepted by the military. Later, ASA became the
was only one item, and when repair was needed, American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
someone repaired or replaced the needed part ANSI published a complete system of symbology
right on the job. for geometric form and positional tolerances, Di-
Over time, complexities in manufacturing mensioning and Tolerancing.
increased, and there was an increased need for In 1983, ANSI Y14.5-1982 was released.
drawings of parts and their assemblies. With This standard clarified some of the old practices
drawings came required tolerances, that is, parts and moved a little closer to the practices of the In-
were permitted some variation rather than being ternational Organization of Standards (ISO). ISO
fitted to only one assembly. This tolerance was is primarily a European standard. In 1995, ASME
specified as a plus/minus tolerance. Y14.5-1994, from the American Standard of Me-
This plus/minus tolerancing of the coordi- chanical Engineers was released. This new stan-
nate dimensioning system worked quite well and dard further clarified requirements within the
still does for many applications. But today there standard and also moves more in line with the
is a need for interchangeability of parts and as- ISO standard. Today, geometric dimensioning
semblies manufactured around the world being and tolerancing (GD&T) is used by the majority
brought together at an assembly plant that makes of manufacturing companies in the United States
parts for industries such as aerospace, automo- and the world.
tive, energy and oil, medical, agriculture, and tool The most current standard, ASME Y14.5-
and die. These items also need replacement parts 2009 is a revision of the 1994 standard and was
that assemble readily without the need for indi- adopted in 2009. Its purpose is to further stan-
vidual fitting. dardize and state design and functional require-
As the demand for parts manufactured ments, in order to aid in manufacture on a global
around the world grew, the need for accuracy also scale. Ultimately, (plus/minus) limit dimension-
grew. Accuracy became more critical because of ing should be replaced with GD&T for everything
competition for parts and assemblies. The idea of except for features of size. The new ASME
positional tolerancing was introduced, which pro- Y14.5-2009 standard is further in line with the
vided a means for locating round features within needs of the ISO international community.
a round tolerance zone rather than the traditional
1
2
2.000±.005
.005 .014
Figure 1-3 Ten thousandths square .01 SQUARE
tolerance zone. .007
requirements. These notes were all subject to mis- ric tolerances ensures the interchangeability of
interpretation. With the available symbols, de- parts. GD&T is the common language used
signers can more readily specify complete design throughout industry internationally.
requirements. The proper application of geomet-
Chapter 1 Evaluation
1. Drawings are the primary ________ tool between designers and manufacturing.
4. GD&T adds to the coordinate dimensioning system when specific ________ is required.
5. GD&T does not ________ the coordinate dimensioning and tolerancing system.
7. GD&T is used to control the ________ of a part feature and its relationship to other features.
10. Two advantages of the GD&T system are maximum ________ and ensured________ of mating parts.
11. The total amount that a part size may vary is a size ________.
12. A common method used to specify a tolerance for the nominal size of a feature is ________ values.
13. GD&T should be used for all dimensioning except for features of ________ .
SYMBOLS and ABREVIATIONS
2
Introduction ally eliminates the need for drawing notes (see
this Chapter and Appendix B for the symbol
Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing charts). However, in limited situations, it may be
(GD&T) is a language of symbols. This chapter necessary for the designer to add a short note to
will introduce dimensioning, geometric charac- help convey the design requirements. Figure 2-2
teristic and modifying symbols, and related is an example of a note, BETWEEN, where the
terms, and give an application for each of them. symbology as shown has replaced the need for the
Throughout the remainder of this book, you will note. However, it may still be used in conjunction
see these symbols applied to various drawings in with the symbol. Later in this chapter, Figures 2-
combination with other symbols. The symbols 38 and 2-39 provide two examples of when a note
presented here are the ones used to specify geo- may be specified.
metric characteristics and dimensional require-
ments on engineering drawings, which are in ac-
cordance with ASME Y14.5-2009. Figure 2-1 is
an example of the symbols used in designs today.
.002 A B
Y Z
BETWEEN
6X .375 ±.005
.005 THRU
Figure 2-2 Sample Note
.750 .375 ±.005
.005 M B
Dimensioning Symbols
Figure 2-1 Sample of symbols in use.
The symbols in Chart 2-1 are described in
this section and then used throughout the remain-
One of the advantages of GD&T is that it is
der of this text.
an international language of symbols that gener-
7
8 CHAPTER 2
Diameter
.012
+.012
.526
- .008
.026 M D E P 1.500
1.000
.526 .526
- .008 .012
+.012
.518 = MMC .538 = LMC
Radius R
P .500 D
.002 A
Figure 2-5 Example of spherical diameter
symbol.
CL
4 X R.375±.010
R .010 Spherical Radius SR
.750±.010
TRUE R.750 .010
Spherical Diameter S
A A
MINIMUM RADIUS .740
2.375
Counterbore/Spotface SF Countersink
4 X 90°
P
SECTION A-A
3.000±.010
4 X 90°
90 A A
P
2.375
3.000±.010
.010 .201±.005
.005 THRU
4X 82° .385 ±.005
82 .005
.010 M A P M
A A
.010 M A P M
Depth/Deep
1.750
SECTION A-A
2.500±.010
2.500
.100:1
.008 A
23°
1.500±.010
.500±.010
.500±.010 1.500±.010
11.5
.525 ±.018:1
.018:1
.875 ±.010
.625
2.000 ±.010
.75
2.25
Figure 2-17 Specifying slope.
.875
Square
Figure 2-19 Specifying reference
Square features may be identified with a dimensions.
symbol as shown in the heading above and in
Chart 2-1. There is no abbreviation. This symbol
may be specified on a drawing like Figure 2-18 to
indicate the feature is square. Dimension Origin
1.750 45°
.250±.020
.250
Figure 2-20 Application of the dimension
origin symbol.
(
angular dimensions. This tolerance zone will Arc Length 105
widen from the apex of the angle as the distance
increases.
Arc length is a term used to describe the
length of a curved surface. The symbol is shown
in the heading above and in Chart 2-1, and there
is no abbreviation. This symbol is placed over the
dimension.
The arc length symbol is specified when it is
required to measure along the actual part surface.
45°±.5°
45 When this symbol is specified, a linear measure-
ment across the arc is not permitted. In the past,
terms like “TRUE” or “TRUE ON SURFACE”
.250±.020
.250
were used. See the example in Figure 2-23.
All Over
1.00
The term All-over has no abbreviation and .63
the tolerance associated with it applies to the en-
tire 3-dimensional surface profile of the part. The Figure 2-26 Applying a chain line.
symbol is shown in the heading above, in Chart 2-
1, and in Figure 2-25.
SYMBOLS AND ABREVIATIONS 17
NOTE: The symbols in the Geometric NOTE: The Modifying Symbols shown in
Characteristics chart are explained in detail in Chart 2-3 are used throughout the remainder of
Chapters 6 and 8 and are used throughout the re- the text.
mainder of the text (see Chart 2-2).
.012
+.012
.526
- .008
.026 M D E P 1.500
Chart 2-3 Modifying Symbols
.002 A-B
B
.002 B
.005
.500±.005 1.000±.015
.015
.005 A
.010 M P .500 A B C
Figure 2-32
Projected tolerance zone. AXIS OF CLEARANCE HOLE
.010
.500 SPECIFIED A
PROJECTED HEIGHT
.026 F D E
Figure 2-33 Using free state modifier. TANGENT .005 TOLERANCE
PLANE ZONE
Tangent Plane T
.010 U .010 A B
U
Unequally Disposed Profile
B
A
The symbol refers to a unilateral and un-
equally disposed profile tolerance. More details
Figure 2-35 Unequally disposed profile
will be discussed in Chapter 6. Figure 2-35 is an
tolerance.
example of its use.
SYMBOLS AND ABREVIATIONS 23
I
Independency
the feature control frame following the stated tol- SHALL BE PRODUCED WITH STATISTICAL
erance and any applicable modifier (Figure 2-37). PROCESS CONTROLS, OR TO THE MORE
RESTRICTIVE ARITHMETIC LIMITS.
.010 M ST D E P
.012
+.012
.526 ST
- .008
.026 M D E P
1.500
.005 S T D
1.000
.526 .526
- .008 .012
+.012
.518 TO .538
THE TOLERANCE IS .026
2.005 CF
1.995
trates how statistical tolerancing may be applied ation depending on the design requirement. Fig-
to a hole specification. ure 2-42 shows an example of how basic may be
specified. Basic dimensions may also be indi-
CF cated in a note such as “NOTE: Untoleranced di-
Continuous Feature
mensions locating true positions are basic.”
The symbol shown in the heading above and
Between X Y
in Chart 2-3 refers to features that are interrupted
that should be considered as a single feature. Fig-
ure 2-41 gives such an example. There are designs where the tolerance for the
feature applies to only a portion of the feature. In
these instances, the designer has the between
1.500
symbol available as shown in the heading above
and in Chart 2-3. There is no abbreviation. The ar-
rowheads may or may not be filled. An example
1.000 of the between symbol is shown in Figure 2-43.
.005 F D M
X Y
Figure 2-42 Applying the basic dimension
symbol. Figure 2-43 Demonstrating the between
symbol.
Basic 6.00
Translation
Basic is a term used to describe a theoreti- The symbol in the heading above, when in-
cally exact size, shape, or location of a feature or cluded in the Feature Control Frame, refers to a
datum. Basic dimensions do not have a tolerance. movable datum feature simulator that is free to
Tolerances for basic dimensions are specified in translate. See more discussion in Chapter 3.
feature control frames (discussed later), or tool-
ing tolerances applied under other conditions. Ba-
sic can be abbreviated as BSC. Most recently, the
Summary
use of the basic symbol is used—the symbol for
basic is a rectangle around the dimension.
This completes your introduction to the ma-
Basic is used to describe the theoretically ex-
jority of the symbols and abbreviations associ-
act shape or profile of surfaces either regular or
ated with geometric dimensioning and toleranc-
irregular. Most frequently, basic is used to specify
ing. There are other symbols that will be intro-
the exact desired position of features. Then, each
duced in other chapters. Those chapters cover da-
feature is given a tolerance that allows some vari-
26 CHAPTER 2
tums, form/orientation controls, and tolerances of examples throughout this book. They were intro-
location. duced in this chapter as a basis for the other ma-
The symbols and abbreviations introduced in terial.
this chapter will be applied to other drawings and
Chapter 2 Evaluation
Fill in the abbreviations and symbols that match the phrases. The abbreviations and symbols may be used
more than once.
________ 1. The symbol used to indicate Free State condition.
________ 2. The condition of an internal feature when it measures the largest size within design limits
or weighs the least.
________ 3. The symbol specified to indicate diametrical or circular features.
________ 4. Statistical Tolerance symbol.
________ 5. Dimensions that are for reference only.
________ 6. Dimensions that are theoretically exact and do not have tolerances.
________ 7. The symbol to indicate diametrical tolerance zones.
________ 8. The symbol specified to indicate the number of times or places a feature is repeated, or by
how many instances.
________ 9. A curved surface that is to be measured along the curve is specified with which symbol?
________10. A spotface is specified with which symbol?
________11. Parts or features requiring a rounded edge or corner are identified with which symbol?
________12. Features that are spherical-shaped are identified radially with which symbol?
________13. The symbol used to indicate the depth of a feature.
________14. The symbol that indicates the condition of an external feature when it measures the largest
or weighs the most.
________15. A symbol used to indicate the amount of taper on a flat part.
________16. Symbol used to identify conical tapers.
________17. Symbol used to indicate a countersink.
________18. Indicates the origin of a dimension.
SYMBOLS AND ABREVIATIONS 27
A. X N.
B. L O.
C. SR P. P
D. S Q. F
E. R. CF
F. 6.00 S. (6.00)
G. R T. ST
H. U. M
(
I. V. 105
J. NO SYMBOL OR ABBREVIATION W.
K. X. SF
L. Y.
rejected because the lower-left-hand hole was out It is from these actual surfaces that measure-
of design specification. ments are made to check feature relationships. On
Therefore, datums must be specified so the the drawing, these datum features are identified
drawing is interpreted the same by all who read it. with the datum feature symbol.
When the symbol for MMC or LMC is in-
cluded after the datum in the Feature Control
Frame, it refers to either Maximum Material
Boundary or Least Material Boundary. We deter-
mine the MMB or LMB by calculating the small-
est (in case of external) or largest (in case of in-
ternal) value that will contain the feature, with
consideration given for datum precedence for the
Datum Feature Simulator.
Figure 3-3 Bottom surface as primary A
location surface.
DATUM FEATURE SYMBOL
frame. This frame is assumed to be perfect, with or positioned on is nearly perfect, but ultimately
each plane oriented exactly 90º to each other, re- it is not perfect. In every case, no matter how ir-
ferred to as the Datum Reference Frame. This ref- regular the part surface is, the highest points of
erence frame, with mutually perpendicular the part make contact with the device. This is re-
planes, provides the origin and orientation for all ferred to as the Simulated Datum.
measurements. When physical contact is made The Datum symbol may not be applied to
between each datum feature and its counterpart in center lines, center planes, or axes.
associated manufacturing or inspection equip-
ment, measurements do not take into account any SECONDARY
variations in the datum features. These planes are
identified as the primary, secondary, and tertiary The secondary datum plane must be at a 90º
datum planes. This is considered the order of angle to the primary datum plane. The secondary
precedence. datum feature is usually selected as the second
most functionally important feature. This feature
PRIMARY must be perpendicular to the primary datum fea-
ture. There is only a two-point minimum contact
The primary datum is the one that function- required for this plane. These two points establish
ally is usually the most critical feature or surface the part in the other direction to prevent it from
on the part. It is part-to-part interface, typically rocking about the primary datum plane. This
the largest surface when area is involved. The pri- plane may be a stop, fence, or angle plate on pro-
mary datum feature must make contact with the cessing or inspection equipment. The illustration
theoretically exact datum plane in a minimum of in Figure 3-6 shows the secondary datum plane.
three points not in a line. The required contact is
to prevent the part from “rocking” during manu-
facturing or inspection processes. E
This three-point contact is not difficult to
SECONDARY
achieve. If the designer has any concern about ex-
cessive surface irregularity, a surface control may D
be specified (see Chapter 6). Figure 3-5 shows an
example of the primary datum plane establish- PRIMARY
DATUM
ment. PLANE
D
Figure 3-6 Secondary datum plane.
