Introduction to Statistics 2/18/2021

CHAPTER 3: MEASURES OF CENTRAL

TENDENCY
Motivating examples
Why Use Measures of Central Tendency?
 Suppose we have a random sample of n values of
some measurement X. The values are 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒙𝟐 , …, 𝒙𝒏
We want to summarize the information contained
in this sample as regards an "average" level.
An average is a numerical value that indicates
the middle point or central region of the raw
data

Cont…
For example, you want to describe the age of
students attending the Adama Science
Technology University. Therefore if you randomly
ask 700 students for their age, the data will be
as follows:

The average age of these students is 23.94.

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Objectives of measuring central tendency

Objectives of measuring central tendency are:
 To get a single value that represent(describe)
characteristics of the entire data
To summarizing/reducing the volume of the data
To facilitating comparison within one group or
between groups of data
 To enable further statistical analysis

The summation notation (∑)

 Let a data set consists of a number of observations,
represents by x1 , x2 ,..., xn where n (the last subscript) denotes the
number of observations in the data andxi is the ith observation.
 Very often in statistics an algebraic expression of the form
X1+X2+X3+...+Xn is used in a formula to compute a statistic.
 It is tedious to write an expression like this very often, so
mathematicians have developed a shorthand notation to
represent a sum of scores, called the summation notation.
n
 That is  xi
i 1

 This expression means sum the values of x, starting at x1 and

ending with xn.

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Cont…
5 10

 xi  x1  x2  x3  x4  x5 ,  xi  x4  x5  x6  x7  x8  x9  x10
i 1 i 4

Example: Suppose the following were scores made on the first

homework assignment for five students in the class: 5, 7, 7, 6, and 8.
In this example set of five numbers, where n=5, the summation could
be written: 5

x
i 1
i  x1  x2  x3  x4  x5  5  7  7  6  8  33

Properties of Summation

Exercise

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Important characteristics of a good average

 When we want to make comparison between groups of
numbers it is good to have a single value that is considered to
be a good representative of each group.

 This single value is called the average of the group.

 Averages are also called measures of central tendency.

 An average which is representative is called typical

average (good average) and an average which is not
representative and has only a theoretical value is called a
descriptive average.

A typical average (good average) should posses the following:

 It should be rigidly defined (unique).

 It should be based on all observation under
investigation.
 It should be as little as affected by extreme
observations.
 It should be capable of further algebraic treatment.
 It should be as little as affected by fluctuations of
sampling.
 It should be ease to calculate and simple to understand.

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Types of Measures of Central Tendency

• There are three measures of central tendency:
1. Mathematical Averages (means),
 Arithmetic Mean
Weighted Mean
Geometric Mean
Harmonic Mean
2. Median and
3. Mode

Arithmetic Mean (A.M)

Arithmetic mean is defined as the sum of the
measurements (values) of the items(observations)
divided by the total number of items (observations).
It is usually denoted by 𝑥 .
Case 1: Arithmetic Mean for individual series of data
Suppose, x1 , x2 ,..., xn are observed values in a sample of
size n from a population of size N, n<N then the arithmetic
mean of the sample is given by
n

x i
x1  x2  ...  xn
x i 1

n n

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Cont..
If we take an entire population the mean is denoted by μ and
is given by: n

 x x  x  ...  x i
 i 1
 1 2 N
N N
Where N stands for the total number of observations in the
population.
Example 1: Find the mean of the mark of 9 students (out of
100) given below: 52, 75, 70, 67, 35, 52, 70, 70, and 49.
Solution: n = 9
n

x i
x1  x2  ...  x9 52  75  70  67  35  52  70  70  49 540
x i 1
    60.
n 9 9 9

Exercise: Find the mean of the following data: 10.5, 2.4 ,3.6, 5.9 & 8.7

Case 2: Arithmetic mean for discrete data arranged in

frequency distribution
When the values of 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , …, 𝑥𝑘 occur with frequencies
𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , …, 𝑓𝑘 respectively, then the mean can be calculated:
k k

 f i xi
f x  f 2 x2  ...  f k xk fx i i k
x i 1
 1 1  i 1
, n   fi
k
f1  f 2  ...  f k n
fi 1
i
i 1

Example: Find the mean number of children per family which

collected from 73 families given below.

