Tolerance, Tolerance Variance

Analysis and Geometric

Dimensioning & Tolerance in
Product Development

WHITEPAPER
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction 3

What is Tolerance 4

What is Tolerance Stack up Analysis 8

Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T) 13

Conclusion 16

References 17

Author Info 18

Appendix-i – GD&T Symbols Rules and Guidelines[4] 20

Appendix-II MMC and Bonus Tolerance 21

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 : Dimensional Tolerance 4

Figure 2 : Surface Finish Tolerences vs Maching Cost Comparison[1] 5

Figure 3 Tolerances vs relative Cost implication on the product/process[1] 6

Figure 4 Types of Dimension Tolerances 7

Figure 5 : Tolerance impact on Dimensional stack up 9

Figure 6 1D vs 3D tolerance stack up 11

Figure 7 Comparison of Worst case, RSS & Tolerance Variance simulation 12

using Monte Carlo & MRSS[2]

Figure 8 Comparison of X-Y TOLERANCES ZONE WITH CIRCULAR 13

TOLERANCE ZONE[3]
Figure 9 GD&T Controls Size, Form, Location and Orientation in drawings[3] 14

Figure 10 Interpretation of Datums in conventional Dimensioning method[3] 14

TOLERANCE, TOLERANCE VARIANCE ANALYSIS AND GEOMETRIC

DIMENSIONING & TOLERANCE IN PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
Customers and Engineering and Manufacturing companies want quality products in the market.
Quality does not happen by accident. This quality is achieved by refined engineering. Uncertainty
is considered as the prime enemy in the engineering Drawing. One cannot leave a dimension
without tolerance associated with it. No one can know the importance, or the unimportance, of
that dimension. Lack of tolerance leads to improper fits and also result in delays and higher costs.

Shorter product lifecycles, faster time to market, and Competitive cost pressures, the
characteristics that differentiate a product from its competitors are now down to the details of a
design. Design Engineers are going to be the next order of resolution in order to improve cycle
time and quality and to reduce costs. Engineers are now looking more closely at why they did
not get the exact part and assembly dimensions they expected from manufacturing, and then
are attempting to optimize the tolerances on the next version of the product.

Based on the manufacturing capability, design engineers control the design tolerance capability
to keep the mfr cost lower. This is achieved by adapting a combination of tolerance analysis to
optimize the tolerance and Geometric Tolerance to ease tighter manufacturing tolerance burden
by providing bonus tolerances, while keeping the design function intact. In this white paper, we are
going to look at what is tolerance, stack up analysis and geometric tolerance, and its importance
in product development.

TOLERANCE,
CFD BASED TEMPERATURE
TOLERANCE VARIANCE
PREDICTION
ANALYSIS
OF A SHEET
AND OF
GEOMETRIC
PAPER IN A PRINTER 3
DIMENSIONING & TOLERANCE IN PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
What is Tolerance
ASME Y14.5M defines tolerance as “the total amount a specific dimension is permitted to vary.”
Tolerance is the difference between the maximum and minimum limits. This can be shown as
upper and lower limits or an allowable amount above and below a nominal dimension. All this
method tells that, Tolerance is the acceptable range/permissible limit for a physical dimension.

The manufacturer cannot make the part with perfect Dimensions mentioned in the drawing.
There have to be limits within which the specification varies. These degrees of variation from the
design specification is called Tolerance. The variation can be for all the features related to design
like size, shape, orientation, location. The Figure 1 image shows drawing with and without
tolerance. The dimension without tolerance is ambiguous and does not allow any manufacturing
variation, while the one with tolerance allows variation.

Figure 1 : Dimensional Tolerance

The Variation in the manufacturing process with respect to Machince, Method, Material and
Operators can cause variation in the output of the part during manufacturing. The tolerance is
generally determined by keeping the Function requirement and Manufacturing constraints as
boundary conditions.

Importance of Tolerance in product engineering

One of the primary importance of the Tolerance is to achieve the desired function from the
product. A product consists of a conglomeration of multiple parts. The assembly of the parts
requires various types of fitment(clearance and interference fits). These kinds of function fitments
are achieved through placement of the tolerances on the part fitment area. Imagine a complex
assembly that needs various types of assembly fitment. We cannot have the same tolerance,
finish, or manufacturing process for all the parts. These are all fitments requirements that are
determined by the design engineering team, based on product functional requirement and
manufacturing capablity.

