CHAPTER FIVE

Analysis and Presentation of Data

Data presentation
Measures of central tendency
Report writing : Presenting insights and findings; Written
and oral reports
CHAPTER FIVE
Analysis and Presentation of Data
Data Presentation of Data
Once data has been collected, it has to be classified and organised in
such a way that it becomes easily readable and interpretable, that is,
converted to information.

Before the calculation of descriptive statistics, it is sometimes a good

idea to present data as tables, charts, diagrams or graphs.

Most people find ‘pictures’ much more helpful than ‘numbers’ in the
sense that, in their opinion, they present data more meaningfully.
Tabular Forms
a. Array
This type of information occurs as individual observations, usually as
a table or array of disorderly values.

These observations are to be firstly arranged in some order (ascending

or descending if they are numerical) or

 Simply grouped together in the form of a frequency table before

proper presentation on diagrams is possible.
b. Simple tables
A table is slightly more complex than an array since it needs a
heading and the names of the variables involved.
We can also use symbols to represent the variables at times, provided
they are sufficiently explicit for the reader.
Distribution of Ages of Students
Age of student Frequency Relative frequency

19 14 0.0350

20 23 0.0575

21 134 0.3350

22 149 0.3725

23 71 0.1775

24 9 0.0225

Total 400 1.0000

Compound Table
A compound table is just an extension of a simple in which there are
more than one variable distributed among its attributes (sub-variable).
An attribute is just a quality, property or component of a variable
according to which it can be differentiated with respect to other
variables.
• A line graph is usually meant for showing the frequencies for various
values of a variable. Successive points are joined by means of line
segments so that a glance at the graph is enough for the reader to
understand the distribution of the variable.
• single line: The simplest of line graphs is the single line graph, so
called because it displays information concerning one variable only, in
terms of its frequencies.
Multiple line Graph

• Multiple line graphs illustrate information on several variables so that

comparison is possible between them.
Pie Charts
 A pie chart or circular diagram is one which essentially displays the
relative figures (proportions or percentages) of classes or strata of a
given sample or population.

The pie chart follows the principle that the angle of each of its sectors
should be proportional to the frequency of the class that it represents.
 Merits
It gives a simple pictorial display of the relative sizes of classes.
It shows clearly when one class is more important than another.
It can be used for comparison of the same elements but in two or more
different populations.
Limitations
It only shows the relative sizes of classes.
It involves calculation of angles of sectors and drawing them
accurately.
It is sometimes difficult to compare sectors sizes accurately by eye.
Simple Pie Chart

Enhanced Pie Chart

BAR CHARTS
 The bar chart is one of the most common methods of presenting data in a
visual form.
 Its main purpose is to display quantities in the form of bars.
A bar chart consists of a set of bars whose heights are proportional to the
frequencies that they represent.
General merits
 The quantities can be easily read in terms of heights of the bars.
Comparison can be made between values of a variable.
It can be used even for non-numerical data.
General demerits
The class intervals must be equal in the distribution.
It cannot be used for continuous variables.
 Simple bar chart :The simple bar chart is used for the case of one
variable only.

Multiple bar chart : is an extension of a simple bar chart when there

are quantities of several variables to be displayed.
 Measures of Central Tendency
Measures of Central Tendency:
A single number to serve as a representative value around
which all the numbers in the set tend to cluster.
Sometimes it is referred to as a “middle” number of the data.
Three types of measures of central tendency:
Mean (average)
Median (middle)
Mode (most)

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 Measures of Central Tendency
Mean
The mean (arithmetic mean or average) of a set of data is
found by adding up all the items and then dividing by the sum
of the number of items.
The mean of a sample is denoted by x (read “x bar”).
The mean of a complete population is denoted by  (the
lower case Greek letter mu).
The mean of n data items x1, x2,…, xn, is given by the formula

or

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 Arithmetic Mean Calculated Methods :
• Direct Method :

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 Measures of Central Tendency
Weighted Mean
The weighted mean of n numbers x1, x2,…, xn, that are
weighted by the respective factors f1, f2,…, fn is given by the
formula:

w
 x f 
.
f

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 Measures of Central Tendency
Example:
Ten students were polled as to the number of siblings in their
individual families.
The raw data is the following set: {3, 2, 2, 1, 3, 6, 3, 3, 4, 2}.
Find the mean number of siblings for the ten students.

siblings
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 Measures of Central Tendency
Weighted Mean
Listed below are the grades of a students semester courses.
Calculate the Grade Point Average (GPA).