No of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total
children
frequency 5 9 12 17 14 10 6 73

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Solution:
k

fx i i
5 1  9  2  ...  6  7 299
x i 1
   4.09  4
n 73 73

• Case 3: Arithmetic Mean for Continuous Data:

k

 f i xi
x  i 1

where n
k is the number of classes
n is total frequencies
xi is the ith class mark

Cont…
Example: Find the mean for the following continuous
data.
C.L 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 Total
fi 4 8 12 6 3 4 3 40
C.M (xi) 3 8 13 18 23 28 33
fixi 12 64 156 108 69 112 99 620

Solution:
k

 f i xi
4  3  8  8  ...  3  33
x i 1

n 40
620
  15.5
40

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Cont…
Exercise
The following table gives the daily wages of
laborers. Calculate the average daily wages paid
to a laborer.
Wages in dollar 11-13 13-15 15-17 17-19 19-21 21-23 23-25

Number of 3 4 5 6 6 4 3
laborer

Mathematical Properties of the mean

1. The algebraic n
sum of deviations from the mean is always
zero. i.e.  ( xi  x)  0
i 1
2. The sum of squares of deviations from the mean is
n

minimum. i.e.  ( x  A) when A  x .

2
i
i 1

3. Let y  bx  a be a linear function of x ,then y is also

same linear function of x . i.e. y  b x  a
4. If a wrong value has been used when calculating the
mean the correct mean can be obtained without repeating
the whole process using the following formula:
Correct values - wrong values
Correct Mean  Wrong Mean 
n

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Cont…
Example: The mean of 200 observations was 50. Later on,
it was discovered that two observations were wrongly
read as 92 and 8 instead of 192 and 88. Find the correct
mean.
Solution: n = 200, wrong mean = 50
wrong values = 92+8 = 100
correct values = 192+88 = 280
Correct values - wrong values
Correct Mean  Wrong Mean 
n
280 - 100
 50   50.9.
200

Cont…
5. Combined mean:

n1 x1  n2 x2  ...  nk xk
xc 
n1  n2  ...  nk
Example: Last year there were three sections taking Probability &
Statistics course course in ASTU. At the end of the semester,
the three sections got average marks of 80, 83 and 76. There
were 28, 32 and 35 students in each section respectively. Find the
mean mark for the entire students.

n1 x1  n2 x2  n3 x3 7556
xc    79.54
n1  n2  n3 95

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Properties of the Mean

The mean is found by using all the values of the data.
2. The mean varies less than the median or mode when
samples are taken from the same population and all
three measures are computed for these samples.
3. The mean is used in computing other statistics, such
as the variance.
4. The mean for the data set is unique and not
necessarily one of the data values.
5. The mean cannot be computed for the data in a
frequency distribution that has an open-ended class.
6. The mean is affected by extremely high or low values,
called outliers, and may not be the appropriate
average to use in these situations.

Weighted Mean ( 𝒙𝒘 )
In the calculation of arithmetic mean, all items
were assumed to be of equally importance.
That is, each value in the data set has equal weight.
When the observations have different weight, we
use weighted average.
Weights are assigned to each item in proportion
to its relative importance.
If 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ,…, 𝑥𝑛 represent values of the
observations and 𝑤1 , 𝑤2 ,…, 𝑤𝑛 are the
corresponding weights, then the weighted mean is
given by

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Cont…
n

w x i i
w1 x1  w2 x2  ...  wn xn
xw  i 1

n
w1  w2  ...  wn
w
i 1
i

Example: Suppose that a student was registered for

five courses with 4, 4, 3, 2 and 3 credit hours and
she obtained grades B, A, C, D and A, respectively.
Find her GPA.
n

w x i i
48
x w  GPA  i 1
n
  3.0
16
w i 1
i

Geometric Mean (G.M)