Manufacturing parts to exact dimensions is not possible in real world every time. The closer to the
size an item or feature must be manufactured, the more expensive it becomes. Inversely, the part
may not function correctly if the tolerance range is too large. Depending on the type of part and

TOLERANCE, TOLERANCE VARIANCE ANALYSIS AND GEOMETRIC 4

5
DIMENSIONING & TOLERANCE IN PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
and its function, the range of acceptable tolerances for each dimension is determined.

The function requirement determines the manufacturing process and the final finish helps to
determine the tolerance required. The finer the finish and the tigher the tolerance, the greater the
cost. Ideally, from a cost impact point of view, it is best for the designer to accept the finish and
tolerance capability of the primary process. The Figure 2 shows a comparision of the cost vs.
various manufacturing surface finish. Part performance and functioning usually dictate that this is
not possible, so consideration must be given to what kind of secondary processes will be required
to enable the component to perform as desired.

Figure 2 : Surface Finish Tolerances Vs machinig Cost comparison[1]

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DIMENSIONING & TOLERANCE IN PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
The selection of the tolerance and machining process will further decide the cost of the product.
The figure 3 shows a comparison of the various machining tolerances and its impact on the relative
cost of the process used for manufacturing the product/part. The finer the finishing/tolerance, the
higher the cost, while rough and simple machining has lower cost impact on the product. The
reason for this is that the manufacturer will use much more expensive production methods,
machine tools, inspection devices and a significantly greater amount of total processing time to
achieve tighter tolerances/finer finishes.

Figure 3 Tolerances vs relative Cost implication on the product/process[1]

These lead to a question on how to allot tolerance for the parts. Each company follows various
methods with default tolerances based on there manufacturing capabilities and product
requirement. These tolerances are represented in three types.

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Types of Tolerance

The industry uses various methods of tolerancing the dimension. They are i) BiLateral ii) Unilateral
iii) Limits and iv) Geometrical dimensioning and tolerance. All four methods of tolerances are shown
in figure 4.

Figure 4 Types of Dimension Tolerances

How the Tolerances are allotted to part/product?

There are various methods and techniques to arrive at the tolerance for a part. The below listed
are some of the prominently used methods.
• Designer’s experience: The designer working on the product for a long time gains lot of
experience. This experience helps him/her to decide the tolerances for the product.
• The Dimensional Requirements to Ensure proper Function of the Finished Part or assembly:
Determining the tolerance based on the functional requirement.
• Knowledge of Process Capability: Based on the manufacturing process capability, the tolerance
is assigned the part.
• A Handbook of standard Tolerances: Engineering Standard books like machine design
handbook, westernmann tables profile standard design guideline tolerances. This can be
adapted by the design as a startup.
• Photo copy Engineering: Copying the Tolerance from the old and legacy product drawings.
This method exists most in well established products and repetitive product industry.
• Competitive Assessment (Benchmarking): Benchmarking the competitor product tolerance
• Bartering Between Design and Manufacturing/Supplier Personnel: This is a compromise method
by which the manufacturing and design team debate for optimizing tolerance.
• Thin Air: Tolerance is derived purely by guessing. This type of practice is not recommended
but does exist in reality in many small industries.
• Result of a Tolerance variation analysis: A Thorough Engineering analysis of the tolerances is
done for critical and functionally important areas.

One of the best methods of providing Tolerance would be combining the Functional design
requirements with Tolerance variation analysis and Manufacturing capability. This combination
would be an optimal method to get cost effect functional products. Let us now discuss about the
tolerance stackup and its importance in the product engineering.

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What is Tolerance
Stack up analysis?
Tolerance optimization during design has a positive impact on the yields coming out of
manufacturing, and better yields directly affect product cost and quality. Analyzing tolerances
and variations before trying to produce a product also helps engineers to avoid time-consuming
iterations late in the design cycle.