DATUM TERTIARY
PLANE
The tertiary datum plane must be at exactly a
Caption: Figure 3-5 Primary datum plane. 90º angle to the primary and secondary datum
planes. The tertiary or third datum plane is also
perpendicular to the other two planes. The part
Remember that in order to be inspected, the
must contact this plane at least at one point. This
fixture or surface plate that the part is clamped to
contact is required for dimension origin and to
32 CHAPTER 3
TERTIARY
DATUM
SECONDARY PRIMARY
PLANE TERTIARY DATUM
PLANE
SECONDARY
F DATUM
E
PRIMARY
PLANE
D
prevent any back-and-forth movement along the equally important when related to a feature. Thus,
third plane. The tertiary plane could be a locating they are combined to make up the datum. In this
or stop pin in a processing or inspection process. case, the Feature Control Frame will be given on
All measurements, setups, and inspections
.01 A _ B
are to be made from these three mutually perpen- the print as follows or as seen in
dicular planes. Figure 3-7a is an illustration of the the next chapter in Figure 4-11.
theoretical datum reference frame.
The fixture that could be manufactured to
orient this part might look like the one illustrated
Customized Datum
in Figure 3-7b. The part must contact three points
for a primary datum. Often flat parts similar to Reference Frame
this may rock if placed on a machine bed or in-
spection table; the three highest points in contact When it is necessary to restrain a datum fea-
will prevent the part from rocking. The second- tures rotation about the X, Y, or Z axes (degrees of
ary datum plane requires a two-point contact. In freedom), the designer must include coordinate
this illustration, these are the sides of the pins. labels of the affected axes in two views of the
The tertiary datum plane must be in contact with drawing. The axes and their rotational identifica-
the part in one place only. tion are then added to the Feature Control Frame
There are times when a datum plane is sepa- per datum reference in order of precedence. Rota-
rated by an obstruction or pocket and the design tional axis is identified by the lowercase letter u
intention is that both sides make up the entire about the X-axis, by v about the Y-axis, and by w
plane. In this case, a chain-line is added to the about the Z-axis. These identifications are to be
drawing in the appropriate view to indicate that contained within brackets inside the feature con-
both surfaces are required to establish the plane. trol frame, after the datum and any modifiers. A
We will look further at the use of chain lines to es- simple example of a conical part with a Cus-
tablish datums in Chapter 6 (see Figure 6-42). tomized Datum Reference Frame is given in Fig-
There is another instance where two separate ure 3-8.
surfaces with their own datum symbols may be
DATUMS 33
Y
.008 A
Y
.003 A
Z
1.500±.010 23° X
.500±.010
.278±.005
.005 A [x,y,u,v] B [z] 2.500 B A
C1 B1 B2
.625
1.250 3.750
1.750
+.002
.002
.750
- .000
Figure 3-12 Datum target located with BA-
SIC dimensions.
DATUM TARGET—POINT B1 B2
A datum target point is identified with an Figure 3-13 Datum target line represented
“X”, as shown in Figure 3-12. This datum target by a phantom line.
DATUMS 35
.4
DATUM TARGET—AREA A1
.3 .3
A2 A3
.834
.688 C1 C1
3.250
.3
A1 1.000
D1 D2 D3
P 2 X 2.000
4.000
2.000
2 X .500
E1 E2
C1
MOVABLE DATUM TARGET
DATUM TRANSLATION
When the datum reference frame includes an Figure 3-18 True contacting plane oriented
angular feature, the angle of that feature must be at the BASIC angle.
DATUMS 37
specified as BASIC. Then to position the part in The drawing in Figure 3-20 provides an ex-
relation to the specified datums, a true contacting ample of how the three-plane concept applies to a
plane must be oriented at the BASIC angle of the circular part. Even though the overall diameter of
feature (Figure 3-18). the part is shown as datum A, only the theoretical
axis is used for orientation of related features.
Also, BASIC dimensions are used to locate fea-
Three-Plane Concept—Circular
tures from the theoretical planes.
Circular parts, like noncylindrical parts, also
require a three-plane concept for repeatable ori-
entation. The primary datum plane is frequently
one flat surface of the part. Then two planes (X
and Y), intersecting at right angles, establish the
axis. This axis is then used as the theoretically ex-
act datum axis. The two intersecting planes pro-
vide dimension origins in the X and Y directions
for related part features (see Figure 3-19).
There are only two datum features refer-
A
enced for a part like the one in Figure 3-19. The
primary datum plane is one datum feature and the +.000
6 X .157
- .005
other is the intersection or axis of the X and Y
.005 M A
planes. All dimensioning, orientation, and meas- A
urements originate from the axis and planes.
+.000
1.500
- .005
6 X 60
60°
1.000 1.000 D
3.002
2.998 E
1.000
A
+.005
6 X .172
- .000
1.000
.005 M A
A
.376 +.005
4X 1.510 6 X 60
60°
.374 - .000
.005 M A B M
PARTIAL DATUMS can be used for datums only when they can be de-
fined mathematically and related to a three-plane
Occasionally, designs require a datum on a datum reference frame. When such surfaces are
particular surface, but not necessarily the entire used as datums, the theoretically true geometric
surface. Examples of such situations include counterpart of the shape is used to establish the
large parts, weldments, castings and forgings, and datum.
plastics. Some designs incorporating these parts
will have partial datums specified. A partial da-
Datums of Size
tum is specified to reduce special treatment to an
entire surface, such as machining or controlling
A datum of size is any feature subject to ac-
straightness or flatness. In Figure 3-21, a partial
tual mating size variation based on size dimen-
datum is specified with a chain line offset from
sions. A feature of size is a hole, slot, tab, pin, etc.
the datum area. The chain line is drawn parallel to
Because variations are allowed by the size toler-
the surface and dimensioned in length specified
ance, it becomes necessary to determine whether
in note form or by datum target.
MMC or LMC applies in each case. A datum fea-
ture of size is not a single point, line, or plane.
Features that are datums—and subject to actual
mating size variation—must be verified with a
simulated datum (Chapter 5, Rule 4).
Figure 3-22 is a drawing of an external fea-
ture of size. The diameter of this part is subject to
actual mating size variation. When features of
this type are specified as datums, the material
condition must be specified with the datum iden-
tification letter in the feature control frame
(Chapter 5, Rule 2). The effect of material condi-
tion and datum features of actual mating size vari-
ation is explained in detail in Chapter 8.
2.000
.002 A-B
B
A
Figure 3-21 Partial datum indicated with a
chain line.
1.000±.015
1.000
.500±.005
Partial Datums—Mathematically
.002 B .005 A
Defined
Figure 3-22 Datums that are an external
Sometimes compound curves and contoured
feature of size.
surfaces are required to be datums. These features
DATUMS 39
NONCYLINDRICAL
INTERNAL CYLINDRICAL
may be a gage block, an adjustable gage, or meas- Datum reference letters identifying features
uring instrument used to establish the datum of size are implied RFS if not modified with
plane, center line, etc. Measurements then origi- MMC or LMC; they must be treated like any
nate from the true geometric counterpart. Figure other datum feature of size. The datum is a true
3-25 illustrates a datum feature simulated with a geometric counterpart established by an ad-
gage block. justable gage to contact the datum feature as pro-
Datum features of size must also have modi- duced.
fiers specified for them when associated with the
positioning of features (Chapter 5, Rule 2). An
Pattern of Features
example of modifiers being specified is illus-
trated in Figure 3-26.
Feature patterns may also be used as datums.
For example, a pattern of holes may be used as a
datum to locate other functionally related fea-
.015 M A B M C tures. In Figure 3-27, the pattern of holes is at
MMC and, as a group, establishes datum “A.”
Figure 3-26 Specifying modifiers. Each hole has a datum axis established at true po-
sition for each hole. These axes of true cylinders
simulate the virtual condition of the holes. When
When a datum reference letter (“B” in this
the part is resting on the primary datum surface,
example) is followed with a modifier, additional
the hole pattern establishes the second and third
consideration must be made for that datum fea-
datum planes of the datum reference frame. The
ture. According to the datum/virtual condition
axis of the pattern of holes (X and Y planes) may
rule (Chapter 5, Rule 4), datum feature “B” must
depart from the axis of the datum reference frame
be used at its virtual condition even though it is
as the datum feature departs from MMC.
modified to MMC.
4x .250±.010
Figure 3-27 Pattern of features. .005 M D
If there are multiple patterns sharing the datums were specified, assumptions were made
same datum, they may have a simultaneous re- about the intent of the design. Today, datums are
quirement. However, when they are meant to specified for all parts within a design, based on
have separate requirements, the note: SEPT the three-plane concept (Datum Reference
REQT is placed below the Feature Control Frame) for both circular and noncircular parts.
Frames. The three-plane concept provides a solid repeat-
able orientation.
Datum features are identified with a datum
Summary
feature symbol or datum target symbol. Letters of
the alphabet are used to identify the datum fea-
Datums are assumed to be theoretically exact
tures. Datum features may also be only part of a
in order to ensure repeatability from design to in-
surface, axis, center plane, etc. If so, the designer
spection. Datums are dimension origins used to
will indicate the partial feature with a chain line
establish measurements and feature-to-feature re-
and give required dimensioning for location and
lationships. Datum features, on the other hand,
length or area of the partial datum. Datums are lo-
are actual part features that include all variations
cated either with BASIC or toleranced dimen-
and irregularities. It is the irregular features that
sions.
make contact with the true geometric counterpart.
Features of actual mating size and patterns of
In some instances where a feature is not well de-
features may also be specified as datum features.
fined, the part might have to be adjusted in order
These features are permitted actual mating size
to achieve the best fit. Datum features may be a
variation, therefore, requiring adjustable gaging
point, line, surface, axis, center line, median
to determine the datum. The gaging provides a
plane, etc.
true geometric counterpart for dimension origins
Datums are specified to convey the design
and feature relationship dimensioning.
intent clearly to all who read the drawing. Before
Chapter 3 Evaluation
2. Datums are theoretically exact and are used for ________ origins and part ________.
__________________ __________________
__________________ __________________
__________________ __________________
4. Is the alphabetical order for datum reference letters in feature control frames important? ________
42 CHAPTER 3
5. How many points of contact minimum are required for a primary datum plane? ________
6. The planes of a datum reference frame are assumed to be at ________ degrees basic to each other.
7. Datum target areas are identified with a phantom line ________ with crosshatch lines inside.
8. The upper half of the datum target symbol contains the area ________ when the symbol is attached
9. Datum targets may be ________ with adjustable gages, pins, collets, etc.
10. Datums of size are features associated with a dimension and ________.
11. Datums of size are ________ with adjustable gages, pins, collets, etc.
12. Datums of size also need additional consideration when the ________ are specified with them.
13. Datums are specified on drawings to ________ a clear intent of the design.
14. The minimum point contact required in the three-plane concept is to eliminate part ________.
15. When a datum target area is specified, a ________ nose pin the size of the specified area is required.
FEATURE CONTROL FRAMES
4
Introduction of composite control frames. A feature control
frame may contain the following symbols and tol-
This chapter deals specifically with feature erance:
control frames, which are rectangular boxes with • Geometric characteristics
many compartments. These compartments con- • Diameter symbol
tain the symbols, tolerances, and datum reference • Tolerance
letters discussed in Chapters 2 and 3. Where ap-
plicable, the tolerance is preceded by the diame-
• Tolerance modifier
ter symbol and followed by a material condition • Datum reference letter(s)
symbol. The datum reference letters may also be • Datum modifier
followed by a material condition symbol. The
symbols, when combined in a specific sequence Figure 4-1 shows an example of a feature
in the feature control frame, provide a specific control frame that was specified to control the
control instruction for the feature or group of fea- position of a feature or group of features. The
tures to which it is attached. The contents of fea- first symbol in a feature control frame is the
ture control frames must always be specified in a geometric characteristic symbol.
standard arrangement. Each feature control frame
relates specific tolerancing information for man-
ufacturing and inspection. Feature control frames 1.5 M D E M P
may be single, combined, or composite.
Figure 4-1 This feature control frame
controls the position of a feature.
Symbol and Definition
43
44 CHAPTER 4
tached to a surface, axis, or center line. With each amples of how an axis or center line is controlled
method of attachment, the feature control is lim- are shown in Figure 4-3. (Note: Chapter 6 has
ited to only that portion of the part or feature to many examples of feature control frame attach-
which the frame is attached. For example, if a fea- ment.)
ture control frame is attached to a surface exten-
sion line, then only that surface is controlled.
Surface
A
.001
.002 A
B
.500±.005
Figure 4-4 Attaching feature control frames
Caption: Figure 4-2 Feature control frame to the controlled feature.
applied to the surface of a circular part.
The feature control frame is usually attached
Axis or Center Line to the controlled feature with one of four meth-
ods. These methods are as follows, with an exam-
ple in Figure 4-4:
Feature control frames associated with round
a) The feature control frame is placed below
or width-type features are attached to extension
a dimension pertaining to a feature. The
lines of that feature. The interpretation means the
leader is from the dimension.
axis or center line of the feature is controlled with
b) A leader from the feature control frame
no regard for the feature surface. The designer is
runs to the controlled feature.
specifying the required control so that fasteners
c) A side or end of the feature control frame
will pass through parts or so that parts will mate
is attached to an extension line from the
with each other. The specification of such callouts
feature. The feature surface must be a
means the axis or center line orientation—not the
plane.
sides of the feature—is the critical concern. Ex-
FEATURE CONTROL FRAMES 45
d) A side or end of the feature control frame ance and not a plus/minus tolerance, as with the
is attached to a feature-of-size dimension coordinate method of dimensioning.
extension line.
Datum Reference Letters
Content When required, the datum reference letter or
letters follow the stated tolerance (see Figure 4-
Geometric Characteristic Symbol 7). These letters are not always required, and the
number of letters may vary from one to three, de-
pending on the datum reference frame required.