The geometric mean like arithmetic mean is
calculated average.
 It used when observed values are measured
as percentages, average growth.
The G.M of n positive values is defined as the nth
root of their product.
G.M  n x1.x2 ....xn

G.M for discrete and continuous data. Exercise

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Example
Find the G. M of a) 3 and 12 b) 2, 4 and 8
Solution:
a) 𝐺. 𝑀 = 𝑥1 . 𝑥2 = 3 × 12 = 36 = 6
3 3
b) 𝐺. 𝑀= 3 𝑥1 . 𝑥2 . 𝑥3 = 2×4×8= 64 = 4
Properties of geometric mean
• It is less affected by extreme values.
• It takes each and every observation into consideration.
• If the value of one observation is zero its values
becomes zero.

Harmonic Mean
 It is a suitable measure of central tendency when the data
relates to speed, rate and time.
 The harmonic mean of n values is defined as n divided by
the sum of their reciprocal.
𝒏
𝑯. 𝑴 =
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ + ⋯+
𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝒏
 H.M for discrete and continuous data:
𝒏
𝑯. 𝑴 = 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏 = 𝒇𝒊
𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐 𝒇𝒌
+ + ⋯+
𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝒌
 For continuous data, xi is the ith class mark.

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Example: A car travels 25 miles at 25 mph, 25 miles at 50

mph, and 25 miles at 75 mph. Find the harmonic mean of
the three velocities.
Solution: mph= miles per hour
𝑛 3
𝐻. 𝑀 = 1 1 1 = 1 1 1 = 40.9
+ +⋯+ + +⋯+
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥𝑛 25 50 75

Properties of harmonic mean

It is unique for a given set of data.
It takes each and every observation into consideration.
Difficult to calculate and understand.
Appropriate measure of central tendency in situations
where data is in ratio, speed or rate.

Median
o It divided a given set of data into two equal parts
o It is obtained by arranging the data in an increasing or decreasing
order of magnitude
o It denoted by 𝑥
Case 1: Median for individual series of data
To determine the median:
 arranging the data in an increasing or decreasing order
 Identify the total number of observations is either odd or even.
 Then,

(𝑛:1
2
)𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
𝑥= (𝑛 2 )𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 + (𝑛 2 +1)𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
2

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Example: Find the median for the following wage of 7

workers: 1200, 1400, 1080, 1100, 1120, 1150, 1160
Solution:
Arranged data: 1080, 1100, 1120, 1150, 1160, 1200 and
1400
7+1 th
𝑥 = (𝑛:1
2
)𝑡ℎ 𝑣 = ( ) v= 4th v = 1150
2

Case 2: Median for discrete data arranged in a frequency

distribution
(𝑛+1
2
)𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
𝑥 = (𝑛 )𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 + (𝑛 + 1)𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
2 2 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
2
 n is total frequency

Cont…
Example: Find the median of the following discrete
data
Number of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total
children

fi 5 9 12 17 14 10 6 73
L.C.F 5 14 26 43 57 67 73

Solution: n = 73 is odd
73+1 th
𝑥 = (𝑛:1
2
)𝑡ℎ 𝑣 = ( ) v= 37th v = 4
2

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Case 3: Median for continuous data

• For continuous data, the median is obtained by the
following formula:
𝑥 = 𝐿𝑚𝑒𝑑 + 𝑓 𝑤 (𝑛2−𝐶.𝐹)
𝑚𝑒𝑑

Where
 𝐿𝑚𝑒𝑑 is the LCB of the median class
 w is class width
 𝑓𝑚𝑒𝑑 is frequency of the median class
 C.F is the L.C.F of the class immediately preceding the
median class
 Median Class:- is the class contains the minimum L.C.F
greater than or equal to n/2.