Stack up analysis is a design tool or process by which Design Engineers analyze and optimize
components or assemblies for Manufacturing, Cost, and Functionality by accounting for probability
and statistics in the design and specification of tolerances.

Tolerance Variation Analysis accounts for the fact that total tolerance accumulation is actually “less
than the sum of the parts” (individual tolerances) due to compound statistical probability.

This ensuing process allows the Design Engineers to enlarge print tolerances in many cases (thus
reducing costs) and to identify only the critical tolerances which may require tighter control through
Statistical Process Control (SPC).

The Tolerance analysis can be done by different methods, 1D (manual calculation), 2D & 3D
(considering GD&T and various statistical model like RSS, Montecarlo, etc). Most of the small
industries use the manual method as it is cheaper. With the advent of 3D CAD software and
complex profiles, many softwares were developed for carrying out tolerance stack up analysis.

Importance of Tolerance Stackup Analysis in product engineering

Assigning Tighter Tolerance alone does not provide a quality product. As discussed earlier, tighter
tolerance lead to high mfg cost. So optimizing the tolerance is very important. With tighter cost
pressures and faster to market scenarios, the Engineers are getting deep dive into the design to
optimize the tolerances on the next version of the product.

Tolerance Stack-Ups are vital to address mechanical fit and mechanical performance requirements.
Tolerance stack-up calculations represent the cumulative effect of part tolerance with respect to an
assembly requirement. The main intent of the tolerance variation analysis is the product/part should
fit and function at any given moment of manufacturing and assembly variations.

A part can be dimensioned and tolerance can be added in many ways as shown in figure 5.
Dimensioning the part as per figure 5a and 5b add tolerance stack up and will affect the part
function w.r.t datum. In Figure 5b The every length dimension has the same tolerance, the tolerance
between surfaces B and D can be as large as ±0.06. while in figure 5c the tolerance from the datum
reference is the least tolerance stack up of ±0.2.

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All these depend on the placement of dimensions. As a design engineer, one should dimension the
part based on the function and datum. In this case, Figure 5c is dimensioned based on the functional
important and datums, thus, reducing the tolerance stack up on the part.

Figure 5 : Tolerance impact on Dimensional stack up

Increased reliance on tolerance analysis across many industries as companies seek to gain a
competitive advantage. For example, the electronics industry is achieving customer satisfaction
objectives through a physical shrinking of their products while adding more capabilities. As
electronic devices get smaller and more densely packaged, the importance intensifies to more
precisely understanding the interaction of manufacturing variation and design tolerances.
Likewise, in the aircraft, automotive and medical device industries, liability costs are growing while
environmental requirements are being more aggressively imposed such that companies need
to understand more precisely what may cause a failure. As engineers examine the interaction of
critical components in systems, they are typically performing some level of tolerance analysis. The
below listed are the uses of Tolerance analysis in product design.

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• Tolerance analysis enables to create a robust design with low risk of failure, results in low
warranty cost. It ensures that all the parts and products fit and function together as intended.
• Tolerance analysis achieves an allocation of economic tolerances for reduced manufacturing
cost.
• Tolerance Variance analysis Allows Design Engineer greater flexibility in achieving design
targets with comparative advantage.
• Tolerance Variance analysis focuses quality efforts on only the necessary, critical tolerances of
the product and thus saves inspection cost.
• Using tolerance analysis Improves data-based, communication between Design, Development,
Manufacturing, Purchasing, suppliers, and other stake holders.

Types of Tolerance Stackup Analysis in product engineering

There are various methods to carry out Tolerance stack up analysis. Below are the some of the
common methods of Stack up analysis.

1D Tolerance Stackup:

It is the simplest form of tolerance analysis in a single direction, 1D Tolerance Stackup. A 1D

Tolerance Stackup is created by creating a cross-section of a model and adding the tolerance values
for each feature in a straight line. The variation in each contributes to the overall output/outcome.
This primitive method of Stack up analysis started with board drawing days and is effective for
standard features and product design.