The feature control frame consists of many
The alphabetical order is insignificant; the order
compartments that contain information specified
from left to right is what establishes the order of
by the designer. The first compartment of the
precedence for the datum reference frame. The
frame always contains the geometric characteris-
first letter identifies the primary datum plane, the
tic symbol for Form, Profile, Orientation, Loca-
second letter identifies the secondary datum
tion, or Runout. Figure 4-5 provides an example
plane, and the third letter identifies the tertiary
of a Feature Control Frame. The design in Figure
datum plane.
4-4 includes Feature Control Frames for Form,
Orientation, and Runout.
1.5 M D E M P
1.5 M D E M P
DATUM REFERENCE LETTERS
GEOMETRIC CHARACTERISTIC
SYMBOL
Figure 4-7 Datum reference letters.
Figure 4-5 Feature Control Frame.
Modifiers
Tolerance
Modifiers are required in certain situations,
or they may be specified in other cases depending
The next compartment always contains a tol-
on design requirements. Modifier specification is
erance (Figure 4-6). The tolerance is either a di-
explained in detail in Chapters 5 and 6. The mod-
ameter or a width. If the tolerance is cylindrical,
ifier symbols appear in feature control frames, as
the diameter symbol will precede the specified
shown in Figure 4-8. Refer to Chapter 2 for defi-
tolerance. The tolerance is always a total toler-
nitions and the remaining text for applications.
1.5 M 1.5 M D E M P
.005
3.000±.010
A A
2.375
4 X .201
.201±.005
.380 .003 .19
.010 M A P M
THESE FEATURES MUST
BE POSITIONED WITHIN TO DATUMS
A REGARDLESS OF
A CYLINDRICAL FEATURE SIZE AND
P AT MMC
TOLERANCE ZONE
OF .010 AT MMC
FEATURE CONTROL FRAMES 47
third letter identifies the tertiary datum. Feature frame and are separated by a dash.
control does not always require three datum ref- As illustrated in Figure 4-11, the center por-
erence letters, as shown in Figure 4-9. The de- tion of this part is controlled in relation to datum
signer will specify the number of letters (datum A-B. (The .500 and 1.000 diameters establish da-
references) required for proper part orientation tum A-B through the part.) These two features es-
and feature control. The datum reference letters tablish a single datum axis through the part.
are also specified in the feature control frame There is one other situation where two letters
from left to right in their order of precedence (see appear in the same compartment. That situation is
Figure 4-10). when all of the letters of the alphabet are used on
one design and there are still more datum features
to be identified. In this case, a double letter is
1.5 M D E M P
used to identify a single datum feature. An exam-
ple of such a feature control frame is illustrated in
PRIMARY Figure 4-12. This application is not found fre-
SECONDARY quently. Usually designs are not complex enough
TERTIARY to require such identification.
Figure 4-10 Datum reference letters in
order of precedence.
.005 AA
Two Datum Features Figure 4-12 Using double letters to identify
a single datum feature.
There are some designs that require the iden-
tification of two features as datum features to es-
tablish a single datum plane, axis, etc. In such
Types
cases, each feature is identified with a datum ref-
erence letter (Figure 4-11). These two letters then
share the same compartment in the feature control Introduction
control it to ensure assembly with a mating part. control frames provide one instruction concern-
An example of a composite feature control frame ing the Form, Profile, Location, or Runout of fea-
is shown in Figure 4-17. This composite control tures. This means that each feature control frame
will be explained in depth in Chapter 8, and it is relates specific tolerancing information for man-
most frequently specified with location toler- ufacturing and inspection. The feature control
ances. frame contains the information for proper part
orientation in relation to the specified datums.
The datum reference letters in the feature control
.015 M D E P
frame denote the datum precedence in relation to
.005 M D the three-plane, Datum Reference Frame concept.
Feature control frames may be attached to
features in one of four ways. The selected method
Figure 4-17 Composite feature control
of attachment by the designer controls how fea-
frame.
tures are controlled. The feature control frame
may be constructed as single, combined, or com-
Summary posite. Regardless of the type of feature control
frame, they are read from left to right and one line
at a time. When one line is read and applied, that
The feature control frame is specified for line is finished. The information is only used once
each feature or group of features. These feature for a feature.
Chapter 4 Evaluation
1. Feature control frames are rectangular boxes that contain specific information to
7. When datum reference letters are specified in a feature control frame, the first letter always identifies
8. When reading a composite feature control frame, you always read one ________ of it at a time.
9. Feature control frames consist of a various number of ________ that contain symbols.
10. Is the alphabetical order of the datum reference letters important in the feature control frame?
________
11. Letters that cannot be used to identify datums in a Feature Control Frame are: ________ and
________.
Introduction
GENERAL RULES
5
Rule Two: Regardless of Feature Size (RFS)
is implied for all geometric tolerances and the for-
Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing mer symbol is no longer used. Maximum Mater-
(ASME Y14.5-2009), like most other standards, ial Condition (MMC) or Least Material Condition
contains specific rules. This standard identifies (LMC) must be specified on the drawing where it
three rules, but in fact, there are four general rules is applicable. Note: Circular runout, total runout,
that apply in various situations. These rules are concentricity, and symmetry are applicable only
provided to control some general situations and to on an RFS basis and cannot be modified to MMC
provide a common foundation to apply and inter- or LMC.
pret GD&T. The rules provide a means to control Rule Three: For screw threads, splines, and
these situations with only one interpretation of gears, the tolerance and datum reference originate
engineering drawings throughout the world. The from the pitch cylinder axis.
rules pertain to feature actual mating size and Rule Four: A virtual condition exists for fea-
form tolerances, the specification of modifiers, tures of size and datum features of size.
and the origin of datums.
Rule One
Overview
Rule One applies to all features controlled
Most standards have limited rules that must with only plus/minus tolerances. Rule One states,
be observed at certain times. GD&T has rules that “where only a tolerance of size is specified, the
must be observed by designers and those who in- limits of size of an individual feature prescribe
terpret drawings. These rules, in brief, are as fol- the extent to which variations in its geometric
lows: form, as well as size, are allowed.” In such cases,
Rule One: When only a tolerance of size is the size limits of the individual feature control the
specified, that tolerance controls both size and amount of variation in actual mating size as well
form. as the form. The actual local size of an individual
feature at any cross-section will be within the
specified size and plus/minus tolerance. Although
0.5 D the feature must meet size requirements at any
cross-section, the form must also be within these
size limits.
Figure 5-1 Feature control frame with
The feature surface or surfaces may not ex-
Regardless of Feature Size requirement.
ceed the limits of size. These size limits become
51
52 CHAPTER 5
the boundary of perfect form. For features like permits variation in a features form based on its
pins, the boundary is the features’ MMC. No vari- produced actual mating size. Figure 5-2 illus-
ation beyond this actual local size is permitted. trates a drawing specification.
For internal features, the MMC is the nominal When the feature varies or departs from
size minus the negative size tolerance. Rule One MMC toward LMC, its form is allowed to vary
from perfect. Parts are given tolerance to allow
for variation because the closer to perfect the fea-
ture is produced, the more expensive the parts are.
.015
+.015
.500 Therefore, if variation is allowable, the designer
- .003
will allow as much as possible, based on the de-
sign requirements. Features then may wave, bow,
taper, step, etc., an amount equal to their depar-
ture from MMC. Figure 5-3 illustrates feature
variation.
When the feature departs from MMC to
.015
+.015 LMC, there is no requirement for perfect form.
.520
- .003 The feature is allowed to vary the full limit of the
size tolerance. Any variation in the form is ac-
ceptable. The variation bow, for example, cannot
exceed the MMC boundaries. Figure 5-4 shows
Figure 5-2 Feature tolerance, limits size an example of how the two mating parts may be
and form. produced.
.497 LMC
.515 MMC
.515
.497
.535 MMC
.497 LMC
.535 LMC .517 MMC
PERFECT FORM NOT REQUIRED other geometric controls must be specified. Fig-
ure 5-5 illustrates a piece of tubing; the inside di-
In certain conditions, Rule One is not desired ameter is an individual feature completely sepa-
or does not apply. Designers may wish to permit rate from the outside diameter.
a feature to vary beyond the boundary of perfect
form at MMC. Previously in such designs, they
Rule Two
could add a note, “PERFECT FORM AT MMC
NOT REQD”. In the current standard, the note is
Rule Two is primarily a designer’s rule. The
I rule states: “Regardless of Feature Size (RFS) ap-
no longer used and a new symbol , for Inde-
plies, with respect to the individual tolerance, da-
pendency, is placed next to the dimension. This
tum reference, or both, where no modifying sym
boundary of perfect form may also be violated by
bol is specified. The former symbol S , is now
Rule Four, the datum/virtual condition rule. (Rule
Four is presented in this chapter and discussed in
eliminated from use. Maximum material condi-
detail in Chapter 7.)
tion (MMC) or least material condition (LMC)
Rule One does not control the geometric
must be specified on the drawing where it is ap-
form of commercial stock and parts subject to
plicable. Note: circular runout, total runout, con-
free-state variation. Commercial stock includes
centricity and symmetry are applicable only on an
bar, sheet, tubing, and structural shapes, and any
RFS basis and cannot be modified to MMC or
products produced to established industry or gov-
LMC.”
ernment standards. Parts subject to free-state
The designer must specify MMC or LMC for
variation (part distortion after removal of forces
features subject to size variation. These features
applied during manufacture) include rubber and
plastic.
A
FEATURE RELATIONSHIP
SECTION A-A
3.000±.010
.010
A A
.750 .015
2.375
2.500±.015
2.500
4 X .201
.201±.005
.005
.380 .003 .19
.500 .015
.010 M A P M
Figure 5-5 Rule One does not control inter- Figure 5-6 Specifying MMC or LMC in the
relation of features. feature control frame.
54 CHAPTER 5
include those being positioned as well as any da- tum, a virtual condition exists for a datum feature
tum features subject to size variations. An exam- of size where its axis or center line is controlled
ple of such a feature control frame is shown in by a geometric tolerance.” Virtual condition is the
Figure 5-6. Various other feature control frames worst acceptable condition of a feature. The vir-
are used in Chapter 8. tual condition for an internal feature is the MMC
size of the feature minus the geometric tolerance
or the LMC size of the feature, plus the geometric
Rule Three
tolerance. The virtual condition for an external
feature is the MMC size of the feature, plus the
Rule Three applies to all screw threads,
geometric tolerance or the LMC size of the fea-
gears, and splines. It states that “for each toler-
ture, minus the geometric tolerance.
ance of orientation or position and datum refer-
Datum features of size apply at their virtual
ence specified for screw threads applies to the
condition, even though they are referenced in the
axis of the thread derived from the pitch cylinder,
feature control frame at MMC (Figure 5-8).
for gears and splines, the MAJOR DIA., PITCH
When the designer does not intend for virtual
DIA., or MINOR DIA. must be specified.” The
condition to apply for a primary datum, the fea-
designer will specify one of these abbreviations
ture control frame is associated with the size di-
beneath the feature control frame. When there is
mension or is attached to an extension of the di-
an exception to the pitch cylinder diameter for
mension line.
screw threads, the designer may specify MAJOR
For secondary or tertiary datum features of
DIA., PITCH DIA., or MINOR DIA. Figure 5-7
size in the same datum reference frame, the size
illustrates a feature control frame and datum fea-
of the simulated datum is the virtual condition of
ture symbol with such notation.
A
E
SECTION A-A
PITCH DIA
4 X 90°
90
.010 M D P
MINOR DIA
3.000±.010
.010
4 X .201
.201±.005
.005
Rule Four, or the datum/virtual condition .380 .003 .19
2 X .187
.187±.005
.005
.005 M X YM ZM
135° 135°
135
2.250 ±.010
.010 X
Z .375±.005
.375
Y
.005 M X
help you understand their application and effect. chapters when a rule controls a specific applica-
The rule number is not always referred to in later tion.
Chapter 5 Evaluation
2. Rule One controls only ________ features, not the interrelationship of features.
3. Rule Two specifies that ________ or ________ must be specified in the feature control frame where
it is applicable.
4. Rule One specifies a boundary of perfect form at ________ for features of size.
6. ________ applies, with respect to individual tolerance, datum reference, or both, where no modify-
ing symbol is specified.
7. Tolerances and datum references originate from the ________ diameter of screw threads.
8. For gears and splines, the designer will specify MINOR, MAJOR, or PITCH DIA. ________ the
feature control frame.
9. The basic rules of GD&T provide a common ________ to apply and interpret GD&T.
10. These rules must be memorized because they are ________ specified on the drawing.
6
FORM, ORIENTATION, PROFILE
AND RUNOUT TOLERANCES
57
58 CHAPTER 6
0.5
12.5±0.5
12.5 0.5
36 15.5
36
12.50±0.20
12.50 0.20
0.5
Tolerance Interpretation
12.7 MMC The axis of the feature may take any form, as
long as it stays within the cylindrical zone. If
modifiers are not specified, the tolerance is im-
0.5
plied as RFS. If applicable, maximum material
condition (MMC) may be specified for this form
Figure 6-2 Surface shapes acceptable
control. When MMC is specified, the collective
within size and form tolerances.
effect of the feature actual mating size and the
straightness tolerance may result in a virtual con-
Axis Control dition (Figure 6-4). In other words, the boundary
of perfect form may be exceeded to the limit of
the stated tolerance.
To control an axis, the feature control frame
Because the feature in Figure 6-3 is a feature
is specified below the diameter feature size (Fig-
of size, the modifier principles apply, if desired
36
Figure 6-3 Axis control.
12.5±0.5
0.5
0.5
13.2 VIRTUAL
0.2
12.5 ±0.2
CONDITION
FEATURE TOLERANCE
SIZE ZONE Symbol
20±0.4
20 0.4
Figure 6-6 Flatness form control.