Example: Find the median for the following data

C.L 1 - 5 6 - 10 11 – 15 16 – 20 21 - 25 26 - 30 31 - 35 Total
fi 4 8 12 6 3 4 3 40
L.C.F 4 12 24 30 33 37 40

Solution: n = 40
𝑛 40
= = 20.
2 2
The minimum L.C.F greater than or equal to 20 is 24.
Therefore, the 3rd class is the median class.
Thus, 𝐿𝑚𝑒𝑑 =10.5, w=5, 𝑓𝑚𝑒𝑑 =12 , C.F = 12
𝑥 = 𝐿𝑚𝑒𝑑 + 𝑓 𝑤 𝑛2−𝐶.𝐹 =10.5+12 5
20−12 = 13.83
𝑚𝑒𝑑

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Merits of median
• It is less affected by extreme values.
• Median can be calculated even in case of open-ended
intervals.
• It can be computed for ratio, interval, and ordinal
level of data.
Demerits of median
 Its value is not determined by each & every
observation.
 It is not a good representative of the data if the
number of items (data) is small.
 The arrangement of items in order of magnitude is
sometimes very boring process if the number of items
is very large.

Exercise: The following table gives the distribution of the

weekly wages of employees of a small firm.

Wages in 126 and 127-135 136-144 145-153 154-162 163-171 172 and
Birr below above
No. of 3 5 9 12 5 4 2
Employees

a)Find the median weekly wage.

b) Why is the median a more suitable measure of central
tendency than the
mean in this case?

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Mode
It is the third measure of central tendency.
The mode is the value that occurs most often in the data
set.
The mode is the value with the highest frequency
 It denoted by 𝑥 (read as “x-hat”).
A data set may not have a mode or may have more than
one mode.
A data set that has only one value that occurs with the
greatest frequency is said to be unimodal.
If a data set has two values that occur with the same
greatest frequency, both values are considered to be the
mode and the data set is said to be bimodal.

Cont…
If a data set has more than two values that occur with the
same greatest frequency, each value is used as the mode,
and the data set is said to be multimodal.
Example: Find the mode of the following data.
 Data X: 3, 4, 6, 12, 31, 8, 9, 8. The Mode (𝑥 ) = 8
 Data Y: 6, 8, 12, 13, 11, 12, 6. The Mode (𝑥 ) = 6 and 12
 Data Z: 2, 6, 3, 5, 7, 8, 12, 11. No Mode
Exercise: The marks obtained by ten students in a semester
exam in statistics (out of 100) are: 70, 65, 68, 70,75, 73, 80,
70, 83 and 86. Find the mode of the students’ marks.

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Mode for discrete data arranged in a frequency

distribution
In the case of discrete grouped data, the mode is
determined just by looking to that value (s) having
the highest frequency.
Example: Find the mode of the following data
Number of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total
children
fi 5 9 12 17 14 10 6 73

Solution: Since the maximum frequency is 17,

𝒙=𝟒

Mode for Grouped Continuous Frequency

Distribution
∆1
𝑥 = 𝐿𝑚𝑜𝑑 + × 𝑤, ∆1 = 𝑓𝑚𝑜𝑑 − 𝑓1 & ∆2 = 𝑓𝑚𝑜𝑑 − 𝑓2
∆1 +∆2
Where
 𝐿𝑚𝑜𝑑 is the LCB of the modal class
 w is the class width
 𝑓𝑚𝑜𝑑 is frequency of the modal class
 𝑓1 is frequency of the class immediately preceding the modal
class
 𝑓2 is frequency of the class immediately succeeding the modal
class
Modal class:- is the class with the maximum frequency

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Example: Find the mode of the following weekly

wages of employees in a small firm.