Course Grade Points (x) Credits (f) x*f

Math A 4 5 20
History B 3 3 9
Health A 4 2 8
Art C 2 2 4

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 Example : Calculated the Arithmetic Mean
Monthly Users Statistics in the University Library

Month No. of Total Users Average

Working Users per
Days month
Sep-2011 24 11618 484.08
Oct-2011 21 8857 421.76
Nov-2011 23 11459 498.22
Dec-2011 25 8841 353.64
Jan-2012 24 5478 228.25
Feb-2012 23 10811 470.04
Total 140 57064
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 = 407.6

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Advantages of Mean:
It is easy to understand & simple to calculate.
It is based upon all the observations.
 It is amenable to further algebraic
treatments

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Disadvantages of Mean:
It is affected by extreme values.
It cannot be calculated for open end classes.
It cannot be located graphically
It gives misleading conclusions.

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 2.Median
Median is a central value of the distribution, or the value which
divides the distribution in equal parts, each part containing equal
number of items. Thus it is the central value of the variable,
when the values are arranged in order of magnitude.

Median is defined as the central value of a set of

observations. It divides the whole series of observations
into two parts. If there are n observations x1,x2,x3,. . .x n ,
then
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 Cont…

 The median is the middle most item that divides the group
into two equal parts, one part comprising all values
greater, and the other, all values less than that item.
Ungrouped or Raw data
 Arrange the given values in the ascending order. If the
number of values are odd, median is the middle value
 If the number of values are even, median is the mean of
middle two values.

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 Cont…
By formula
M e  X  n 1  If “n” is odd
 2 
 

1  
M e   X n  X n  If “n” is even
2 2 1
2 

where x1,x2,x3,. . .x n are arranged either in ascending or in descending order.

Example 1. find the median for the following data set, 12, 1, 2, 8, 9, 10, and 4
To find the median first arrange the data set in ascending or descending order 1, 2, 4, 8, 9,
10, 12. Now, since n=7 is odd we apply the first formula to get the median value i.e

M e  X  n 1 = X 1 which is = 4 th
term and the median is = 8
 2   7 1 
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  2
 Cont…
Find the median of 3, 5, 8, 9, 12, 15, 16, 18, 19, 23 , the data is
already arranged in order of magnitude but n=10 is even. So we
take simply take the arithmetic mean of the two middle values to
calculate the median. i.e

Median =½ (5th term +6th term) =½ (12+15)=13.5

If the weights of sorghum ear heads are 45, 60,48,100,65 gms,
calculate the median
Solution
Here n = 5
First arrange it in ascending order 45, 48, 60, 65, 100
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 Cont…
Solution:-
Median= (n/2+1)th
=(5/2+1) =3th
=60
Media in grouped data
In a grouped distribution, values are associated with
frequencies.
Grouping can be in the form of a discrete frequency
distribution or a continuous frequency distribution.
Whatever may be the type of distribution, cumulative
frequencies have to be calculated to know the total number
of items.
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 Cont…
Cumulative frequency (cf)
Cumulative frequency of each class is the sum of
the frequency of the class and the frequencies of the
pervious classes, i.e adding the frequencies
successively, so that the last cumulative frequency
gives the total number of items.

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 Cont…

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 Cont…
Form the cumulative frequency tableere the number of
observations is even.
X F CF
1 1 1
2 3 1+3=4
3 5 1+3+5=9
4 6 1+3+5+6=15
5 10 1+3+5+6+10=25
6 13 1+3+5+6+10+13=38
7 9 1+3+5+6+10+13+9=47
8 5 1+3+5+6+10+13+9+5=52
9 3 1+3+5+6+10+13+9+5+3=55
10 2 1+3+5+6+10+13+9+5+3+2=57
11 2 1+3+5+6+10+13+9+5+3+2+2=59
12 1 1+3+5+6+10+13+9+5+3+2+2+1=60
60
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 Cont…
Therefore median = average of (n/2)th item and (n/2+1)th item.
= (30th item +31st item) / 2 = (6+6)/2 = 6
Median = size of(n/2+1)thItem
Here the number of observations is even. Therefore median =
average of (n/2)th item and (n/2+1)th item.
= (30th item +31st item) / 2 = (6+6)/2 = 6
Hence the median size is 6 insects per plant.
Continuous Series
The steps given below are followed for the calculation of median
in continuous series.
Step 1: Find cumulative frequencies.
Step 2: Find (n/2)
Step 3: See in the cumulative frequency the value first greater
than(n/2) , Then the corresponding class interval is called the
Median class.
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 Cont..
Then apply the formula

w n 
M  L  F
f 2 

Where
L = Lower class boundary of the median class
w = Width of the median class
f = Frequency of the median class
F = Cumulative frequency of the pre-median class
n=Total frequency