2D Tolerance Stackup:

Second Order Tolerance Analysis is also needed to determine what your output is going to be
when the assembly function is not linear. This method includes the (2D) angularity or the second
direction/degree of considering tolerance or any variation that is not parallel with the 1D direction,
does not affect the assembly measurement with a 1-to-1 ratio. The 1D and 2D tolerance variation
analysis works on vector principals. Defining positive and negative vectors of the tolerance loop
1D and 2D stackup analysis are generally carried out by hand calculations and excel spreadsheet
tools.

3D tolerance Stackup:

The 1D and 2D consider the issues of tolerances variation in a singular plane. In today’s high profile
and complex product development, complex 3 dimensional components are pretty common. The
3rd dimension and Geometric dimension and tolerance is pretty common in design and causes the
3rd dimensional variation. This cannot be addressed by 1D and 2D manual calculations. The CAD
software and many statistical tolerance variance analysis tools and 3D tolerance stack up analysis
were able to address the variation on the 3rd dimension and impact of geometric tolerance.

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 Figure 6 1D vs 3D tolerance stack up

All these 1D, 2D, and 3D tolerance stack up analysis are associated with the worst case, Root Sum
Square (RSS) and Montecarlo/Statistical simulation methods. The RSS and Statistical Simulation

Worst Case:

This is one of the widely used methods called as “minimum maximum” calculation method. It consid-
ers the extreme limits of the part dimension and tolerance deviation i.e upper and lower limits of the
parts interferencing in the products. This method guarantees assembly fitment and function as per
tolerance provided in all scenarios. The purpose of the Worst Case method is to find the minimum
and maximum values that can be achieved by the resulting dimension for a random combination of
actual dimensions.

WC= T1 + T2 +...Tn …(where T1,T2…are the Tolerance of the part dimensions).

RSS (Root Sum Square):

RSS (Root-Sum Square) Analysis does not focus on the extreme values, but focuses on the distribu-
tion of the variation for each dimension. The root sum square (RSS) method works on a statistical
approach. It is assumed that most of the parts fall to the mid of the tolerance zone. The RSS method
can be represented in the below equation.

RSS=√(T12 + T22 "+…Tn2 ) (where T1,T2…are the Tolerance of the part dimensions)

MRSS(modified Root Sum Square) and Monte Carlo Simulation:

The RSS method is too liberal and doesn’t consider the real life risk. Thus, a correction factor is
considered to bring it closer to reality. The MRSS is the method generated by multiplying the
correction factors to the RSS Tolerance variation analysis results. Gilson and Bender correction
factor is one such factor which considers a 0.95 to 1.5 correction factor based on the number of
dimensional Tolerance.

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Statistical methods are based on the calculus of probability. They assume that in a random selection
of components during assembly, the limit values of deviations occur only rarely with more partial
components simultaneously, as this is the case of combined probability.

The Monte Carlo method is a simulation method. The algorithm is based on the random generation
of input dimensions within selected tolerances according to the rated distribution functions. The
dimensions of closed components show a certain variance from the mean of the tolerance field. The
frequency of occurrence of individual dimensions observes the rules of mathematics and statistics.
The "Monte Carlo" method is meant to analyze this frequency and determine the expected yield of
the manufacturing process. The algorithm is based on the random generation of input dimensions
within selected tolerances according to the rated distribution functions. For this generated set of
input dimensions, the calculation of the resulting dimensions is subsequently performed.

Figure 7 Comparison of Worst case, RSS & Tolerance Variance simulation using Monte Carlo & MRSS[2]

RSS and worst case stackup methods both fail with a higher number of tolerances and dimensions.
They are either too liberal or too conservative when there are more number of tolerances. In this
scenario, the statistical analysis like MRSS and Montecarlo simulation methods is used for the toler-
ance variation analysis. The figure 7 shows the comparison of the various methods and how it
gets affected with an increase in the number of tolerances. This simulation in combination of 3D
tolerance variation is the way forward for complex and large scale new product development.

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Geometric
Dimensioning and
Tolerancing (GD&T)
Geometric Dimensioning and tolerancing is a system of defining and commnunication engineering
tolerances. It is a symbolic language used in the engineering drawings to represent the functional
allowable variation for the part/assembly Features.

