Chapter 2 SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH and how to apply it

THEORY OF COGNITION AND POSITIVISM

• The theory of cognition in philosophy is an epistemological discipline – epistemology is the theory of
knowledge, especially with regard to its methods, validity, and scope, and the distinction between justified belief
(that can be proved) and opinion (as an impression, instinct and/or perception). Epistemology is the study of
knowledge: what we know, how we know it, how we know we know it, and how to keep track of it without
driving ourselves crazy! It examines the dichotomy (confrontation) between the process of cognition that occurs
between the object (the reality) and the subject (one who cognates it). The result of that analyses is positivism
and positive cognition.
POSITIVIST SOCIOLOGY
• Apply sociological perspective (In 1963, Peter Berger described the sociological perspective as seeing the
general in the particular.)
• Be curious, ask and seek answers
• What is truth? – believes, shared perceptions, prejudices, attitudes... In principle, we do not get in troubles and
we do not make wrong conclusions because of the things that we DO NOT know, but because of the things that
we think we know or we know only partially!
• The science is a system of logical conclusions on the bases of direct and systematically done observations
• Positive sociology is a way of studying the society based on the systematic observation of social behavior – as
other scientist would do it studying the physical (Émile Durkheim)
• The objective reality exists, it just needs to be researched by collecting provable facts through empirical
experiments
• SCIENTIFIC CONCEPT – a mental construction (idea or model) explaining natural phenomenon in a simple form
• HYPOTHESIS – a supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point
for further investigation
INTERPRETATIVE SOCIOLOGY
• Interpretive sociology is an approach developed by Max Weber that centers the importance of meaning and
action when studying social trends and problems. This approach diverges from positivistic sociology by
recognizing that the subjective experiences, beliefs, and behavior of people are equally important to study as are
observable, objective facts.
• This theoretical approach and the research methods that go with it is rooted in the German word verstehen,
which means "to understand," in particular to have a meaningful understanding of something. To practice
interpretive sociology is to attempt to understand social phenomena from the standpoint of those involved in it.
It is, so to speak, to attempt to walk in someone else's shoes and see the world as they see it.
• Interpretative sociology differs from positive sociology because:
• It is not only focused on WHAT people do, but WHY they do it, what is the meaning of those actions
• The reality is not objective, it is a subjective construct of individuals
• It prefers qualitative over quantitative data
• It insists on better interaction with people whose attitudes or actions are researched in order better to
understand their subjective approach
CRITICAL SOCIOLOGY
• Critical theory in sociology is a social theory oriented toward critiquing and changing society as a whole, in
contrast to traditional theory oriented only to understanding or explaining it. Critical theories aim to dig beneath
the surface of social life and uncover the assumptions that keep us from a full and true understanding of how the
world works.
• This theory can be traced to Karl Marx in his theoretical formulation of the relationship between economic base
and ideological superstructure, and tends to focus on how power and domination operate, in particular, in the
realm of the superstructure.
• Critical sociology is focused on the need for social change, because the society is not “fixed” and unchangeable.
• It is not about “HOW the society functions”, but “SHOULD it function the way it does”?
• Sociologists should not be limited only on “objective” research of the society, but on its change toward bigger
social and political justice.
• RESEARCH METHOD – a systematic plan for doing research
• INDUCTIVE METHOD – transforming particular observations into generalized theories
• DEDUCTIVE METHOD – transforming general theories into specific hypothesis that needs to be tested
 Chapter 2 SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH and how to apply it

BASIC PRINCPIPALS OF SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH

• It starts with certain social concept (e.g. “a family”), that concept is deconstructed on its parts (“members of
family”), particular characteristics of those parts are researched (e.g. age, income, education…), and than
correlations are established that influence certain behavior or phenomenon
• Every research is based on certain theory, but it starts with a hypothesis in the framework of that theory – the
validity of that hypothesis is studied and depending on the results of the research the hypothesis is confirmed
or nullified
• Sociological researches are done on certain representative sample of the researched population – if the
sample is well constructed it allows generalizations of researched data and scientific validity of the
observations and conclusions
• Quantitative and qualitative researches
• Primary and secondary sources/data
• Desk and field researches
• STATISTIC – the practice or science of collecting and analyzing numerical data in large quantities, especially for
the purpose of inferring proportions in a whole from those in a representative sample
• OBJECTIVITY in research – personal neutrality during research: to say how it is (sociology) and not how it
should be (politics)