0.1
20.4
Application Circularity
Figure 6-6 illustrates a proper specification
of the flatness form control. The feature is given
a size and tolerance that must not be exceeded. Symbol
Then an additional form control tolerance is ap-
plied to the controlled surface. The form toler- Definition
ance does not allow the feature to exceed the Circularity is roundness. It is a condition of a
specified actual mating size requirements. cylindrical surface other than a sphere; at any
cross-sectional measurement during one com-
Tolerance Interpretation plete revolution of the feature, all points of the
surface are perpendicular at an equal distance
Flatness tolerance is the specified distance
from a common axis. Circularity of a sphere is a
between two parallel planes of which the upper
condition where all points of the surface inter-
limit plane must contact the actual feature surface
sected by any plane passing through a common
(Figure 6-9). The other plane then should be the
center are equal distance from that center.
stated tolerance from the first and below all sur-
face area irregularities. The actual surface may be Tolerance
verified with a dial indicator. The indicator
should be zeroed for the highest or lowest point
Circularity tolerance provides a circular
on the surface. Then the surface must be checked
zone in which all points of a cross-section or slice
sufficiently in all directions to ensure that it is
of the surface must lie. The tolerance zone is two
within the specified tolerance. The readings ob-
concentric circles that are the stated tolerance
tained are FIM and must not exceed the stated
apart. The specified tolerance is implied to be
FIM tolerance in the feature control.
RFS and FIM. Because circularity is a surface
control, the modifier principles do not apply. The
feature control frame is usually specified in the
end view. The tolerance zone must be within the
0.1
50±0.4
0.4 25±0.4
25 0.4
size limits of the feature. All surface elements Circularity tolerance is a radial tolerance. The
must be within the boundary of perfect form at larger circle must make contact with the actual
MMC. This tolerance is not associated with a da- surface of the controlled external feature. Then
tum. The surface is controlled or compared to it- the smaller circle would have to be the stated tol-
self, the axis; therefore, a datum is not required. erance away from the larger one or the same as
the feature’s smallest permissible diameter.
The opposite is true for internal circular fea-
Application tures. This tolerance zone is applicable to each
cross-sectional element of the feature. The toler-
The circularity tolerance is applied to com- ance zone must be perpendicular to the controlled
pare the circular elements or slices of cylindrical feature axis. All elements of the controlled fea-
features. Figure 6-8 illustrates the proper applica- ture must be within the specified size limits.
tion of a circularity tolerance. This tolerance may Controlled features may be verified with
be specified for any cylindrical feature such as several instruments. The primary concern, how-
cones, spheres, or cylinders that require only line ever, is how the feature is measured. For example,
control around the feature. Circularity may also if a V-block is used, the measurement may in-
be specified for internal features that are circular clude unwanted variables that may not be noticed,
in cross-section. such as lobing, out-of-straightness, and the com-
posite effects of a diametrical reading. If possible,
Tolerance Interpretation the measurements should be made in relation to
the axis because the specified tolerance is on the
The circularity tolerance is the space be-
radius. In this way, all readings on the indicator
tween two concentric circles that is the stated tol-
will be radial, as the tolerance is intended. Re-
erance apart. Figure 6-9 illustrates how the toler-
gardless of the method of measurement, suffi-
ance applies to an external feature. (Note: The
cient measurements must be made to ensure fea-
difference between the two diametral measure-
ture acceptance. The specified tolerance is im-
ments is 0.2, or twice the specified tolerance.)
plied FIM for each circular element of the con-
trolled feature.
0.1
TOLERANCE ZONE
Cylindricity
49.8
Symbol
Definition
49.6
ACTUAL FEATURE
Cylindricity is the condition of an entire fea-
ture surface during one revolution in which all
surface points are an equal distance from a com-
mon axis.
Figure 6-9 Applying circular tolerance to
an external feature.
FORM, ORIENTATION, PROFILE AND RUNOUT TOLERANCES 63
0.1
21±0.4
Application
Tolerance
tion. The feature control frame, which is specified The actual feature surface may be verified in
in a drawing view where the relationship between a number of ways. A simple check can be made
features appears, may be attached to the feature with a dial indicator or coordinate measuring ma-
with an extension line or leader. chine. The datum feature must be placed in con-
tact with the datum plane. Then, with a measuring
Tolerance instrument, make contact with the controlled sur-
face. Zero the measuring device on a high point
This perpendicularity tolerance provides a and continue to measure the entire surface. The
zone defined by two parallel planes that are the FIM may not exceed the tolerance specified in the
distance of the specified tolerance apart. The tol- feature control frame. Enough of the surface must
erance is implied RFS here because only surfaces be measured to ensure that design requirements
are controlled. The tolerance zone must be within are met.
the limits of the feature size. All elements of the
controlled feature must lie within the perpendicu- Feature Axis Perpendicular to a
larity tolerance zone. Datum Axis
0.5 TOLERANCE
ZONE
6±0.1
0.5 A
0
25
- 0.5
A A
Figure 6-13 Parallel planes tolerance zone. Figure 6-14 Hole orientation control.
66 CHAPTER 6
a drawing view where the relationship is clearly larity, the feature must meet the location toler-
shown. ance and then the perpendicularity tolerance. The
perpendicularity tolerance must be at a 90-degree
Tolerance basic angle to the datum plane. The controlled
feature axis must lie within the tolerance zone as
A perpendicularity specification like this is specified in the feature control frame or as modi-
usually a refinement of location tolerancing. Each fied based on actual mating size. The actual axis
control, location, and perpendicularity will have a may be bowed, angled, wavy, etc., as long as it re-
tolerance specified. The axis of the controlled mains within the tolerance zone. Figure 6-17
feature must lie within the tolerance(s). The toler- shows how the actual feature may be produced
ance zone for this application is usually diame- and how the tolerance may vary when the toler-
tral. Because the controlled features are features ance is modified to MMC.
of size, the modifiers may be specified, depend- The cylindrical feature may be verified with
ing on the final assembly requirements. The axis various inspection methods. A gage will provide
of the actual feature must lie within the bound- the most effective way to check the feature with
aries of the tolerance zone. complete assurance that it will assemble with the
mating part. The gage will have to be made at the
Tolerance Interpretation virtual condition. At virtual condition, it will al-
low or reject all parts that are presented as accept-
The controlled cylindrical feature must meet
able for assembly. This gage takes into account all
the feature size requirements and then geometric
possible feature errors such as out-of-perpendic-
controls. If the feature is controlled with a loca-
ularity and out-of-location.
tion tolerance and then refined with perpendicu-
Line Element Perpendicular
to a Datum
0.5 TOLERANCE
ZONE (RFS)
FOR EACH LINE The designer may specify a surface perpen-
ELEMENT dicular to another datum plane or axis. In this
.98 A
FEATURE TOLERANCE
SIZE ZONE
24.75 1
25 0.75
0.5 A
25.25 0.5 EACH RADIAL
ELEMENT
case, the feature control frame is attached to the trates how the tolerance zone will appear for a
controlled surface with a leader in a drawing view controlled feature.
where the surface to be controlled can be seen. This feature may be verified with basic pre-
Below the feature control frame, the phrase cision measurement devices. The controlled fea-
EACH RADIAL ELEMENT must be added by ture must be verified at 90 degrees from the da-
the designer. Figure 6-18 shows an example of tum axis or plane. A simple check with a dial in-
how this control is specified. dicator or coordinate measuring machine along
line elements of the controlled surface is all that
is required. Adequate measurements must be
Tolerance made to ensure design intent. Each line element
of the controlled feature must lie within the spec-
This perpendicularity tolerance provides a ified tolerance between two parallel lines. The
tolerance zone defined by two parallel lines that surface form may vary from measurement to
are the stated tolerance apart. This zone must be measurement, but each line element must be
perpendicular to a datum plane or axis. Then each within tolerance at FIM and RFS.
controlled line element must lie between the two
lines of the tolerance zone. This tolerance is al-
Angularity
ways RFS because surface elements are being
controlled. The tolerance zone must be within the
size limits of the controlled feature.
Symbol
Tolerance Interpretation
The controlled feature must first meet the Definition
feature size requirements. Then the perpendicu-
larity tolerance is applied by making contact with
Angularity is the condition of an axis or
the actual part surface line by line. The tolerance
plane other than 90 degrees to another datum
zone is the thickness of the specified tolerance
plane or axis.
and perpendicular to a datum. Each line element
of the controlled surface is subject to complying Tolerance
with the specified tolerance. Figure 6-19 illus-
Angularity tolerance provides a zone defined
by two parallel planes that are a stated tolerance
apart and at the specified basic angle to the datum
reference. The controlled feature surface, plane,
or axis must lie within this zone. Angularity is an-
other of the orientation tolerances; therefore, a
datum reference is always required. The tolerance
0.5 TOLERANCE may be modified if a feature of size is being con-
ZONE (RFS) FOR EACH trolled. If modifiers are not specified, Rule Two
LINE ELEMENT
governs the tolerance. The feature control frame
is specified in a drawing view where the angular
Figure 6-19 The tolerance zone for a
relationship is shown. This relationship must be
controlled feature.
FORM, ORIENTATION, PROFILE AND RUNOUT TOLERANCES 69
specified with a basic angle. The datum reference When angularity is specified for an internal
feature irregularities do not affect the controlled feature such as a slot or hole, the tolerance applies
feature surface or axis. only in the view and relative to the datums indi-
cated. The feature is not controlled in any other
Application direction. The tolerance is implied RFS, but may
be modified depending on the final requirement
A control is specified to control features that of the feature. If angularity is specified for a fea-
are required to be at an angle other than 90 de- ture of size, it is usually a refinement of a location
grees in relation to another feature plane, or axis. control. Figure 6-21 illustrates an axis control.
Angularity tolerance controls surface, plane, or
axis errors within the limits of the tolerance zone. Tolerance Interpretation
Angularity also controls flatness and straightness.
The controlled feature must meet all other
The angularity tolerance is in addition to the fea-
tolerance, and then the orientation control for an-
ture size tolerance. The tolerance provides a zone
gularity. The datum reference feature irregulari-
that controls feature origin in relation to another
ties are not considered when measuring angular-
datum feature. Figure 6-20 illustrates a surface
ity. The tolerance is established at the specified
application.
basic angle to the datum. The outer plane of the
0.5 A tolerance zone contacts the highest point(s) on the
controlled surface. The inner plane is at the spec-
30°
ified tolerance from the first. The controlled sur-
face may take any form through this tolerance
zone. The beginning of the angle must be within
A 50±1
50
the length requirement of the part, and may be
curved, bowed, twisted, or at a different angle.
Figure 6-20 Angularity tolerance. Figure 6-22 illustrates how a tolerance zone for a
surface is applied. The surface may be verified
with a dial indicator or coordinate measuring ma-
chine.
12±0.5
0.5
3 X 12
0.5 M D E M 0.5 TOLERANCE ZONE
45°
45
A
30°
30
SLOT 10 X 30
0.2 D A
A 50 ACTUAL
100±0.5
100 0.5
E
Figure 6-21 Angularity tolerance applied Figure 6-22 Applying a tolerance zone
to a slot. for a surface.
70 CHAPTER 6
Application
0.5 A
100±1 20±0.2
20 0.2
Figure 6-24 Surface
50 parallel to another
40±0.2
40 0.2 surface.
0.5 TOLERANCE
ZONE
Tolerance
0.5 T A
Figure 6-26
100±1 20±0.2
20 0.2
Applying the
tangent plane
50 symbol.
40±0.2
40 0.2
0.5 TOLERANCE
ZONE
TANGENT
PLANE with a location tolerance and then refined with
parallelism.
Tolerance
25±0.5
0.5 D
must lie within the specified zone for the length Verification of this part is best accomplished
of the controlled feature. In turn, the controlled with a functional gage. The gage would have
feature must be within the limits of size and not holes in it that are used to verify the controlled
exceed the boundary of perfect form at MMC. feature. The hole to simulate the datum must be
adjustable to fit the produced datum feature. The
Tolerance Interpretation hole to check the controlled feature would be
The tolerance may be specified in several made at virtual condition.
ways, as discussed. Here, the tolerance will be Another method of specifying the paral-
discussed as a cylindrical zone at MMC; the da- lelism control for these cylindrical features is to
tum feature is considered at RFS. Then, the datum specify both features of size with the MMC mod-
must be established by the largest circumscribed ifier. If they were specified in such a manner, the
cylinder. The cylinder should be adjustable so datum feature is controlled by Rule Four, the da-
that it will make contact with the irregularities of tum/virtual condition rule. By Rule Four, the da-
the pin. The axis of this cylinder is the simulated tum feature gage hole for simulating the datum
datum used to verify the controlled feature. The would have to be at virtual condition rather than
adjustable cylinder may be a gage used for verifi- adjustable as it was for RFS. The gage hole for the
cation. controlled feature would also be at virtual condi-
The controlled feature (pin) has the mini- tion. Figure 6-32 illustrates the part described.
mum tolerance zone at MMC that must be paral-
lel to the simulated axis of the datum feature. The
axis of the controlled feature must lie within that 12.5±0.5
0.5
cylindrical zone. The axis may take any form as it 0.5 M E M
passes through the cylindrical tolerance zone.
The tolerance zone for the controlled feature is
permitted to increase an amount equal to the
E
amount the feature departs from MMC. Figure 6-
31 illustrates the tolerance zone and the tolerance
increase from MMC to LMC. This increase in tol-
12.5±0.5
0.5
erance is sometimes called bonus tolerance.
Figure 6-32 Virtual condition requirement
for gage.
0.5 TOLERANCE
ZONE (TOLERANCE ZONE MAY
INCREASE TO 1.5 AT LMC
Profile
Symbol
Application
0.5:1.0
ances are specified for irregular features that are X Y
difficult to control with other form or orientation
tolerances. However, they may also be specified
Figure 6-33 Profile tolerancing for surface
to control the all-around shape of stampings,
of revolution.
burned parts, etc. The basic profile of a part is de-
scribed with basic dimensions, radii, arcs, angles,
etc., from the datum. Then the specified profile
tolerance controls the amount of deviation in re-
lation to the datum reference(s).
Profile tolerances may be specified to con-
trol either a surface or line element of a feature.
These two applications are discussed next.
A B
Surface Profile
0.5 A-B
BASIC PROFILE
A
BASIC PROFILE
A
UNILATERAL OUTSIDE
FORM, ORIENTATION, PROFILE AND RUNOUT TOLERANCES 77
BASIC PROFILE
A
Figure 6-37
Unilateral inside
profile tolerance.