The conventional Dimensioning methods specify tolerance control of the size of a feature and
certain degree of location, but it doesn’t Control Form, orientation or geometric relation between
the features. GD&T controls the features by specifying Size, Form, Orientation, location, Runout,
and Profile tolerances. The Symbols used in the GD&T methods are shown in the Appendix I.

Importance of GD&T

The evolution of the GD&T started with questioning the conventional ± X-Y tolerances by Stanley
Parker. The X-Y tolerances result in square tolerance zone. The parts outside this tolerance zone
are rejected. These parts can actually be functionally good components provided they are within
the circle that encompasses the square’s corner. The below figure 8 shows the comparison of the
square X-Y tolerances and circular Geometric tolerance. The square tolerance results in a lot of
rejection and GD&T method of tolerance allowed additional 56% more tolerance zone area under
acceptance.

Figure 8 Comparison of X-Y TOLERANCES ZONE WITH CIRCULAR TOLERANCE ZONE[3]

TOLERANCE, TOLERANCE VARIANCE ANALYSIS AND GEOMETRIC 13

DIMENSIONING & TOLERANCE IN PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
Unlike the rectangular tolerance zone, the cylindrical tolerance zone defines a uniform distance
from true position, the center, to the tolerance zone boundary.

The conventional dimensional methods do not specific references, no sequence of measuring the
features, don’t have relative control of features, mating surfaces profiles, and geometrics. This
leads to disagreement over the drawing interpretation, and communication between design and
manufacturing team remains in an ambiguous state. The design intent would be transferred or
understood to the manufacturing team. The GD&T is a language for communicating the engineering
design specifications as per the assembly functions.

Figure 9 GD&T Controls Size, Form, Location and Orientation in drawings[3]

The drawing with GD&T provides information to the quality personnel about how to locate the
part and carry out the inspection. Specifying the primary, secondary, and teritiary datums in
the drawings as per GD&T helps the quality inspector to define his fixture and measurement
requirement.

In the conventional drawings, it is not clear which reference of the part should be resting against
the horizontal surface of the datum reference frame. It doesn’t specify whether the left edge of the
part should be in contact with the vertical surface of the datum reference frame. The part is to be
inspected the same way every time. The drawing must specify how the part is to fit in the datum
reference frame. All of the datums are specified in the order of precedence in GD&T method. The
figure 10 shows conventional dimensioning methods which lead to ambiguity in Datums.

Figure 10 Interpretation of Datums in conventional Dimensioning method[3]

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The concept of Maximum Material Condition (MMC) is the condition of a feature that contains the
maximum amount of material, that is, the smallest hole or largest pin, within the stated limits of
size. In GD&T, bonus tolerance is a modification of a GD&T tolerance that, under certain conditions,
increases the tolerance, hence the term “bonus”. As the size of the pin departs from MMC toward
LMC, a bonus tolerance is added equal to the amount of that departure. Bonus tolerance equals
the difference between the actual feature size and the MMC of the feature. An example of Bonus
Tolerance is shown in Appendix II.

When to use GD&T

GD&T requires an investment. It has a cost over time and requires patience, determination and a
willingness to learn from painful lessons. GD&T can be thought of as teaching a foreign language,
and fluency is not achieved overnight.
• Drawing delineation and interpretation need to be the same
• Features are critical to function or interchangeability
• It is important to stop scrapping perfectly good parts
• It is important to reduce drawing changes
• Automated equipment is used
• Functional gaging is required
• It is important to increase productivity

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DIMENSIONING & TOLERANCE IN PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
Conclusion
The manufacturing industry has a long history of trying to solve tolerance issues. They stick with
traditional Plus-minus tolerance. The plus-minus tolerance results in worst case tolerance scenario
for the drawings. Reliance on just the tolerance leads to tighter tolerance and higher
manufacturing cost in the product cost. Setting too loose tolerance can result in machine shops
making parts at maximum speed, but this may result in none of the parts functioning as expected.
So, setting an optimal tolerance finds a balance between function and manufacturing ease.

If a company implements default and tighter tolerance in product design and development
process, it would be manufacturing the product at a high cost and may not be able to sustain in
the long run. Most of the small shops with limited resources stick to this method as the they would
be manufacturing in limited quantities with high end machines.

