experiences of people, using observation and
interviews.
A. NATURE OF RESEARCH
1. WHY RESEARCH IS OF VALUE
• The scientific method provides an important
way to obtain accurate and reliable
information.
WAYS OF KNOWING
• There are many ways to obtain information,
including sensory experience, agreement with
others, expert opinion, logic, and the
scientific method.
• The scientific method is considered by
researchers the most likely way to produce
reliable and accurate knowledge.
• The scientific method involves answering
questions through systematic and public data
collection and analysis.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
• Some of the most commonly used research
methodologies in education are experimental
research, correlational research, causal-
comparative research, survey research,
ethnographic research, historical research,
and action research.
• Experimental research involves
manipulating conditions and studying effects.
• Correlational research involves studying
relationships among variables within a single
group and frequently suggests the possibility
of cause and effect.
• Causal-comparative research involves
comparing known groups who have had
different experiences to determine possible
causes or consequences of group
membership.
• Survey research involves describing the
characteristics of a group by means of such
instruments as interview questions,
questionnaires, and tests.
• Ethnographic research concentrates on
documenting or portraying the everyday
• Ethnographic research is one form of
qualitative research. Other common forms of
qualitative research include the case study,
biography, phenomenology, and grounded
theory.
• A case study is a detailed analysis of one or
a few individuals.
• Historical research involves studying some
aspect of the past.
• Action research is a type of research by
practitioners designed to help improve their
practice.
• Evaluation research aims to improve the
object or program being evaluated, usually by
strengthening its delivery, implementation,
and outcomes.
• Each of the research methodologies
described constitutes a different way of
inquiring into reality and is thus a different
tool for understanding what goes on in
education.
GENERAL RESEARCH TYPES
• Individual research methodologies can be
classified into general research types.
Descriptive studies describe a given state of
affairs. Associational studies investigate
relationships. Intervention studies assess the
effects of a treatment or method on
outcomes.
• Quantitative and qualitative research
methodologies are based on different
assumptions; they also differ on the purpose
of research, the methods used by
researchers, the kinds of studies undertaken,
the researcher’s role, and the degree to
which generalization is possible.
• Mixed-method research incorporates both
quantitative and qualitative approaches.
• Meta-analysis attempts to synthesize the
results of all the individual studies on a given
topic by statistical means.

CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH
• Critical analysis of research raises basic
questions about the assumptions and
implications of educational research.
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
• Almost all research plans include a problem
statement, an exploratory question or
hypothesis, definitions, a literature review, a
sample of subjects, instrumentation, a
description of procedures to be followed, a
time schedule, and a description of intended
data analyses.
in research, refers to a connection or
association between two or more
characteristics or qualities.
DEFINING TERMS IN RESEARCH
• Three common ways to clarify ambiguous
or unclear terms in a research question
involve the use of constitutive (dictionary-
type) definitions, definition by example, and
operational definitions.
• A constitutive definition uses additional
terms to clarify meaning.
• An operational definition describes how
examples of a term are to be measured or
identified.