VARIABLES AND THEIR MEASUREMENT

• Define a concept before the decision which variables will be measured/followed
• Measurements must be reliable (to show consistency every time they are measured) and valid (to reflect
exactly the intention of what we want to measure – e.g. does more visits to religious objects necessary mean
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCHES
bigger religiosity?)
• Public polls/surveys – structured questionnaires designed to collect standardized (statistically measurable)
• For example: How do we measure the variable “social status” – is somebody belonging to law, middle or high
answers from a large number of surveyed people
class? … We combine three data – annual income, profession, level of education – and compare them with
• Experiments (in laboratory or external conditions) – aimed at as precise as possible measurement of mutual
average national values (descriptive statistics)
effects of variables to define their causality and interdependence
• When we measure different variables, it is ideal if change in one variable reflects with change on another, e.g.
• Interviews with “open” or “closed” questions – face-to-face, telephone, internet… They can be structured
when we compare three variables: (a) population density; (b) crime levels; (c) average income = when income
(quantitative), un-structured (qualitative), or semi-structured (with defined questions, but actual direction
decreases, population density AND crime levels intensifies
depends on concrete answers)
• Independent and dependent variable = an independent variable is the variable that is changed or controlled
• Observations – the researcher is part of the group, on a longer term bases, that is researched noting their
in a scientific experiment to test the effects on the dependent variable. A dependent variable is
individual and group reactions/attitudes
the variable being tested and measured in a scientific experiment. The dependent variable is 'dependent' on
• Ethnographies – deeper researches of human communities in their natural everyday surrounding
the independent variable.
• Case study – research of separate cases of structured groups of people (e.g. phenomenon at school or at
• Correlations – relations in which two or more variables are changing mutually
sporting club) with a combination of several methods
• Controlled variable – all other variables are constant, controlled variable is changing to initiate effects on
• Longitudinal studies – long-term studies of behavior and attitudes of groups or communities with an in-depth
other variables
analyses of developments and changes
• VARIABLE – certain statistical value that is not consistent or having a fixed pattern; liable to change.
• MEASUREMENT – procedure for defining the value of certain variable in certain case
 Chapter 2 SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH and how to apply it

10 PRACTICAL STEPS FOR ANY SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH

1. Which is the subject of your research?
2. Are there any previous studies/researches on the same topic?
3. Which are, precisely, issues that you want to research?
4. What resources would you need for the research?
5. Are there any ethical limitations?
6. Which method will be used?
7. How would you organize collected data?
8. What is the data actually telling you?
9. What conclusions you can make from the research?
10. How are you going to share research results?
SOME LIMITATIONS IN SCIENTIFIC SOCIOLOGY
• Human behavior and relations are too complex to be precisely scientifically predicted or analyzed.
• People react to the very presence of the researcher – that influences the results.
• Social models vary through time/space – equal approaches may give different results depending on
time/space of research.
• No sociologist is 100% objective, they are part of the researched society and social mentality.
• Technological development influences development of scientific methods as well as social conditions in a
very dynamic way that often cannot be anticipated in advance. That may influence consistency of data or
researched conditions.
Factors influencing the choice of research methods
• Theoretical: • Subject of Research:
• Positivism • Methodological choice
• Data reliability; Data representativeness; • Comparable national statistics
Data validity; Data interpretations • Time trending
• Ethical: • Deviations
• Research risks • Practical:
• Data secrecy • Time
• Consent/Manipulation • Data availability
• Public benefit • Skills and research network
• Legality • Money/Funds