A company implementing only GD&T as a solution and not as practice will meet the ROI prediction,
but will soon find an end to the improvements made and soon will find more quality problems.
They, in turn, would go and do more GD&T changes but without proper tolerance analysis. This
would leave the root causes of the problems as is and would cripple smaller industries. Many
companies are content with this scenario never realize they need something different. While they
have realized some benefit from their GD&T investment, the problem isn’t completely solved.

Medium-sized companies undertake GD&T training and implement it with a study of the variation
of the size of parts that lead to functional and assembly issues. The Tolerance analysis is carried
out in the design phase using Hand calculation and advanced excel spreadsheet. The GD&T is
specified in the design stage considering the constriants of the product development process. This
helps to develop tooling and inspection fixtures down the line for faster product development. But
this requires GDT&T training and knowledge across the industry.

The medium to large scale industry use all the above techniques. Additionally, they use advanced
CAD softwares and Tolerance stack up software to consider the 3 Dimensional tolerance variation.
All the variations of the tolerance and GD&T are simulated for all function requirements. Thus, the
problems are sorted out before making the production parts. This is what makes the world class
companies differentiate itself from other companies. In this Technical paper, we discussed about
the Tolerance, Tolerance variation analysis, and GD&T implement across various industries in the
new product development.

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References
1. Academic Process and Operation Planning: Revised Edition of the
Principles of Process Planning, A Logical Approach G. Halevi : Kluwer
ISBN: 1-4020-1653-0

2. https://www.sigmetrix.com/

3. Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing for Mechanical Design 2/E by

Gene R. Cogorno, ISBN: 0071772146, 9780071772143

4. ASME Y14.5M – 2009 Dimensioning and Tolerancing

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Author Info
Nirmalan Ganapathy
Mr. Nirmalan Ganapathy has 18 years of industry experience in Product
Design, Development, Testing and Validation. He is a Certified GD&T
and Tolerance variance analysis specialist and has worked in Design and
Development of high precision components like Watches, Movie Cameras,
Camera Sensor mounting & Alignment mechanism, Sensor alignment tools,
Sensor Assembly alignment fixtures, and Camera Modules. He is currently
associated with electro mechanical product development of Rugged
cameras. Prior to this, he had worked on Electro-Mechanical packaging
new product design and development of Servers, Cellphones, and Rugged
Laptop.

15

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DIMENSIONING & TOLERANCE IN PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
 ABOUT HCL TECHNOLOGIES
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Appendix-I – GD&T Symbols Rules and Guidelines[4]

THIS CHART IS PROVIDED FOR INFORMATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY. THE INFORMATION IS

BASED UPON ASME Y14.5M - 1994.

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TOLERANCE, TOLERANCE VARIANCE ANALYSIS AND GEOMETRIC 21
DIMENSIONING & TOLERANCE IN PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
Appendix-II-MMC and Bonus Tolerance

• The maximum material condition symbol (circle M) in the feature control frame is a modifier.
It specifies that as the hole in below Image increases in size, a bonus tolerance is added to the
tolerance in the feature control frame.
• The limit tolerance indicates that the shaft size can be as small as Ø 15.00 (Least material
condition) and as large as Ø 25.00 (Maximum material condition). The geometric tolerance
specifies that the hole be positioned with a cylindrical tolerance zone of 5. 25 diameter when
the shaft is produced at its maximum material condition.
• The tolerance zone is oriented perpendicular to datum A and located with basic dimensions
to datum's B and C. In this case, Bonus Tolerance = MMC-LMC=25-15=10. As the Shaft size
departs from the maximum material condition toward the least material condition, additional
location tolerance, called bonus tolerance, is allowed in the exact amount of such departure.

Pin diameter at Maximum Material Condition

Pin diameter at MMC= 25

Bonus Tolerance = 0
Position tolerance at MMC = 5

Pin diameter at Least Material Condition

Pin diameter at LMC= 15
Bonus Tolerance = Pin diameter at MMC – Pin diameter at LMC = 25 – 15 = 10
Position tolerance at LMC = 5 (Tolerance at MMC) + 10 (Bonus Tolerance) = 15

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