B. RESEARCH PROBLEM
C. LOCATING AND REVIEWING THE
• A research problem is the focus of a
RELATED LITERATURE
research investigation.
THE VALUE OF A LITERATURE REVIEW
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
• A literature review helps researchers learn
• Many research problems are stated as
what others have written about a topic. It
questions.
also lets researchers see the results of other,
• The essential characteristic of a related studies.
researchable question is that there be some
• A detailed literature review is often required
sort of information that can be collected in an
of master’s and doctoral students when they
attempt to answer the question.
design a thesis.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
TYPES OF SOURCES FOR A LITERATURE
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
REVIEW
• Research questions should be feasible—that
• Researchers need to be familiar with three
is, capable of being investigated with
basic types of sources (general references,
available resources.
primary sources, and secondary sources) in
• Research questions should be clear—that is, doing a literature review.
unambiguous.
• General reference tools are sources a
• Research questions should be significant— researcher consults to locate other sources.
that is, worthy of investigation.
• Primary sources are publications in which
• Research questions should be ethical—that researchers report the results of their
is, their investigation should not involve investigations. Most primary source material
physical or psychological harm or damage to is located in journal articles.
human beings or to the natural or social
• Secondary sources refer to publications in
environment of which they are a part.
which authors describe the work of others.
• Research questions often (although not
• The most common secondary sources in
always) suggest a relationship to be
education are textbooks.
investigated. The term relationship, as used
• Search terms are keywords or phrases
researchers use to help locate relevant
primary sources.
STEPS INVOLVED IN A LITERATURE
SEARCH
• The essential steps involved in a review of
the literature include:
(1) Defining the research problem as
precisely as possible;
(2) Deciding on the extent of the search;
(3) Deciding on the data base(s) to be
searched;
(4) Formulating search terms;
(5) Searching general reference tools for
relevant primary sources;
(6) Obtaining and reading the primary
sources, and noting and summarizing key
points in the sources.
WAYS TO DO A LITERATURE SEARCH
• Today, there are two ways to do a literature
search—manually, using print/paper tools to
locate print/paper sources; and electronically,
by means of a computer. The most common
and frequently used method, however, is to
search online, via computer. Regardless of
the tools involved, the search process is
similar.
• There are five essential points (problem,
hypotheses, procedures, findings, and
conclusions) that researchers should record
when taking notes on a study.
DOING A COMPUTER SEARCH
• Computer searches of the literature have a
number of advantages—they are fast, are
fairly inexpensive, provide printouts, and
enable researchers to search using more than
one descriptor at a time.
• The steps in a traditional manual search are
similar to those in a computer search, though
computer searches are usually the norm.
• Researching the World Wide Web (WWW)
should be considered, in addition to ERIC and
PsycINFO, in doing a literature search.
• Some of the information on the Web is
classified into indexes, which group Web sites
together under similar categories. Yahoo! is
an example of a directory.
• To obtain more specific information, search
engines should be used, because they search
all of the contents of a Web site.
THE LITERATURE REVIEW REPORT
• The literature review report consists of an
introduction, the body of the review, a
summary, the researcher’s conclusions, and a
bibliography.
• A literature review should include a search
for relevant meta-analysis reports, as well as
individual studies.
• When a researcher does a meta-analysis,
he or she averages the results of a group of
selected studies to get an overall index of
outcome or relationship.
D. ETHICS AND RESEARCH
BASIC ETHICAL PRINCIPLES
• Ethics refers to questions of right and
wrong.
• There are a number of ethical principles
that all researchers should be aware of and
apply to their investigations.
• The basic ethical question for all
researchers to consider is whether any
physical or psychological harm could come to
anyone as a result of the research.
• All subjects in a research study should be
assured that any data collected from or about
them will be held in confidence.
• The term deception, as used in research,
refers to intentionally misinforming the
subjects of a study as to some or all aspects
of the research topic.
• Plagiarism is the act of misrepresenting
someone else’s work as one’s own.
• Unintentional plagiarism can be avoided
through the proper use and citation of
published and unlisted sources.
RESEARCH WITH CHILDREN
• Children as research subjects present
problems for researchers that are different
from those of adult subjects. Children are
more vulnerable, have fewer legal rights, and
often do not understand the meaning of
informed consent.
REGULATION OF RESEARCH
• Before any research involving human
beings can be conducted at an institution that
receives federal funds, it must be reviewed
by an institutional review board (IRB) at the
institution.
• The federal agency that has the major
responsibility for establishing the guidelines
for research studies that involve human
subjects is the Department of Health and
Human Services.
E. VARIABLES AND HYPOTHESES
THE IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING
RELATIONSHIPS
• Identifying relationships among variables
enhances understanding.
• Understanding relationships helps us to
explain the nature of our world.
VARIABLES
• A variable is any characteristic or quality
that varies among the members of a
particular group.
• A constant is any characteristic or quality
that is the same for all members of a
particular group.
• A quantitative variable varies in amount or
degree, but not in kind.
• A categorical variable varies only in kind,
not in degree or amount.
• Several kinds of variables are studied in
educational research, the most common
being independent and dependent variables.
• An independent variable is presumed to
affect or influence other variables.
• Independent variables are sometimes called
experimental variables or manipulated
variables.
• A dependent (or outcome) variable is
presumed to be affected by one or more
independent variables.
• Independent variables may be either
manipulated or selected. A manipulated
variable is created by the researcher. A
selected variable is one that already exists
that the researcher locates and then chooses
to study.
• A moderator variable is a secondary
independent variable that the researcher
selects to study because he or she thinks it
may affect the basic relationship between the
primary independent variable and the
dependent variable.
• An extraneous variable is an independent
variable that may have unintended effects on
a dependent variable in a particular study.
• A proposition is a tentative, flexible
statement used sometimes by qualitative
researchers to help guide their data collection
and analysis.
HYPOTHESES
• The term hypothesis, as used in research,
refers to a prediction of results usually made
before a study commences.
• Stating a research question as a hypothesis
has both advantages and disadvantages.
• An important hypothesis is one that is likely
to lead, if it is supported, to a greater amount
of important knowledge than a nonimportant
hypothesis.
• A directional hypothesis is a prediction
about the specific nature of a relationship—
for example, method A is more effective than
method B.
• A nondirectional hypothesis is a prediction
that a relationship exists without specifying
its exact nature—for example, there will be a
difference between method A and method B
(without saying which will be more effective).
F. SAMPLING
SAMPLES AND SAMPLING
• The term sampling, as used in research,
refers to the process of selecting the
individuals who will participate (e.g., be
observed or questioned) in a research study.
• A sample is any part of a population of
individuals on whom information is obtained.
It may, for a variety of reasons, be different
from the sample originally selected.
SAMPLES AND POPULATIONS
• The term population, as used in research,
refers to all the members of a particular
group. It is the group of interest to the
researcher, the group to whom the
researcher would like to generalize the
results of a study.
• A target population is the actual population
to whom the researcher would like to
generalize; the accessible population is the
population to whom the researcher is entitled
to generalize.
• A representative sample is a sample that is
similar to the population on all characteristics.
RANDOM VERSUS NONRANDOM
SAMPLING
• Sampling may be either random or
nonrandom. Random sampling methods
include simple random sampling, stratified
random sampling, cluster random sampling,
and two-stage random sampling. Nonrandom
sampling methods include systematic
sampling, convenience sampling, and
purposive sampling.
RANDOM SAMPLING METHODS
• A simple random sample is a sample
selected from a population in such a manner
that all members of the population have an
equal chance of being selected.
• A stratified random sample is a sample
selected so that certain characteristics are
represented in the sample in the same
proportion as they occur in the population.
• A cluster random sample is one obtained by
using groups as the sampling unit rather than
individuals.
• A two-stage random sample selects groups
randomly and then chooses individuals
randomly from these groups.
• A table of random numbers lists and
arranges numbers in no particular order and
can be used to select a random sample.
NONRANDOM SAMPLING METHODS
• A systematic sample is obtained by
selecting every nth name in a population.
• A convenience sample is any group of
individuals that is conveniently available to be
studied.
• A purposive sample consists of individuals
who have special qualifications of some sort
or are deemed representative on the basis of
prior evidence.
SAMPLE SIZE
• Samples should be as large as a researcher
can obtain with a reasonable expenditure of
time and energy. A recommended minimum
number of subjects is 100 for a descriptive
study, 50 for a correlational study, and 30 in
each group for experimental and causal-
comparative studies.
EXTERNAL VALIDITY
(GENERALIZABILITY)
• The term external validity, as used in
research, refers to the extent that the results
of a study can be generalized from a sample
to a population.
• The term population generalizability refers
to the extent to which the results of a study
can be generalized to the intended
population.
• The term ecological generalizability refers
to the extent to which the results of a study
can be generalized to conditions or settings
other than those that prevailed in a particular
study.
REPLICATION
• When a study is replicated, it is repeated
with a new sample and sometimes under new
conditions.
G. INSTRUMENTATION
WHAT ARE DATA?
• The term data refers to the kinds of
information researchers obtain on the
subjects of their research.
INSTRUMENTATION
• The term instrumentation refers to the
entire process of collecting data in a research
investigation.
VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
• An important consideration in the choice of
a research instrument is validity: the extent
to which results from it permit researchers to
draw warranted conclusions about the
characteristics of the individuals studied.
• A reliable instrument is one that gives
consistent results.
OBJECTIVITY AND USABILITY
• Whenever possible, researchers try to
eliminate subjectivity from the judgments
they make about the achievement,
performance, or characteristics of subjects.
• An important consideration for any
researcher in choosing or designing an
instrument is its ease of us
WAYS TO CLASSIFY INSTRUMENTS
• Research instruments can be classified in
many ways. Some of the more common are
in terms of who provides the data, the
method of data collection, who collects the
data, and what kind of response they require
from the subjects.
• Research data are obtained by directly or
indirectly assessing the subjects of a study.
• Self-report data are provided by the
subjects of a study themselves.
• Informant data are provided by other
people about the subjects of a study.
TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS
• There are many types of researcher-
completed instruments. Some of the more
commonly used are rating scales, interview
schedules, observation forms, tally sheets,
flowcharts, performance checklists, anecdotal
records, and time-and-motion logs.
• Many types of instruments are completed
by the subjects of a study rather than the
researcher. Some of the more commonly
used of this type are questionnaires; self-
checklists; attitude scales; personality
inventories; achievement, aptitude, and
performance tests; and projective and
sociometric devices.
• The types of items or questions used in
subject-completed instruments can take
many forms, but they all can be classified as
either selection or supply items. Examples of
selection items include true-false items,
multiple-choice items, matching items, and
interpretive exercises. Examples of supply
items include short-answer items and essay
questions.
• An excellent source for locating already
available tests is the ERIC database.
• Unobtrusive measures require no intrusion
into the normal course of affairs.
 NORM-REFERENCED VERSUS
CRITERION-REFERENCED
INSTRUMENTS
• Instruments that provide scores that
compare individual scores to the scores of an
appropriate reference group are called norm-
referenced instruments.
• Instruments that are based on a specific
target for each learner to achieve are called
criterion-referenced instruments.
MEASUREMENT SCALES
• Four types of measurement scales—
nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio—are used
in educational research.
• A nominal scale uses numbers to indicate
membership in one or more categories.
• An ordinal scale uses numbers to rank or
order scores from high to low.
• An interval scale uses numbers to represent
equal intervals in different segments on a
continuum.
• A ratio scale uses numbers to represent
equal distances from a known zero point.
PREPARING DATA FOR ANALYSIS
• Collected data must be scored accurately
and consistently.
• Once scored, data must be tabulated and
coded.
H. VALIDITY AND RELIABILTY
VALIDITY
• It is important for researchers to use valid
instruments, for the conclusions they draw
are based on the information they obtain
using these instruments.
• The term validity, as used in research,
refers to the appropriateness,
meaningfulness, correctness, and usefulness
of any inferences a researcher draws based
on data obtained through the use of an
instrument.
• Content-related evidence of validity refers
to judgments on the content and logical
structure of an instrument as it is to be used
in a particular study.
• Criterion-related evidence of validity refers
to the degree to which information provided
by an instrument agrees with information
obtained on other, independent instruments.
• A criterion is a standard for judging; with
reference to validity, it is a second instrument
against which scores on an instrument can be
checked.
• Construct-related evidence of validity refers
to the degree to which the totality of
evidence obtained is consistent with
theoretical expectations.
• A validity coefficient is a numerical index
representing the degree of correspondence
between scores on an instrument and a
criterion measure.
• An expectancy table is a two-way chart
used to evaluate criterion-related evidence of
validity.
RELIABILITY
• The term reliability, as used in research,
refers to the consistency of scores or answers
provided by an instrument.
• Errors of measurement refer to variations in
scores obtained by the same individuals on
the same instrument.
• The test-retest method of estimating
reliability involves administering the same
instrument twice to the same group of
individuals after a certain time interval has
elapsed.
• The equivalent-forms method of estimating
reliability involves administering two different,
but equivalent, forms of an instrument to the
same group of individuals at the same time.
• The internal-consistency method of
estimating reliability involves comparing
responses to different sets of items that are
part of an instrument.
• Scoring agreement requires a • The way in which instruments are used may
demonstration that independent scorers can
achieve satisfactory agreement in their
scoring.
• The standard error of measurement is a
numerical index of measurement error.
I. INTERNAL VALIDITY
THE MEANING OF INTERNAL VALIDITY
• When a study lacks internal validity, one or
more alternative hypotheses exist to explain
the outcomes. These alternative hypotheses
are referred to by researchers as threats to
internal validity.
• When a study has internal validity, it means
that any relationship observed between two
or more variables is unambiguous, rather