UNILATERAL INSIDE
cular to the true profile at all points along the con- Line Profile
trolled surface. If the tolerance is bilateral, the ac-
tual surface of the feature may vary both inside
Line profile tolerancing is a method of spec-
and outside of the true basic profile. If the toler-
ifying a two-dimensional control for a single line
ance is unilateral, then the actual feature may
element along the true profile of a surface. This
vary only to the inside or the outside of the basic
control is usually specified for the shape of cross-
true profile as indicated with a phantom line. Fig-
sections or cutting planes of parts. The control is
ures 6-35, 6-36, 6-37, and 6-38 illustrate the var-
most frequently specified for manufactured parts
ious tolerance zones permitted by surface profile
for trucks, automobiles, and marine uses (im-
tolerancing. The tolerance zone is established in
pellers, body parts, propellers, etc.). This control
relationship to the basic true profile of the feature,
should be used where “blending” is required.
not the actual feature surface.
Line profile, like surface profile, may be speci-
The actual part surface may be verified with
fied between points or all-around. Line profile
several techniques. The actual part may be com-
tolerancing is usually a refinement of some other
pared to a master part, an overlay may be used,
geometric control, form and size control. The ap-
optical comparison can be made, or a dial indica-
plication of line profile is illustrated in Figure 6-
tor or coordinate measuring machine can be used.
39. In this Feature Control Frame, the combined
Verification will depend largely on the accuracy
geometric tolerances are applied. First, the entire
required.
R 50
Y CREST RADIUS
R 25
BASE RADIUS X
A
12.5±0.1
12.5 0.1
0.2 M A
B
(
0.5:1.0 0.5 A B M
0.5
0.1 A B M
surface (Profile of a Surface) is required to be must lie within the specified tolerance, as shown
within the 0.5 mm tolerance. Then, each cross- in Figure 6-40.
sectional line, (Profile of a Line) is further refined Line profile may be verified with the same
to a lesser tolerance requirement. method used to verify surface profile.
Tolerance
This application may be specified where it is de- sions. For internal features, the boundary equals
sirable to establish a tolerance zone to control both the MMC size of the profile minus the positional
the size and shape of a feature (see Figure 6-41). tolerance—and the entire feature surface must lie
outside the boundary. For an external feature, the
boundary equals the MMC size of the profile plus
the positional tolerance—and the entire feature
2 D
surface must lie within the boundary. When this
1 M D E P
4X R 5 BOUNDARY
method of tolerancing is specified, the term
BOUNDARY may be placed beneath the posi-
tional tolerance feature control frame.
P D
Tolerance Interpretation
50 Boundary control for a noncylindrical fea-
ture is illustrated in Figure 6-42. The profile-con-
75 trolled surface of the feature, all-around, must lie
between the boundaries established by the profile
50 7 tolerance. Then the positional control regulates
75 the surface at MMC. In this illustration, no por-
E
tion of the surface is permitted to lie within the
Figure 6-41 Boundary control for noncylin- boundary of the MMC contour minus the posi-
drical features. tional tolerance when positioned in relationship
to the datum planes.
TRUE PROFILE
1mm P
1 mm (ONE HALF OF
TRUE PROFILE PROFILE TOLERANCE
MMC OF
FEATURE 0.5 (ONE HALF
OF POSITIONAL
TOLERANCE)
1 mm 75
LMC OF FEATURE
75
E
locating tolerance zone to be larger than the toler- tures axis. It provides a zone between two con-
ance zone that controls the actual mating size. centric cylinders for total runout control and be-
tween two concentric circles for circular runout
Tolerance control. The surface or all points on a cross-sec-
tional line must lie within the specified tolerance
Composite profile tolerance provides a toler- zone. The tolerance is always implied to be RFS
ance for location of a profiled feature. It also pro- as measured in relation to the datum axis. The tol-
vides the tolerance for form, orientation, and, in erance is specified in a drawing view where the
some instances, the actual mating size of the fea- controlled feature(s) are shown. The feature con-
ture, within the larger profile locating tolerance trol frame is attached to the controlled feature
zone. Each horizontal line of the feature control with a leader or associated with the feature size
frame constitutes a separately verifiable require- callout. A datum reference is required.
ment. The upper segment is the profile locating
control. The lower segment is refinement control APPLICATION
for actual mating size, form, or orientation. Fig-
ure 6-43 illustrates a composite profile tolerance Runout tolerance is specified for designs
feature control frame. where rotation is involved, such as shafts, pul-
leys, and bearing surfaces. Runout may also be
1 D E P = LOCATION specified for coaxial features. This control, how-
0.5 D = REFINEMENT ever, is restrictive for manufacturing because the
tolerance is always RFS. Location controls may
Figure 6-43 A composite profile tolerance
be a better choice for coaxiality, depending on de-
feature control frame.
sign requirements. Runout tolerances control the
amount of radial deviation for a line or surface of
parts that are circular in profile.
Runout
Total Runout
2 TOLERANCE ZONE
2 TOLERANCE ZONE
82 CHAPTER 6
0.2 A-B
A B
12.5±0.1
0.1
12.5±0.1
0.1
56
0.5
0.5 A BM
TOLERANCE
0.1/56 ZONE
Figure 6-48 A unit control in conjunction Figure 6-49 Unit control tolerance
with a profile tolerance. zone for a profile.
84 CHAPTER 6
ement is compared to the true basic profile. Each rized. The primary difference between a Runout
line element is considered individually. control and Cylindricity is that Runout, either To-
The Runout tolerances also provide for two tal or Circular, controls surface-to-axis, whereas
types of control, where Total Runout requires Cylindricity controls axis-to-axis. Another differ-
measurement of an entire circular surface in one ence between controls is that of Perpendicularity
setup similar to Flatness. Circular Runout is only and Runout. Perpendicularity is primarily speci-
a cross-section or slice of a circular feature con- fied to control noncylindrical features where
trol similar to Straightness. Only one line element Runout is specified to control cylindrical fea-
at a time is measured and compared to the speci- tures.
fied tolerance. In the end, the design requirements will al-
These comparisons provide a means to iden- ways dictate the control to be specified. Parts are
tify the control provided by each of the geometric not commonly designed to be used independently
form and orientation controls. There are some dif- of others. Instead, they are designed for function
ferences between controls that should be summa- and relationship in a final assembly.
Chapter 6 Evaluation
1. Flatness is a form control that controls surface elements in all ________ within a specified tolerance.
2. Circularity control applies to feature surfaces during one complete revolution as measured ________
of a surface or axis is in a straight line.
3. Straightness is the condition where one line ________ of a surface or axis is in a straight line.
4. Form and orientation tolerances permit features to vary within the ________ of the tolerance zone.
6. Per unit control is specified to prevent the continuation of feature ________ or abruptness of the
controlled feature.
7. For tolerances of perpendicularity, the zone established by the specified ________ must be within the
limits of feature size.
8. The tolerance boundary for a cylindrical feature axis is diametrical when the ________ symbol is
specified.
86 CHAPTER 6
9. Feature control frame ________ determines whether a tolerance is applied to the median plane,
center line, or axis of a controlled feature.
11. When a form or orientation tolerance is specified for a feature in relation to a datum feature, the
datum feature is ________ to be theoretically exact.
12. With the application of GD&T, there are two tolerances allowed: ________ and ________.
13. Angularity is the condition of a surface or ________ at an angle other than 90 degrees from a datum.
14. Parallelism is the condition of a surface or axis an equal ________ at all points from a datum plane
or axis.
15. For noncylindrical features, angularity tolerance is a ________ and not an angular tolerance zone.
19. Profile tolerance is a method of specifying control of deviation from the desired basic ________ along
the surface of a feature.
20. Runout is a composite form and location control of permissible error in the desired part surface
during a complete ________ of the part around a datum axis.
Application
7
This chapter introduces you to a very impor- Virtual condition is not a control, but a con-
tant concept concerning the mating parts of an as- dition of a feature as a result of size, geometric
sembly. Today, interchangeability of parts is more tolerance, and the modifiers. Virtual condition is
critical than ever before. Interchangeability in- the boundary (locus) at which features are no
cludes those manufacturing situations where sub- longer acceptable. The locus may violate Rule
assemblies may be shipped from one country to One, which in part states, “the boundary of per-
another for assembly; it also includes the replace- fect form at MMC.” In certain applications, the
ment of a single part within an assembly. The re- combined effect of the actual mating size, geo-
quired assembly and interchangeability of parts metric tolerance, and the modifiers will exceed
and assemblies can be ensured only when parts the boundary of perfect form. The following ex-
are accepted at virtual condition or better. The amples illustrate how the boundary may be ex-
virtual condition of a part is the condition that de- ceeded.
fines the boundary of acceptability. This condi-
External Feature
tion is the boundary established by the collective
effect of size and geometric tolerance.
The first indication that a virtual condition
Virtual condition is explained and illustrated
may exist for a feature is the size tolerance; it
for both internal and external features. The prin-
must be a feature of size. The feature must also be
ciples and the appropriate use of modifiers are
controlled with a geometric tolerance. The next
also involved here. If the use of modifiers is not
indication is whenever a center line or an axis is
clear, review them before attempting to compre-
being controlled. Figure 7-1 illustrates these two
hend the concept of virtual condition. The virtual
conditions.
condition concept is especially important when
developing inspection gaging. Gages must be
made to the virtual condition boundary and the re-
sultant condition boundary as derived from the 100
material condition specified. Their purpose is to
accept features, but not to accept those worse than
virtual condition. Mating parts are dimensioned
12.5±0.2
0.2
with consideration for virtual condition. It is 0.5 M
through proper dimensioning and gaging with
virtual condition that 100% interchangeability Figure 7-1 Feature of size with centerline
and proper function are achieved. or axis controlled by geometric tolerance.
87
88 CHAPTER 7
The pin may also be produced to the other ac- The two pins in this part are subject to virtual
tual mating size limit (LMC). In this condition, condition. The lower pin, because it is the datum
the tolerance zone for the axis would increase to feature, must be simulated with a gage to estab-
0.9 mm. The pin may take any shape as long as lish the datum axis. In such cases, the datum fea-
the axis lies within the tolerance zone of 0.9. Fig- ture applies at its virtual condition even though it
ure 7-5 illustrates how pin straightness could vary is referenced in a feature control frame at MMC
up to as much as 0.9 mm at the axis and still be ac- or LMC. The upper pin must also be considered
ceptable. with a virtual condition gage because it meets the
requirements of virtual condition.
The gage cylinder for the lower pin would
have to be adjustable to fit the produced condition
13.2
of the pin. The gage cylinder for the upper pin
12.3 (LMC) will have a virtual condition diameter of 13.7
mm. The virtual condition is determined by
adding the 0.5 mm tolerance in Figure 7-1 to the
0.9 MMC size of 13.2 mm in Figure 7-5. The gage
TOLERANCE
ZONE GAGE must be capable of accepting the entire length of
the pins. Figure 7-7 illustrates the gage for the
part in Figure 7-6.
Caption: Figure 7-5 Axis variation
allowed within tolerance at LMC.
13.5 VIRTUAL
CONDITION
Parallelism
Internal Feature
R 50
Y CREST RADIUS
R 25
BASE RADIUS X
A
12.5±0.1
0.2 M A
culated opposite of an external feature. Virtual acceptable because the hole at any cross-sectional
condition is the feature MMC size minus the geo- measurement is within the size limits and the axis
metric tolerance. Figure 7-8 illustrates a feature may lay any place within the diametral tolerance
of size (hole), the geometric tolerance, and a zone of 0.2 mm at MMC. This hole, like the pin in
modifier. earlier examples, is permitted to bow, taper, or
The virtual condition of an internal feature is wave. The shaft that passes through this hole may
a constant value equal to its Maximum Material not be the same shape as the hole. Therefore,
Condition size minus its applicable tolerance of some acceptable condition must be established—
form or location. For this hole, the virtual condi- the virtual condition. Figure 7-9 illustrates how
tion is equal to 12.4 mm (MMC) minus 0.2 mm. the hole may be produced.
The virtual condition is 12.2 mm (inner boundary, The functional gage used to check this hole
locus). would have a 12.2 mm diameter pin (fixed). The
The resultant condition of an internal feature pin is not expandable as it would be if the tolerance
is a variable value equal to its actual mating size was specified at RFS. The pin is positioned in the
plus its applicable tolerance of form or location. fixture so that it would also check the hole in rela-
The virtual condition of this hole is smaller tion to the datums. Figure 7-10 illustrates how this
than the specified size limits of the hole. This is part might fit a gage for checking the hole.
12.2
GAGE PIN
12.6
Figure 7-9 Acceptable hole conditions for Figure 7-10 Functional gage for checking
part in Figure 7-8. the hole in the part for Figure 7-8.
VIRTUAL CONDITION 91
Chapter 7 Evaluation
1. Virtual condition is a boundary of perfect form and orientation, generated by the ________ effects
of the feature MMC size and applicable geometric tolerances.
2. To determine the virtual condition for an external feature, the feature’s ________ tolerance must be
added to the feature MMC size.
3. A feature at virtual condition may ________ the boundary of perfect form as required by Rule One.
5. Virtual condition is the boundary at which features are no longer an ________ part.
9. Parts and features made at virtual condition or better are 100% ________.
10. Virtual condition may also be considered as an extension of the ________ principles.
TOLERANCES OF LOCATION
8
of a figure or revolution (or correspondingly-lo-
Introduction
cated elements of two or more radially disposed
features) are congruent with the axis (or center
This chapter introduces the principles of tol-
point) of a datum feature.
erances of location. These tolerances or geomet-
ric controls are Concentricity, Symmetry, and Po- Tolerance
sition. The location controls are specified to con-
trol the relationships between features or between
Concentricity tolerance is always implied
features and a datum feature. The relationships
and specified Regardless of Feature Size, RFS.
are toleranced at the axis, center line, or center
The tolerance is a diametral zone in which the
plane. Positional tolerance then provides the per-
axis of the controlled feature must lie. This zone
missible variation in the specified location of the
must coincide with the axis (center point) of the
feature or group of features in relation to another
datum features. Concentricity is a very restrictive
feature or datum. A tolerance of location is ap-
geometric control. A specified tolerance controls
plied to at least two features, of which one must
the amount of eccentricity error, parallelism of
be a feature of size (meaning one is a datum).
axis, out-of-straightness of axis, out-of-circular-
Because one of the features must be a feature
ity, out-of-cylindricity, and any other possible er-
of size, the modifier principles do apply. General
rors in the feature axis. This tolerance controls all
Rule Two requires the designer to specify modi-
possible errors at the feature axis. Therefore, it is
fiers for all features, tolerances, and datums of
difficult to verify and may be excessively expen-
size. The advantages of the modifiers can be used
sive to produce. The actual feature axes must lie
to their greatest extent with tolerances of location
within the specified tolerance zone. It may be
involving part interchangeability and functionality
more effective to use Runout or Position toler-
of mating parts. GD&T’s advantages are best real-
ances.
ized when position and modifiers are specified.