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 Cont…
Example 1. Calculate the median for the following data

Class fi Cumulative
Frequency
0 – 15 12 12
15 – 30 18 30
30 – 45 35 65
45 – 60 42 107
60 – 74 50 157
75 – 90 45 202
90 – 105 20 222
105 – 120 8 230
Total 230
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 Cont…
The first step is to construct cumulative frequency (less than type) which is given on the
th
230
third column. Then determine the median class, which is =115th observation is
2
located on the 5th class interval. If you look at the cumulative frequency column, a value
n 230
of 157 is the smallest cumulative frequency greater than or equal to /2 = =115,
2
implying 115th observation is in the interval 60-74. After locating the median class
calculation of the median value is a matter of applying the formula. Here, width of each
class is= 15.

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 Cont…

w n 
M  L  F
f 2 

= 60 + 2.4 = 62.4

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 Cont…
Advantages of Median

It is rigidly defined.

It is easily understood and is easy to calculate.

 It is not at all affected by extreme values.

It can be calculated for distributions with open-end classes
Disadvantages of Median
 In case of even number of observations median cannot be
determined exactly. We merely estimate it by taking the
mean of two middle terms.
 It is not amenable to algebraic treatment
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 Exercise : Compute Median of a set Grouped Data
in a Distribution of Respondents by age below
Age Group Frequency of Cumulative
Median class(f) frequencies(cf)
0-20 15 15
20-40 32 47
40-60 54 101
60-80 30 131
80-100 19 150
Total 150
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 Measures of Central Tendency
Mode
The mode of a data set is the value that occurs the most often.
If a distribution has two modes, then it is called bimodal.
In a large distribution, this term is commonly applied even
when the two modes do not have exactly the same frequency
Example:
Ten students in a math class were polled as to the number of
siblings in their individual families and the results were: 3, 2,
2, 1, 3, 6, 3, 3, 4, 2. Find the mode for the number of siblings.

3, 2, 2, 1, 3, 6, 3, 3, 4, 2
The mode for the number of siblings is 3.
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 Cont…
Mode grouped Data
For Discrete distribution, see the highest frequency and
corresponding value of x is mode.
Example: Find the mode for the following
Weight of sorghum in No. of ear head(f)
gms (x)

50 4

65 6

75 16

80 8

95 7

100 4

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 Cont…
Solution
The maximum frequency is 16. The corresponding x value is
75.
∴ mode = 75 gms.
Continuous distribution
Locate the highest frequency the class corresponding to that
frequency is called the modal class.
Then apply the formula.

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 Cont…
Where

L= lower limit of the model class

fs= difference of frequency between modal class and class before it

fp= difference of frequency between modal class and class after it
W = class interval

Example

For the frequency distribution of weights of sorghum ear-heads

given in table below. Calculate the mode

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 Cont…
Weights of ear No of ear
heads (g) heads (f)

60-80 22

80-100 38 fp

100-120 45 f

120-140 35 fs

140-160 20

Total 160

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 Cont…
Solution
Here 100, f = 45, W = 20, fp=38, fs=35

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Advantages of Mode :
• Mode is readily comprehensible and easily
calculated
• It is the best representative of data
• The value of mode can also be determined
graphically.

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 Disadvantages of Mode :
• It is not based on all observations.
• It is not capable of further mathematical
manipulation.
• Mode is affected to a great extent by
sampling fluctuations.

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 Exercise: Calculate Mode for the distribution of
monthly rent Paid by Libraries in South Africa

Monthly rent (Rs) Number of Libraries (f)

500-1000 5
1000-1500 10
1500-2000 8
2000-2500 16
2500-3000 14
3000 & Above 12
Total 65
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Report Writing

A report is a communication of information, from a person who has

collected and studied the facts.
 Cont….
Most basic composition of a report are
I. Preliminary pages
II. Abstract
III. Introduction
IV. Statement of the Problem
V. Purpose of the study
VI. Literature review
VII. Approach /Methods and procedures
VIII. Findings and Discussions
IX. Conclusion
X. Recommendation
XI. References
XII. Appendixes
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 Outlines of a research report
The following are suggested outline of chapters and sections of your report

Preliminary Pages

 Title Page

 Acknowledgement

 Abstract

 Table Of Contents

 List Of Tables

 List Of Figures

 List Of Acronyms

 Declarations

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 Cont…
CHAPTER I – Introduction
Introductory paragraphs
 Statement of the problem
Research questions and/or hypotheses
Purpose and Significance of the study
Scope and limitations
Definition of terms

CHAPTER II – Background
 Literature review

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 Cont…
CHAPTER III – Methodology
Restate purpose and research questions