than being due to something else.
THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY
• Some of the more common threats to
internal validity are differences in subject
characteristics, mortality, location,
instrumentation, testing, history, maturation,
attitude of subjects, regression, and
implementation.
• The selection of people for a study may
result in the individuals or groups differing
(i.e., the characteristics of the subjects may
differ) from one another in unintended ways
that are related to the variables to be
studied.
• No matter how carefully the subjects of a
study (the sample) are selected, it is common
to lose some of them as the study
progresses. This is known as mortality. Such
a loss of subjects may affect the outcomes of
a study.
• The particular locations in which data are
collected, or in which an intervention is
carried out, may create alternative
explanations for any results that are
obtained.
also constitute a threat to the internal validity
of a study. Possible instrumentation threats
include changes in the instrument,
characteristics of the data collector(s), and/or
bias on the part of the data collectors.
• The use of a pretest in intervention studies
sometimes may create a “practice effect” that
can affect the results of a study. A pretest
can also sometimes affect the way subjects
respond to an intervention.
• On occasion, one or more unanticipated
and unplanned for events may occur during
the course of a study that can affect the
responses of subjects. This is known as a
history threat.
• Sometimes change during an intervention
study may be due more to factors associated
with the passing of time than to the
intervention itself. This is known as a
maturation threat.
• The attitude of subjects toward a study
(and their participation in it) can create a
threat to internal validity. This is known as
subject attitude threat.
• When subjects are given increased
attention and recognition because they are
participating in a study, their responses may
be affected. This is known as the Hawthorne
effect.
• Whenever a group is selected because of
unusually high or low performance on a
pretest, it will, on average, score closer to the
mean on subsequent testing, regardless of
what transpires in the meantime. This is
called a regression threat.
• Whenever an experimental group is treated
in ways that are unintended and not a
necessary part of the method being studied,
an implementation threat can occur.
CONTROLLING THREATS TO INTERNAL
VALIDITY
• Researchers can use a number of
techniques or procedures to control or
minimize threats to internal validity.
Essentially they boil down to four
alternatives: (1) standardizing the conditions
under which the study occurs, (2) obtaining
and using more information on the subjects
of the study, (3) obtaining and using more
information on the details of the study, and
(4) choosing an appropriate design.
J. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
STATISTICS VERSUS PARAMETERS
• A parameter is a characteristic of a
population. It is a numerical or graphic way
to summarize data obtained from the
population.
• A statistic, on the other hand, is a
characteristic of a sample. It is a numerical or
graphic way to summarize data obtained
from a sample.
TYPES OF NUMERICAL DATA
• There are two fundamental types of
numerical data a researcher can collect.
Quantitative data are obtained by
determining placement on a scale that
indicates amount or degree. Categorical data
are obtained by determining the frequency of
occurrences in each of several categories.
TYPES OF SCORES
• A raw score is the initial score obtained
when using an instrument; a derived score is
a raw score that has been translated into a
more useful score on some type of
standardized basis to aid in interpretation.
• Age/grade equivalents are derived scores
that indicate the typical age or grade
associated with an individual raw score.
• A percentile rank is the percentage of a
specific group scoring at or below a given
raw score.
• A standard score is a mathematically
derived score having comparable meaning on
different instruments.
TECHNIQUES FOR SUMMARIZING
QUANTITATIVE DATA
• A frequency distribution is a two-column
listing, from high to low, of all the scores
along with their frequencies. In a grouped
frequency distribution, the scores have been
grouped into equal intervals.
• A frequency polygon is a graphic display of
a frequency distribution. It is a graphic way
to summarize quantitative data for one
variable.
• A graphic distribution of scores in which
only a few individuals receive high scores is
called a positively skewed polygon; one in
which only a few individuals receive low
scores is called a negatively skewed polygon.
• A histogram is a bar graph used to display
quantitative data at the interval or ratio level
of measurement.
• A stem-leaf plot is similar to a histogram,
except it lists specific values instead of bars.
• The normal distribution is a theoretical
distribution that is symmetrical and in which
a large proportion of the scores are
concentrated in the middle.
• A distribution curve is a smoothed-out
frequency polygon.
• The distribution curve of a normal
distribution is called a normal curve. It is bell
shaped, and its mean, median, and mode are
identical.
• There are several measures of central
tendency (averages) that are used to
summarize quantitative data. The two most
common are the mean and the median.
• The mean of a distribution is determined by
adding up all of the scores and dividing this
sum by the total number of scores.
• The median of a distribution marks the
point above and below which half of the
scores in the distribution lie.
• The mode is the most frequent score in a
distribution.
• The term variability, as used in research,