Application
Concentricity Concentricity is considered when critical
axis-to-axis control is required for dynamically
Symbol balanced features. This control is selectively
specified, because features may be controlled
Definition
with runout or position. Runout only controls a
surface-to-axis at RFS. Position offers all the ad-
Concentricity is the condition where the me-
vantages of GD&T. Concentricity is an axis-to-
dian points of all diametrically opposed elements
93
94 CHAPTER 8
axis control at RFS. Concentricity is normally to determine the midpoints relative to the axis of
specified for high-speed rotating parts, rotating the datum.
mass, axis-to-axis precision, or any other feature For coaxial features located with a positional
critical to function. Figure 8-1 illustrates the tolerance, the location of the axis of the feature’s
proper application of concentricity. actual mating envelope is controlled relative to
the axis of the datum feature.
0.2 A-B
Symmetry
A B
Symbol
12.5±0.1
0.1
12.5±0.1
0.1
Definition
Figure 8-1 Applying concentricity.
Symmetry is the condition where a feature or
part has the same profile on either side of the cen-
ter plane (median plane) of a datum feature.
Tolerance Interpretation
Concentricity tolerance is always interpreted Tolerance
as RFS. The tolerance zone is diametral around
and parallel to the datum axis. Verification is dif- The tolerance for symmetry is always im-
ficult. Concentricity is the determination of the plied to be RFS. The tolerance is applied equally
controlled features axes in relationship to the da- on either side of the controlled feature center line.
tum axis. A radial differential measurement is the The implied modifier restricts the tolerance to the
most accurate method of determining the actual specified amount only.
controlled feature axis. These measurements
must be taken opposite of each other. The toler-
ance zone for the part in Figure 8-1 is illustrated
1.500±.010
1.500
in Figure 8-2.
2.000 .015
2.000±.015
Figure 8-2 Concentricity tolerance zone. .010 A
3.000±.015
3.000 A
For concentricity, the feature surfaces must
be measured diametrically opposed to each other Figure 8-3 Applying symmetry.
TOLERANCES OF LOCATION 95
Design requirements for assemblies with in- The axis of the hole must lie within the
terfacing mating parts usually relate one feature square tolerance zone of .020 to be an acceptable
to another. These features—holes and pins, or part. To further expand upon this, assume that
holes for floating fasteners—relate to each other five parts were inspected, and the center point
in 360 degrees of location to each other. The co- axis of each hole is illustrated in relation to the
ordinate dimensioning method of tolerancing .020 tolerance zone in Figure 8-6. The illustration
does not permit 360 degrees flexibility. The coor- shows that two parts are acceptable and three are
dinate dimensioning system makes no provisions out-of-tolerance. Please note: in Figure 8-6, only
for feature “size variations” in relation to feature the tolerance zone is depicted.
“location.” GD&T takes into consideration both
“size” and “location” when determining feature
or part acceptability.
.02
02
Application
#2
#3 #4 One of the advantages of GD&T is a greater
tolerance based on actual mating size. In this ex-
ample, assume parts four and five were produced
Figure 8-7 Tolerance gained with a circular at the largest permissible size, .538. The preced-
tolerance zone. ing .020 tolerance zone has increased to .028.
This practice is possible with the application of
the modifier principles. The ASME Y14.5M-
Circular Tolerance 2009 standard states in part that “the tolerance is
limited to the specified value when the feature is
In Figure 8-7, the illustrated approach to tol- a MMC. Where the actual mating size departs
erancing appears to be more logical, but another from MMC, an increase in tolerance is allowed
consideration must be made. The designer in- equal to the amount of departure.” Figure 8-9 il-
tended for the holes to vary in the X and Y direc- lustrates how the bonus tolerance zone accepts
tions, not diagonally. Therefore, the circular tol- parts four and five when they are made larger than
erance zone must not exceed the original inten- the specified MMC size. All of the parts are ac-
98 CHAPTER 8
ceptable if their axes remain in this .028 toler- axis or center line must lie within the allowable
ance zone for the thickness of the part thus creat- tolerance zone, which is distributed equally
ing a cylindrical zone. This tolerance zone can be around true position. True position is a theoreti-
considered to be a tube or cylinder (see Figure 8- cally exact location determined with Basic di-
11). The axis of the controlled feature must lie in mensions. The specified tolerance zone may in-
the tube or cylindrical zone and may take any crease in size based on the actual mating size.
shape as long as it is within the zone there. For Tolerance zone increase is permitted with the
noncylindrical features, the zone would be like a specification of modifiers.
box or rectangle.
Application
.008
+.008
.530
- .002
.010 M A B C
B 1.500
A
is specified and appropriately modified. The fea- gage is simulating the fit or assembly of a mating
ture is then related to something, which may be an part.
edge, surface, or other feature(s); these are the da-
tum reference features. Specification in this man-
ner ensures a clearer intent of the design. The da-
tum reference frame is utilized for the relation-
ships as required for part function. The rules are
applied as required for the specified controls and .498 GAGE
controlled features. The geometric control—posi- PINS
tion—brings all of these concepts together better
Figure 8-13 Holes with gage inserted.
than any of the other controls. An illustration of
how multiple features are specified and con-
trolled with position is shown in Figure 8-12.
Opposite Offset at MMC
1.500
The gage will allow all acceptably-located
1.000 1.500
features regardless of their shape, location, and
.750 size (must be verified separately). Each feature
may be off true position in a different direction
+.008 and be of different sizes. Figure 8-14 illustrates a
3X .530
E P - .002 possible hole arrangement. These features are at
.01 M D E P
their maximum tolerance location when at MMC.
D
The axis of each feature is .010 of an inch from
true position.
Feature Location
+.008
.008
.530
- .002
.015 M D E P
.015 M TOLERANCE ZONE
.010 M D
1.500
D
DETAIL B
1.500 1.500
E 1.000
tum references. The PLTZF is specified with Ba- tolerance zone must fall within, or at least make a
sic dimensions from specified datums, as illus- line-to-line contact with, the PLTZF (Figure 8-
trated in Figure 8-19. The features within the pat- 21). The axis of each individual feature must lie
tern are also spaced with Basic dimensions. These within this tolerance zone. (Note: In Example
dimensions provide the true position for the pat- “A” in Figure 8-21, the hole’s center axis location
tern and individual features. The specified toler- is not questionable. In Example “B”, it is difficult
ance of .015 applies at the true position for each to verify the center axis location without a gage,
individual feature in the pattern. This tolerance and the axis must lie at the point of line-to-line
zone can be thought of as a dart board or target. contact.)
This is the area that must be hit for the feature to
be acceptable. The hit is as good in one place as it
is in another, including true position.
The designer permits the use of a .015 area; A B
use it! If the hit or feature had to be at true posi-
Figure 8-21 Pattern Locating Tolerance
tion, parts would be excessively expensive. When
Zone Framework verification.
feature accuracy increases, so does the cost of
manufacturing to achieve that accuracy. This type
of tolerancing is not to promote ill fitting or poor
appearing parts and assemblies. If the designer Axis Verification
has calculated the tolerance, use what is allowed.
1.500
1.500
1.500
1.500
D
1.500 1.500
1.497 1.500 E
E 1.000
1.000
P P
Figure 8-20 FRTZF to PLTZF line-to-line Figure 8-22 Feature axes must lie within
contact. both tolerance zones.
104 CHAPTER 8
1.500
DETAIL B
Two Single-Segment Feature 1.500 1.500
E
Control Frames 1.000
Introduction
Figure 8-24 Tolerance cylinders of the
FRTZF.
Single-segment feature control frames are
used when it is desirable to require Basic dimen-
sions along with the datum references. This
method of positional tolerancing is also used to .015 PLTZF
position a pattern of features in relation to the .010 FRTZF
three-plane datum concept.
Control
ACTUAL HOLE AXIS
The two single-segment feature control WITHIN BOTH ZONES
frames are illustrated in Figure 8-23. The lower
Figure 8-25 Axes of the holes must lie
within both FRTZF and PLTZF.
.015 M D E P
.010 M D E
Multiple Patterns Located by
Figure 8-23 Single-segment feature control
frames. Basic Dimensions and Related
to the Same Datums
feature control frame repeats datums “D” and
“E.” Figure 8-24 shows that the tolerance cylin- Introduction
ders of the FRTZF (as a group) are free to be dis-
placed to the left or right, as controlled by the ba- Many of the parts throughout the industrial
sically located cylinders of tolerance of the world contain more than one pattern of features.
PLTZF. These tolerance cylinders are required to These patterns may be related so that they must be
be perpendicular to plane “D” and parallel to “E.” verified together. If the patterns can be separate,
The actual axes of the holes in the pattern they are so specified to reduce the part cost. It is
must lie within both the tolerance zones of the not necessary for the designer to always add the
FRTZF and PLTZF, as shown in Figure 8-25. note “SEP REQT.” Separate requirements are
TOLERANCES OF LOCATION 105
4.000±.015
4.000
6.060 3X .375±.003
.003
2.000 .010 M D E P
1.000
5.000
6.500
8.500±.015
8.500 .015
5.500±.015
5.500
1.500 Figure 8-26 Two patterns
2.500±.015
2.500 .015 of features located
1.000 .188±.005
.005
relative to datums.
E 1.500
.008 D
+.008
1.500 3X .531
- .002
7.000±.015
7.000 .015 .010 M D E P
P
.005 M D
B
+.008
.008
2.750±.015 .250 .250±.015
.015
- .002
45°
45
Figure 8-27 Independent
patterns located relative
1.250
to datums.
.625
.010
+.010
3X .375
- .002
.005 M A B .625
A
1.250
also specified by different datum references, dif- features at RFS, they are considered to be a single
ferent modifiers, and different datum order of pattern.
precedence. In Figure 8-26, two patterns of features lo-
cated from common datums not subject to size
Patterns Located Relative variation are illustrated. Because both patterns
to Datums of No Size are located from these datums with Basic dimen-
sions, the patterns are verified with one setup or
When multiple patterns of features are lo- gage. When patterns are specified in this manner,
cated in relation to common datum features not they are not allowed any shift or rotation inde-
subject to size variation, or to common datum pendent of the other pattern.
106 CHAPTER 8
.008
+.008
1.500
- .002
2.500±.015
2.500 .015 .010 M A B M
.008
+.008
8X .375
- .002
.005 M A X A
B
.375
3.000±.015
.015
RFS is specified, the tolerances are more restric- Next, the pattern of eight holes must be pro-
tive, and verification is more difficult. duced in relationship to the center hole, which has
become datum feature “X.” Datum feature “X” is
Regardless of Feature Size implied RFS because no modifier is in the feature
control frame for the eight holes. These eight
A locating feature (datum) for a related pat- holes are to be .375 in., plus .008 in. or minus .002
tern is shown in Figure 8-28. In this example, the in. They each have a positional diametral toler-
locating datum feature for the pattern is modified ance of .005 in. at MMC. Figure 8-29 illustrates
to RFS. This is restrictive, but some designs do the possible tolerance zones for all of the features.
require the restriction based on the function of the In this example, as presented with datum fea-
final assembly. ture “X” at RFS, the pattern shift is restricted to
To begin, the center hole must be located as zero. The shift is zero because regardless of the
specified by the Basic dimensions and feature feature location or size, it becomes the dimension
control frame. The hole is to be produced at: origin for the true position of the pattern of eight
1.500 plus .008 or minus .002. The hole is al- holes.
lowed a .010 in. diametral tolerance zone for lo- Pattern Tolerance. When a pattern of fea-
cation. In this example, the positional tolerance tures is located from an RFS datum, the pattern is
zone for the hole is modified to MMC. This not permitted any shift from the datum feature.
means that the hole has a .010 inch tolerance Here the datum feature axis becomes the origin
when it is produced at 1.498. If the hole is pro- for the pattern-locating dimensions. Figure 8-30
duced at 1.508, the tolerance zone increases to illustrates the dimensioning for the pattern from
.020 in. In this case, the hole was measured to be datum feature “X”. All of these dimensions must
1.502 inch, so the positional tolerance is .014 in. be Basic.
8X .200 THRU
.008 .220
+.008
.375
- .002
.005 M A X
NOTE: .010 TO .020
POSSIBLE TOLERANCE .008
+.008
1.500
- .002
.01 M A B M
.375
A
108 CHAPTER 8
+.008
.008
8X .375
- .002
.220 X .200
.005 M A X
Figure 8-30 Basic
1.125 1.125
dimensioning from datum “X”.