Population and sampling

Data collection methods and process

Instrumentation (include copy in appendix)

Validity and reliability (Results from pilot test)

Analysis procedures

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 Cont…
CHAPTER IV – Results and Discussion

Findings

Discussion of Results

CHAPTER V – Conclusions and Recommendations

 Summary (of what you did and found)

 Conclusion (What you conclude from your findings)

 Recommendations (based on your findings)

REFERENCES

APPENDIX
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 Cont…
References
References cited in the research proposal should
be included in the reference list.
Follow a specific and consistent guideline
regarding use of references in text and in the
reference list.
For instance . APA, Turabian, Chicago, IEEE etc.

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 Cont…
References - Five rules

1. Any work not your own should be clearly marked.

2. Any quotations within quotation marks.
3. Every reference in the text should be listed.
4. Every item in the list must have a reference in the text.
5. Every table , figure or photograph must have a
reference in the text.
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 Cont…
Appendixes (Optional)
 The need for complete documentation generally dictates the inclusion of appropriate
appendixes in proposals.

The following materials are appropriate for an appendix.

 Questionnaires

 Interview protocols.

 Sample of informed consent forms.

 Cover letters sent to appropriate stakeholders.

 Official letters of permission to conduct research.



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 Writing Tips
Reading will help you write.
• Train yourself to read like a writer

• examine structure,
• writing style,
• overall organization,
• such as use of subheads.
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 Cont…
Begin writing only when you can summarize what you want do in one
sentence.

Write your abstract first.

Abstract is a few short paragraphs that identifies:-

• the key questions

• importance of your research question.

• The approaches you have employed

• Findings

The Title and Abstract should reflect the focus of your work.
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 Cont…
Edit for Clarity

Define abbreviations.

Use transitions from paragraph to paragraph and section to section.

Don’t bury your point underneath long introductory clauses.

Vary sentence length.

Rewrite ambiguous sentences.

Correct grammar

Correct spelling and punctuation

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 Cont…
Edit for Appearance
Consistent font
Consistent line spacing
Break up text with bullets
Use drawings and figures when possible
Use subheads

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 Cont…
Strive for Perfection
No one can sit down and write the perfect paper
in one draft.
A paper goes through several revisions, each one
improving on the previous version.
You will never prepare a proposal or a report
that’s free of any errors or ambiguities. Try
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 Cont…
Be ready for comments
Write your first draft
Have a Colleague/experts, Read your writing
You don’t want to hear how wonderful a writer you are,
you want substantive feedback.
Don’t take criticism personally
Edit your report
Produce final report
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 Cont…
The Nuremberg Code consisted of ten basic ethical
principles that the accused violated.

The ten guidelines were as follows:

Research participants must voluntarily consent to research

participation

Research aims should contribute to the good of society

Research must be based on sound theory and prior animal

testing
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 Cont…
Research must avoid unnecessary physical and mental
suffering

No research projects can go forward where serious injury

and/or death are potential outcomes

The degree of risk taken with research participants cannot

exceed anticipated benefits of results

Proper environment and protection for participants is

necessary
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 Cont…
Experiments can be conducted only by
scientifically qualified persons
 Human subjects must be allowed to discontinue
their participation at any time
Scientists must be prepared to terminate the
experiment if there is cause to believe that
continuation will be harmful or result in injury or
death
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 Presentation Skills

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 Presenting your paper
Most presentations are based on a written
paper

Main benefit of presenting the work orally as

well as in written form is that you get
immediate feedback on your work from other
people in your chosen field.
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 Presentation Skills
Give yourself plenty of time to prepare before your
presentation.

Practise your presentation to make sure it runs to

time.

Have notes handy in case you dry up. Make sure the
notes are legible and that you are totally familiar with
the order in which you want to say things.
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 Presentation Skills
Always start by introducing yourself and the topic
you are going to talk about.

Tell your audience exactly how the talk will be

structured.

Sum-up what you have said on a concluding slide.

Try not to cover too much ground.

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 Presentation Skills
Try not to read from a script

Maintain eye contact with your audience

Make sure your audience can hear you -

don’t talk too quickly, take a pause now
and then
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 Presentation Skills
Don’t put too much on each slide.

Use a large font.

Ensure slides are relevant.

Make sure any animation or sound does not cause an

unwanted distraction.

Ensure slides are free of Spelling/Grammatical

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 Presentation Skills
Leave time for questions, they are a good way of
getting feedback.

Consider your answer and make sure you understand

the question - if not ask for clarification.

If you don’t know the answer, be honest and say so.

Do not forget to thank your audience

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