refers to the extent to which the scores on a
quantitative variable in a distribution are
spread out.
• The most common measure of variability
used in educational research is the standard
deviation.
• The range, another measure of variability,
represents the difference between the
highest and lowest scores in a distribution.
• A five-number summary of a distribution
reports the lowest score, the first quartile,
the median, the third quartile, and the
highest score.
• Five-number summaries of distributions are
often portrayed graphically by the use of
boxplots.
STANDARD SCORES AND THE NORMAL
CURVE
• Standard scores use a common scale to
indicate how an individual compares to other
individuals in a group. The simplest form of
standard score is a z score. A z score
expresses how far a raw score is from the
mean in standard deviation units.
• The major advantage of standard scores is
that they provide a better basis for
comparing performance on different
measures than do raw scores.
• The term probability, as used in research,
refers to a prediction of how often a
particular event will occur. Probabilities are
usually expressed in decimal form.
CORRELATION
• A correlation coefficient is a numerical index
expressing the degree of relationship
between two quantitative variables. The one
most commonly used in educational research
is the Pearson r.
• A scatterplot is a graphic way to describe a
relationship between two quantitative
variables.
TECHNIQUES FOR SUMMARIZING
CATEGORICAL DATA
• Researchers use various graphic techniques
to summarize categorical data, including
frequency tables, bar graphs, and pie charts.
• A cross break table is a graphic way to
report a relationship between two or more
categorical variables.
K. INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
WHAT ARE INFERENTIAL STATISTICS?
• Inferential statistics refer to certain
procedures that allow researchers to make
inferences about a population based on data
obtained from a sample.
• The term probability, as used in research,
refers to the predicted relative frequency with
which a given event will occur.
SAMPLING ERROR
• The term sampling error refers to the
variations in sample statistics that occur as a
result of repeated sampling from the same
population.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF SAMPLE MEANS
• A sampling distribution of means is a
frequency distribution resulting from plotting
the means of a very large number of samples
from the same population.
• The standard error of the mean is the
standard deviation of a sampling distribution
of means. The standard error of the
difference between means is the standard
deviation of a sampling distribution of
differences between sample means.
CONFIDENCE INTERVALS
• A confidence interval is a region extending
both above and below a sample statistic
(such as a sample mean) within which a
population parameter (such as the population
mean) may be said to fall with a specified
probability of being wrong.
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
• Statistical hypothesis testing is a way of
determining the probability that an obtained
sample statistic will occur, given a
hypothetical population parameter.
• A research hypothesis specifies the nature
of the relationship the researcher thinks
exists in the population.
• The null hypothesis typically specifies that
there is no relationship in the population.
SIGNIFICANCE LEVELS
• The term significance level (or level of
significance), as used in research, refers to
the probability of a sample statistic occurring
as a result of sampling error.
• The significance levels most commonly used
in educational research are the .05 and .01
levels.
• Statistical significance and practical
significance are not necessarily the same.
Even if a result is statistically significant, it
may not be practically (i.e., educationally)
significant.
TESTS OF STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE
• A one-tailed test of significance involves the
use of probabilities based on one-half of a
sampling distribution because the research
hypothesis is a directional hypothesis.
• A two-tailed test, on the other hand,
involves the use of probabilities based on
both sides of a sampling distribution because
the research hypothesis is a nondirectional
hypothesis.
PARAMETRIC TESTS FOR
QUANTITATIVE DATA
• A parametric statistical test requires various
kinds of assumptions about the nature of the
population from which the samples involved
in the research study were taken.
• Some of the commonly used parametric
techniques for analyzing quantitative data
include the t -test for means, ANOVA,
ANCOVA, MANOVA, MANCOVA, and the t
-test for r.
PARAMETRIC TESTS FOR CATEGORICAL
DATA
• The most common parametric technique for
analyzing categorical data is the t -test for
differences in proportions.
NONPARAMETRIC TESTS FOR
QUANTITATIVE DATA
• A nonparametric statistical technique makes
few, if any, assumptions about the nature of
the population from which the samples in the
study were taken.
• Some of the commonly used nonparametric
techniques for analyzing quantitative data are
the Mann-Whitney U test, the Kruskal-Wallis
one-way analysis of variance, the sign test,
and the Friedman two-way analysis of
variance.
NONPARAMETRIC TESTS FOR
CATEGORICAL DATA
• The chi-square test is the nonparametric
technique most commonly used to analyze
categorical data.
• The contingency coefficient is a descriptive
statistic indicating the degree of relationship
between two categorical variables.
POWER OF A STATISTICAL TEST
• The power of a statistical test for a
particular set of data is the likelihood of
identifying a difference, when in fact it exists,
between population parameters.
• Parametric tests are generally, but not
always, more powerful than nonparametric
tests.