.795 .795
+.008
.008
1.500
- .002
1.125 .010 M A B M
.795
.795
1.125
8 X 45
45°
3.000±.015
.015
B
These Basic dimensions establish the true an adjustable pin to fit the datum feature. The pin
position locations for the pattern. When the Basic must be adjustable because of RFS.
true position of the pattern in relationship to da-
tum feature “X” is established, the individual tol- Maximum Material Condition
erance for each feature in the pattern allows vari-
ation from true position. Each feature has an indi- When any of the common datums in multiple
vidual tolerance based on the actual mating size. patterns of features are specified at MMC, there is
This tolerance may vary from .005 to .015 in. be- an option whether the patterns are to be consid-
cause of the MMC modifier following the .005 ered as a single pattern or as having separate re-
positional tolerance. Each feature in the pattern is quirements. If no note is added under the feature
permitted to shift or vary as the three features did control frames, the patterns are treated as one.
in Figure 8-20. Verification of this part would re- When the patterns are to be treated individually,
quire the establishment of the datum axis. This the notation SEP REQT is placed beneath each
axis must meet the drawing specifications. After feature control frame.
verifying an acceptable datum axis, proper pat- The MMC modifier specified for a datum
tern location must be measured. If the pattern is feature of size permits the pattern to vary depend-
properly located, each feature within that pattern ing on datum size. When the datum feature is at
must be verified for proper location and orienta- MMC, the pattern variation is restricted. How-
tion (perpendicularity to datum surface “A”). ever, as the datum feature increases in size, the
Verification may be accomplished, depending on amount of pattern orientation shift/rotation also
required accuracy, with a coordinate measuring increases. Tolerancing patterns in this manner are
machine, paper gaging, or one hard gage that has more common than RFS. Figure 8-31 specified
TOLERANCES OF LOCATION 109
8X .200 THRU
.008 .220
+.008
.375
- .002
.005 M A X M B M
.008
+.008
1.500
- .002
.010 M A B M
X AXIS OF
ACTUAL HOLE
8 X 45°
45 GAGE PIN
AT 1.488
3.000±.015
.015
B DATUM
FEATURE "X"
.375
A
Figure 8-32 Pattern of features are
Figure 8-31 Positional tolerance at MMC. located from axis of gage.
positional tolerances at MMC for the same part position. Figure 8-32 illustrates the available pat-
discussed with RFS. tern shift/rotation tolerance. The illustration con-
The center hole or datum feature “X” must tains a gage pin at virtual condition for datum fea-
be located with Basic dimensions. The hole must ture “X.” This datum feature is controlled by Rule
meet the specified size and location requirements. Four, datum/virtual condition. The gage pin
The hole size may vary from 1.498 to 1.508 inch, measures 1.488 inch.
with a positional tolerance that is .010 at MMC to Pattern Tolerance. The pattern shift/rotation
.020 inch at LMC. For this example, the hole is achieved by the amount of clearance there is
measures 1.502, which is .004 larger than MMC, between the hole and gage pin. The part may be
plus the .010 positional tolerance, equals a .014 shifted or rotated all around the gage pin in rela-
positional tolerance. tionship to the other datum features (part
The pattern of eight holes must be produced edges).The eight holes in the pattern establish a
in relationship to the axis of datum feature “X.” true position in relationship to the gage axis.
The feature control frame for the eight holes con- When the pattern orientation is established from
tains datum reference letter “X: with an MMC the simulated datum axis, each of the eight fea-
modifier. This modifier permits some pattern tures has an individual positional diametral toler-
shift/rotation, an amount equal to the feature size ance of .005 in. at MMC.
departure from MMC. This amount of departure This tolerance permits each feature variation
is also the amount the pattern may vary from true based on actual mating size. Figure 8-33 illus-
110 CHAPTER 8
1.125 1.125
.795 .795
GAGE PIN
AXIS
1.125
.795
.795
1.125
8 X 45° Figure 8-33 Feature
tolerance in relationship to
the basic pattern orientation.
+.040
3X .498
- .000
.000 M D E P
Comparison
This method of tolerancing may at first appear Figure 8-36 Comparison chart showing
as if there is no positional tolerance. The feature at flexibility of zero tolerancing,
MMC does not have any positional tolerance.
However, as the feature departs from MMC, the
tolerance zone increases in size from .000 to .040
Projected Tolerance Zone
in. With zero tolerancing, the feature size may vary
from .498 to .538 in. In Figure 8-12, the features
could vary in size from .528 to .538 with a .010-
Symbol P
inch tolerance maximum. Zero tolerancing allows
the features to be produced at their minimum func-
tional size or virtual condition and allows for a
larger range of flexibility in manufacture. Definition
a. In Terms of the Surfaces of the Feature. controlled feature with extension lines. Figure 8-
No element of the feature’s side surface shall be 39 illustrates the application of a noncylindrical
inside the theoretical boundary defined by two position control.
parallel planes (feature’s specified minimum
width) equal distance from the true position. Tolerance
b. In Terms of the Center Plane of the
Feature. The feature’s center plane must be The specified positional tolerance of .005 in. at
within the tolerance zone defined by two parallel MMC is a total width tolerance for each spline of
planes (feature’s tolerance) equal distance from the feature when the spline is at .157 inch. Because
true position. This tolerance zone is what controls these splines are external features, the smaller they
the attitude (angle) that the feature must maintain. are produced, the larger their positional tolerance is.
c. In Terms of the Boundary for an Elon- In the example illustrated in Figure 8-40, the .005
gated Feature. No element of the feature’s sur- in. tolerance is applied equally on either side of the
face shall be inside the theoretical boundary of spline center line. The center line may be off to one
identical shape located at true position. The side, bowed at an angle, or any other possible from.
boundary size is equal to the MMC size of the It must lie within the tolerance zone for the feature
elongated feature minus its positional tolerance. to be acceptable. This tolerance controls both the lo-
To require this concept, the term BOUNDARY is cation and the form of each spline.
placed beneath the feature control frame.
Note: This boundary concept can also be ap- TOLERANCE ZONE
plied to other irregularly-shaped features such as FOR EACH FEATURE
.005
D-shaped holes, where the center is not conve- .005 B
niently identifiable.
60°
60
Application
4X .015 M A B C
+.008
.008
Figure 8-41 Application of 4X .375
- .002
bidirectional tolerancing.
1.500
1.000
4 X .010 M A B C 1.500
1.000 B A
TRUE POSITION AS C
DESCRIBED BY BASIC
DIMENSIONING
feature control frame does not contain a diameter feature control frames are attached to the con-
symbol before the positional tolerance. The toler- trolled features in a drawing view where the fea-
ance zone is rectangular and established by two ture relationships can be seen. One feature con-
different feature control frames. Bidirectional tol- trol frame provides the positional tolerance in one
erancing is not limited to holes. direction and the other one provides control in the
opposite direction. Each of the tolerance values
Application represent a distance between two parallel planes
or arcs that is the specified tolerance apart. Figure
Bidirectional tolerancing is applied in the 8-41 illustrates a rectangular coordinate method
same manner as other geometric controls. The or bidirectional tolerancing.
TOLERANCES OF LOCATION 115
.008
+.008
1.500
- .002
.010 M A B M
8X .228 .010 THRU
.228±.010
82 .438
X
.005 M A X
8 X 45
45° B .375 A
3.000±.015
116 CHAPTER 8
Tolerances and Datum References hole-pattern and the other for the countersink pat-
tern. Figure 8-45 illustrates this requirement.
When the same positional tolerances and da- (Note: different tolerances, same datums.) The
tum references are specified, a single feature con- two tolerance zones are coaxially located at true
trol frame is used to control the features. Figure 8- position as described by basic dimensions. The
43 illustrates this application. (Note: Same toler- feature control frames follow the size specifica-
ances and datums.) When features are controlled tion of the controlled features.
in this manner, each of the controlled features is The control specified in Figure 8-45 requires
produced in accordance with the one feature con- that the hole-pattern lie within one tolerance zone
trol frame. and the countersinks lie within a different coaxial
The specified control in Figure 8-43 requires zone. These features, as specified, also constitute
that both the hole and the countersink axes lie a composite pattern. If the design would allow
within the same tolerance zone. The illustration in separate requirements, the designer would have
Figure 8-44 shows how the features may lie to add the note SEP REQT beneath each feature
within the tolerance zone. control frame. Figure 8-46 illustrates the toler-
The design may require or allow for different ance zones as they were specified.
tolerances for the countersink and hole, but uses Designs that require the control of the coun-
the same datum reference frame. This application tersink to the hole will have different tolerances
requires two feature control frames: one for the and datums specified to control each group of fea-
tures. Therefore, each group of features will have
a feature control frame specified. In addition, a
.005 TOLERANCE
ZONE AT MMC
note is required under the datum feature symbol
for the hole and under the feature control frame
for the countersink, indicating the number of
Figure 8-44 Axes must lie within the same places each applies individually. Figure 8-47 il-
tolerance zone. lustrates this method of application. (Note: Dif-
ferent tolerances and datums.)
.008
+.008
8X .228 THRU
- .002 Figure 8-45 Application of two feature
.003 M A X control frames for coaxial features.
8 X 45°
45
82 .438
.005 M A X
TOLERANCES OF LOCATION 117
A A
dividual hole. In Figure 8-48, the two tolerance
zones are illustrated. The tolerance zone for the
countersink is dependent on hole location. Each
individual hole axis controls the location of each
countersink.
Control of coaxial features with position
provides the maximum benefits of GD&T. All of
the advantages of positional control, including
zero tolerancing, may be specified when control-
8 X 45°
45
ling coaxial features.
Chapter 8 Evaluation
2. Tolerances of location specify the amount of ________ permitted between features and datum
4. The tolerance zone for position is either ________ or ________ as determined from the feature
control frame.
7. For an internal feature, position tolerance at MMC ________ as the feature approaches LMC.
8. When a composite feature control frame is specified to locate a pattern of features in relationship to
a datum reference frame, the first line of the feature control frame controls pattern ________.
10. Position tolerance zones extend to the ________ or ________ of the controlled feature.
11. Datum features of size are considered at their ________ size when verifying patterns located
from them.
12. Positional tolerances specified for features at ________ lend themselves to functional gaging
verification.
13. Position tolerances specified at ________ provide the greatest advantages of GD&T.
Introduction
9
This chapter provides the reader an opportu- volved of the controls and is probably specified
nity to apply various GD&T concepts. The exam- most frequently.
ples presented are based on ASME Y14.5-2009 These review problems should be completed
practices and should be answered based on that after reading the entire text; that way, all of the
standard. The material consists of a few form and GD&T concepts can be applied. This review may
orientation examples, but is primarily focused on be used as a refresher or evaluation of existing
positional tolerancing. Position is the most in- GD&T knowledge.
2.000±.010
2.000 .010
1.000±.010
1.000 .010
.375±.010
.375 .010
SPECIFIED ON DRAWING
2.010 1.010
.385 .385
D ACTUAL PART E
1. When the feature control frame is specified as .005 , what is the maximum for
D ________ and E ________?
121
122 CHAPTER 9
.003
2. When the feature control frame is specified as , what is the maximum for
D________ and E ________?
3. Which modifier is implied for these feature control frames? ________
4. Does one of the GD&T rules control the modifier application in these feature control frames?
________ If so, which one? ________
5. What is the Maximum Material Condition size of this part? ________
2.000±.010
2.000
.525±.010
.525
SPECIFIED ON DRAWING
2.010
.510
.005
6. When the feature control frame is specified as , what are the maximum bow, bend,
.002
7. When the feature control frame is specified as , what are the maximum bow, bend,
8. If a geometric feature control frame was not specified for this part, is there any control for
10. Could the designer specify MMC in these feature control frames? ________ If so, which rule is
involved? ________
.015 A
+.008
.252
- .002
.015 A
.015 A
1.000±.010
1.000 .010
.002
30°
30
A
12. Is the location tolerance zone for the .252 hole cylindrical or non-cylindrical? ________ Why?
________
13. Is the tolerance zone for the 30-degree angle a width or an angularly-shaped zone along the
14. Can any of the geometric controls in this drawing be modified to MMC? ________ If so,
which? ________
124 CHAPTER 9
2 X 45°
45
2X .500±.005 D P 2X 1.500±.005
1.500
.001 D P
.005 D P
2.500±.010
.010
.005 A
B C
A .003 .003 D
A B C D
+.008
3X .530
B C - .002
.010 M A B C
A
31. What is the hole tolerance at LMC? ________ What is the hole tolerance at MMC? ________
32. How close together can two of the holes get? ________
33. Must the axis of the hole always be within the allowable tolerance zone for that hole? ________
34. Datum “A” controls the ________ or ________ of the holes as they pass through the part.
35. What determines the location of this pattern? ________
36. Must each hole tolerance zone be at the specified Basic dimension from each other? ________
126 CHAPTER 9
37. What is the hole size at MMC? ________ What is the hole size at LMC? ________
38. What size would the gage pins be if a gage were made to check these holes? ________
+.008
.008
.530
- .002
.015 M D E P
.015 M TOLERANCE ZONE
.010 M D
1.500
D
DETAIL B
1.500 1.500
E 1.000
Non-cylindrical Features
+.000
1.500
- .005
6 X 60
60°
50. Does the tolerance control the amount tab angularity in relation to the part axis? _______
51. Why is datum “A” modified in the feature control frame? ________
52. Does the Basic dimension, 6 places by 60 degrees, have a tolerance? If so, what is it? ________
Coaxial Features
+.012
.012
4X .750
- .008
.020 M A B C
.010 M A
B
128 CHAPTER 9
53. This feature control frame is referred to as a ________ feature control frame.
57. Why are the modifiers left off the datum reference letters? ________
Acknowledgements
Many thanks are due John Carleo, Editorial Director, Janet Romano,
Art Director/Production Manager, and Robert Weinstein, Developmental
Editor of Industrial Press, Inc. Also, I wish to express special thanks to Dan
Puncochar, author of the first two editions.
Ken Evans
viii
ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS
139
140 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS
Chapter Nine
Ken Evans
v
GLOSSARY
Actual local size: The value of any individual Basic dimension: A theoretically exact value
distance at any cross-section of a feature. specified on a drawing to describe the size, shape,
or location of a feature. Variations from these
Actual mating envelope: This term must be dimensions are specified as feature tolerances,
defined according to the type of feature: modifiers, notes, or other dimensions. These
a. An external feature—a similar perfect fea- dimensions are enclosed within a box.
ture counterpart of smallest size that can
be circumscribed about the feature so that Basic size: The size specified for a feature in
it just touches the surface at the highest which the size tolerances apply.
point.
b. An internal feature—a similar perfect fea- Bilateral tolerance: A tolerance specified by the
ture counterpart of largest size that can be designer that permits a dimension variation in two
inscribed within the feature so that it just directions, e.g., plus or minus 0.5.
touches the surface at the highest point.
Boundary, inner: A worst-case boundary (locus)
Actual mating size: The dimensional value of generated by the smallest feature (considering the
the actual mating envelope. modifiers) minus the stated geometric tolerance
and any additional geometric tolerance (if applica-
Actual size: The measured or produced size of a ble) from a feature’s departure from its specified
feature. material condition.
Allowance: The tolerance that permits two parts Boundary, outer: A worst-case boundary (locus)
to be assembled with either a clearance or interfer- generated by the largest feature (considering the
ence fit between parts. modifiers) plus the geometric tolerance and any
additional geometric tolerance (if applicable)
Angularity: The condition of a plane surface or from the feature’s departure from its specified
axis at a specified angle, other than 90 degrees, material condition.
from a datum plane or axis.