L. STATISTICS IN PERSPECTIVES
APPROACHES TO RESEARCH
• It is a good idea to report both the
percentage and the number of cases in a
crossbreak table, as percentages alone can
be misleading.

• A good deal of educational research is done • Therefore, we recommend constructing

in one of two ways: either two or more crossbreak tables and calculating contingency
groups are compared, or variables within one coefficients when comparing categorical data
group are related. involving two or more groups.

• The data in a study may be either RELATING VARIABLES WITHIN A

quantitative or categorical. GROUP USING CATEGORICAL DATA

COMPARING GROUPS USING • When you are examining relationships

QUANTITATIVE DATA among categorical data within one group, we
again recommend constructing crossbreak
• When comparing two or more groups using
tables and calculating contingency
quantitative data, researchers can compare
coefficients.
them through frequency polygons, calculation
of averages, and calculation of spreads. TWO FINAL RECOMMENDATIONS

• We recommend, therefore, constructing • When tests of statistical significance can be

frequency polygons, using data on the means applied, it is recommended that they be used
of known groups, calculating effect sizes, and to evaluate generalizability only, not to
reporting confidence intervals when evaluate the magnitude of relationships.
comparing quantitative data from two or Confidence intervals should be reported in
more groups. addition to significance levels.

RELATING VARIABLES WITHIN A • Both parametric and nonparametric

GROUP USING QUANTITATIVE DATA techniques should be used to analyze data
rather than either one alone.
• When researchers examine a relationship
between quantitative variables within a single
group, the appropriate techniques are the
scatterplot and the correlation coefficient.
• Because a scatterplot illustrates all the data
visually, researchers should begin their
analysis of data obtained from a single group
by constructing a scatterplot.
• Therefore, we recommend constructing
scatterplots and using both scatterplots and
correlation coefficients when relating
variables involving quantitative data within a
single group.
COMPARING GROUPS USING
CATEGORICAL DATA
• When the data are categorical, groups can
be compared by reporting either percentages
or frequencies in crossbreak tables.