Boundary of perfect form: The condition (enve-
Axis: The theoretically centered line through the lope) of true geometric form represented by the
center of a cylindrical feature. drawing.
Barreled: The condition of a cylindrical feature Boss: A raised area on castings or forgings to
where it bulges in the center and tapers down to allow more material for threading, stop, support
the ends. area, or bearing area.
131
132 GLOSSARY
Callout: A specific note on the blueprint stating frames with the same geometric characteristic
dimensions, tolerances, geometric controls, or fea- symbol.
ture specification.
Concentricity: The condition where the median
Center plane: The plane or line located in the points of all diametrically opposed elements of a
middle of a non-cylindrical feature. feature of revolution (or correspondingly located
elements of two or more radially disposed fea-
Characteristic: An integral part (a symbol) of tures) are in alignment with the axis (or center
the Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing sys- point) of a datum feature.
tem or a feature of a part or an assembly.
Conical: Cone-shaped part of features.
Checking fixture: A Go and Not-Go type gage
used to verify functionality of features. Contour tolerancing: See Profile of a line for
Profile of a surface.
Circularity: The surface condition of a feature
(cone or cylinder) where all elements in a cross- Control: A limitation specified by the designer
sectional measurement must be an equal distance for various features. The limitation is specified as
from the axis within the limits of a specified toler- a size or geometric tolerance.
ance during one complete revolution. When refer-
ring to a sphere: it is the surface condition where Controlled Radius tolerance: A tolerance zone
any plane passing through a common center axis that is defined by two arcs (the minimum and
is equidistant from that center. maximum radii) that are tangent to an adjacent
surface.
Circular Runout: The condition of a circular line
element during a complete revolution where com- Coordinate: A set of numbers used to specify or
posite control in relation to the axis is measured at determine the location from an X and Y axis of a
any cross-section along the controlled surface. point, line curve, or plane.
Combined feature control frame: A feature Coplanarity: The condition of two or more sur-
control frame made up of two or more feature con- faces having elements in one plane.
trol frames each with a geometric characteristic
symbol or a combination of feature control frame Counterbore: A straight-sided recessed area
and datum feature symbols. around the end of a hole so a fastener (when
installed) is flush below the surface of a part.
Composite feature control frame: A feature
control frame made of two or more feature control Countersink: A taper-sided recessed area around
GLOSSARY 133
the end of a hole so a beveled fastener (when Datum reference: A feature specified on the
installed) is flush below the surface of a part. drawing as a datum feature.
Cylindricity: A condition of a surface where all Datum reference frame: The three mutually per-
points on that surface are of equal distance from pendicular planes used to establish the theoretical
the axis of that surface. datum planes for repeatable orientation from
design to inspection.
Datum: A theoretically exact dimension origin. A
datum may be a point, axis, line, or plane used for Datum surface: A theoretical surface such as
repeatable measurements. cylinders, slots, holes, edges, surfaces, etc., used
to establish repeatability.
Datum axis: The axis established by the intersec-
tion of the X and Y datum planes of cylindrical Datum target: A specified line, point, or area
features, or the axis of a cylindrical feature estab- identified with a datum target symbol to establish
lished by the actual irregularities of the feature repeatability.
extremities. The axis is theoretical.
Diameter: Describes through the axis measure-
Datum feature: The actual part feature used to ment of cylindrical features and tolerance zones.
establish the datum.
Dimension: The numerical value specified for
Datum feature simulator: A theoretically exact the size and/or location of features.
plane established with checking fixtures or gages
when in contact with the counterpart of actual Dimension line: The line drawn from the dimen-
datum features. sion value to the feature extension line.
Datum feature symbol: A box that contains the Eccentric: A condition where two or more fea-
datum identifying letter with a dish on either side tures do not have a common axis.
of the letter.
Error: A variation from a desired dimension or
Datum line: The line derived from the actual geometric form, location, or orientation that is in
counterpart of the datum feature. The line may be unintentional. Errors are acceptable within them
established by two planes, or the simulated center limits of the specified tolerances.
of cylinders or hole.
Extension line: The line used to extend the object
Datum of size: Any feature specified as a datum line of parts.
reference that is subject to size variation based on
plus/minus tolerances such as widths or diameters. Feature: The term given to any physical portion
of a part, e.g., surface hole or pin.
Datum point: A theoretically exact point speci-
fied with a datum target of little or no size that has Feature, functional: A feature controlled geo-
position on a surface for functional gaging pur- metrically to meet specific design requirements.
poses. They are used to locate features from, and/or mate
with other features that are interrelated in the
overall design.
134 GLOSSARY
Feature control frame: A rectangular box con- Function: The consideration for the movement
taining the specific instruction(s) for a feature or involved with assembled parts.
group of features. The rectangle contains the geo-
metric characteristic symbols, tolerance, datum Geometric characteristics: The symbols speci-
reference letters, and possibly the diameter and fied for form orientation, Profile, Runout, and
modifier symbols. Location tolerancing. These form the symbolic
language of GD&T.
Feature of size: One cylindrical or spherical sur-
face, or a set of two opposed elements or opposed Implied datum: An unspecified feature implied
parallel surfaces, associated with a size dimen- by dimensioning, as the origin for measurements.
sion.
Indicator: A precision measuring tool used when
Feature-Relating Tolerance Zone Framework checking feature variations.
(FRTZF): The upper half of a composite feature
control frame that provides the location of feature Leader: The line or arrow used to tie dimensions,
patterns as well as interrelation of features within symbols, etc., to part features.
these patterns.
Least Material Boundary (LMB): When
Fit: The clearance or interference between two applied to a datum feature referenced in the fea-
mating parts or fasteners. ture control frame, LMB establishes the datum
feature simulator at the appropriate boundary.
Flatness: The condition of a surface having all This boundary is determined by the combined
elements in one plane. effects of size (least material), and all applicable
geometric tolerances relative to any higher prece-
Form: The desired finished shape for a given fea- dence datums.
ture.
Least Material Condition (LMC): This term is
Form tolerance: A tolerance specified to allow a a modifier that is specified with tolerances and
specified variation in a feature or surface from the datums. It means the condition in which a part or
desired perfect form. feature contains the least’s amount of material; —
for example, the smallest pin size or the largest
Free-state variation: Describes the distortion of hole size.
a part after removal of forces applied during man-
ufacturing. Parts are referred to as a non-rigid part. Limit dimensioning: The specified maximum
and minimum sizes of a feature.
Full indicator movement (FIM): This term
replaces older terms, Full Indicator Reading (FIR) Limits of size: The extreme minimum and maxi-
and Total Indicator Reading (TIR). It is the full mum sizes permissible for a feature when consid-
movement of an indicator needle while measuring ering the tolerances.
a feature during a full rotation or complete travel
along a feature. This term is commonly used when Location tolerance: A tolerance specified to
checking Concentricity or Runout. allow a specified variation in the perfect location
GLOSSARY 135
of a feature(s) as drawn on the drawing. The toler- Optical comparator: An instrument for compar-
ance applies in relation to the datum features used ing a surface with an ideal surface or standard by
to locate the controlled feature(s). way of reflecting a shadow of the actual part on a
screen and then measuring it via digital readouts.
Maximum dimension: The acceptable upper
limit or the largest value specified for a feature. Orientation: The relationship of one feature as it
relates to another specified as the datum.
Maximum Material Boundary (MMB): When
applied to a datum feature referenced in the fea- Orientation tolerance: This tolerance is applica-
ture control frame, LMB establishes the datum ble to features that are related to another feature.
feature simulator at the appropriate boundary. The orientation controls are perpendicularity,
This boundary is determined by the combined angularity, and parallelism. Each of these must be
effects of size (maximum material), and all appli- related to a datum feature.
cable geometric tolerances relative to any higher
precedence datums. Origin: The location where dimensions and tol-
erances begin.
Maximum material condition (MMC): This
term is a modifier that is specified with tolerances Parallelism: The condition of a surface or axis at
and datums. It means the condition in which a part an equal distance from all points of a datum sur-
or feature contains the maximum amount of mate- face or axis.
rial, for example, the largest pin size or the small-
est hole size. Pattern: A particular arrangement of features in
a part.
Median plane: The center or middle plane of a
non-cylindrical feature. Pattern Locating Tolerance Zone Framework
(PLTZF): The lower half of a composite feature
Minimum dimension: The acceptable lower limit control frame that provides the smaller positional
or the smallest value specified for a feature. tolerance for each feature within the pattern.
Modifier: In GD&T, the term is used to modify or Perpendicularity: A condition of a feature medi-
change specified feature tolerances. There are two an plane, axis, or surface that is 90 degrees from a
modifiers: MMC and LMC. related datum axis or plane.
Multiple datum reference frames: Referred to Pitch: The distance from a thread point to the
when more than one datum reference is specified corresponding point of the next thread.
on the same part.
Pitch Diameter: The critical diameter of a
Nominal size: The stated designation that is used threaded fastener from the center axis to the cen-
for the purpose of general identification of materi- ter of the thread form. Pitch diameter may also be
al, or the theoretical size of a feature, e.g., 1-inch used to describe the critical diameter of gear teeth
bar or 1.000 plus or minus .010. patterns.
136 GLOSSARY
Plane: A surface condition that is straight, flat, or Regardless of Feature Size (RFS): This term
level. was a modifier that was specified with tolerances
and datums. It meant that, regardless of the actual
Position: A location described by dimensions or feature or datum of size, the stated feature toler-
the actual location of a feature. Positional toler- ance applies. It is now implied effective unless
ance: See Location tolerance. otherwise specified and no symbol is used.
Profile of a line: The condition where a permit- Runout: The composite variation from a desired
ted amount of profile variation, bilaterally or uni- surface or datum during a complete rotation of the
laterally along a line element, is specified. part around the axis at MMB.
Radius: Describes a measurement from the axis Size tolerance: A tolerance specified to allow a
to the surface of cylindrical features. feature to vary a specified amount.
Spherical: A globular body, ball, having all points Tolerance: The total amount a specified dimen-
equal distance from a given center point. sion may vary. Between the maximum and mini-
mum limits of size.
Spot-Face: A machined surface of a specified
size on a casting or forging in order to create a flat Tolerance zone: A boundary established by a
surface for a fastener to mate with. size or geometric tolerance in which the actual
feature must be contained.
Squareness: See Perpendicularity.
Total Runout: The condition of all surface ele-
Statistical tolerancing: Assignment of toler- ments during a complete revolution where com-
ances to related components of an assembly on the posite control in relation to the axis is measured.
basis of sound statistics.
True position: An exact (perfect) location
Straightness: The condition of a surface or axis described by basic dimensions in relationship to a
where a single line element must be a straight line. datum or other feature. The location specified on
the drawing.
Symmetry: The condition where the median
points of all opposed or correspondingly located Unilateral tolerance: A tolerance that permits
elements of two or more feature surfaces are in variation in one direction from the specified
alignment with the axis or center plane of a datum dimension, for example, 1.000 plus .000, minus
feature. .010.
Tertiary datum: A theoretical plane requiring Virtual condition: The condition of a feature
one point of contact to establish that plane on an where the collective effect of size and form error
actual part. Third in importance. establishes the feature size required for determin-
ing fit between parts.
Three-plane concept: The concept of three
mutual planes exactly theoretically 90 degrees and Waisting: The condition of a cylindrical feature
perpendicular to each other. Used for repeatable where it narrows toward the center from each end.
orientation.
INDEX
abbreviations 7
adjustable gage pin 39
all over 16
all-around 16
angularity 68
ANSI 1
applications 121
arc length 15
axis 44
axis control 59
axis location 96
axis verification 103
basic 25 33
between 25
bi-directional tolerancing 113
bonus tolerance 97
boundary 113
boundary control 78
center line 44
chain line 16
change 2
circular parts 37
circular runout 81
circular tolerance 97
circularity 61
datum axis 65
datum identification 29
datum plane 64
datum plane 66
datum reference 45
datum targets 33
datum translation 36
datums 29
deep/depth 11
diagonal measurement 97
diameter 8
dimension origin 14
dimensioning symbols 7 129
dimensions not to scale 12
flatness 60
form 57
form tolerances 121
free state 22
free-state variation 83
FRTZF 102
full indicator movement, see FIM
general rules 51
geometric characteristics 17
geometric characteristics 45 130
glossary 131
history 1
hole pattern 125
MMC 18 52 60 74
108
modifiers 45
modifying symbols 17 129
multiple cylindrical features 99
multiple patterns 104
orientation 64 121
out of direct view 35
parallelism 70 89
partial datums 38
pattern control 102
patterns 40
perpendicularity 64
pitch cylinder axis 51
PLTZF 102
position 95
position theory 96
positional tolerances 106
primary datum 31
profile 74
projected tolerance zone 21 111
radius 8
reference dimension 14
reference frame 32
regardless of feature size, see RFS
regardless of material boundary 20
RFS 18 51 53 57
64 107
Rule Four 54
Rule One 51
Rule Three 54
Rule Two 53
runout 80 117
secondary datum 32
single feature control frames 48
single-segment feature control frames 04
size 38 51
slope 14
spherical diameter 9
spherical radius 9
spotface 11
square 14
standards 2
statistical tolerancing 23
straightness 57
surface 44 70
surface control 58
surface profile 75
symbols 7
symmetry 94
tangent plane 22 71
tertiary datum 32
three-plane concept 30 37 46
tolerance 1 3 45 51
tolerances of form 57
tolerances of location 93
tolerances of orientation 64
total indicator movement (TIM) 20
This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.
Index Terms Links
virtual condition 51 87
SQUARE SHAPE
REFERENCE
DIMENSION (6.00)
DIMENSION ORIGIN
ARC LENGTH
(
ALL AROUND
ALL OVER
CHAIN LINE
129
130 APPENDIX
FLATNESS
FORM INDIVIDUAL
FEATURES
CIRCULARITY
CYLINDRICITY
PERPENDICULARITY ORIENTATION
PARALLELISM
POSITION
RELATED FEATURES
CONCENTRICITY LOCATION
SYMMETRY
CIRCULAR RUNOUT
RUNOUT
TOTAL RUNOUT