Wages in 118-126 127-135 136-144 145-153 154-162 163-171 172-180

Birr
No. of 3 5 7 12 4 3 6
Employees

Solution: Since the maximum frequency is 12, the

4th class is the modal class.
Thus, 𝐿𝑚𝑜𝑑 = 144.5, w = 9 𝑓𝑚𝑜𝑑 =12, 𝑓1 = 7, 𝑓2 =
4, ∆1 =5, ∆2 = 8
∆1 5
𝑥 = 𝐿𝑚𝑜𝑑 + × 𝑤 = 144.5 + 5:8 ×9 =𝟏𝟒𝟕.𝟗𝟔
∆1 +∆2

Merits of mode
 Mode is not affected by extreme values.
 We can change the size of the observations without
changing the mode.
 It can be computed for all level of data i.e. ratio, interval,
ordinal or nominal.
Demerits of mode
 It may not exist.
 It does not take every value into consideration.
 Mode may not exist in the series and if it exists it may
not be unique.

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Measures of Non-central Locations (Quintiles)

 Median is the value of the middle item which divides the

data in to two equal parts and found by arranging the data
in an increasing or decreasing order of magnitude,

 Where as quintiles are measures which divides a given set

of data in to approximately equal subdivision and are
obtained by the same procedure to that of median.

 They are averages of position (non-central tendency).

 Some of these are quartiles, deciles and percentiles.

Quartiles
Quartiles: are values which divide the data set in to
approximately four equal parts, denoted by 𝑄1 ,
𝑄2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄3 .
𝑄1 - the first quartile (the lower quartile)
- 25% of the observations value is below it.
𝑄2 - the 2nd quartile
- 50% of the observations value is
below/above
𝑄3 - the 3rd quartile (the upper quartile)
- 75 % the observations value is below it.

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Quartiles for Individual series of data

Arranging the data in ascending order,
Let 𝑥1, 𝑥2, … , 𝑥𝑛 be n ordered observations, Q1,
Q2, & Q3 are, obtained by:
𝑡ℎ
𝑖(𝑛 + 1)
𝑄𝑖 = 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒, 𝑖 = 1,2,3
4
1(𝑛+1) 𝑡ℎ 2(𝑛+1) 𝑡ℎ
𝑄1 = 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒, 𝑄2 = 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
4 4
3(𝑛+1) 𝑡ℎ
and 𝑄3 = 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒.
4

Example: Based on the following wage 7 workers, find Q1,

Q2, & Q3.

Wage: 1400, 1200, 1080, 1100, 1120, 1150, & 1160

Solution: The arranged data are: 1080, 1100, 1120, 1150,

1160, 1200, and 1400.
1(𝑛+1) 𝑡ℎ (7+1) 𝑡ℎ
𝑄1 = 𝑣 = 𝑣 = 2nd v = 1100.
4 4
2(𝑛+1) 𝑡ℎ 2(7+1) 𝑡ℎ
𝑄2 = 𝑣 = 𝑣 = 4th v = 1150
4 4
3(𝑛+1) 𝑡ℎ 3(7+1) 𝑡ℎ
𝑄3 = 𝑣 = 𝑣 = 6th v = 1200
4 4

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Quartiles for discrete data arranged in a F.D

Arranging the data in ascending order
Calculate the less than cumulative frequency(L.C.F)
𝑡ℎ
𝑖(𝑛 + 1)
𝑄𝑖 = 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒, 𝑖 = 1,2,3
4
Example: Calculate 𝑄1 , 𝑄2 , & 𝑄3 for the following
data given on the table below.

xi 16 11 12 13 14 15 10 17 18
fi 20 8 25 48 65 40 2 9 2
Solution:

The arranged in an increasing order is:

xi 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
fi 2 8 25 48 65 40 20 9 2
L.C.F 2 10 35 83 148 188 208 217 219

1(𝑛+1) 𝑡ℎ (219+1) 𝑡ℎ
𝑄1 = 𝑣 = 𝑣 = 55th v = 13.
4 4
2(𝑛+1) 𝑡ℎ 2(219+1) 𝑡ℎ
𝑄2 = 𝑣 = 𝑣 = 110th v = 14
4 4
3(𝑛+1) 𝑡ℎ 3(219+1) 𝑡ℎ
𝑄3 = 𝑣 = 𝑣 = 165th v = 15
4 4

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Introduction to Statistics 2/18/2021

Quartiles for continuous data

𝑄𝑖 = 𝐿𝑄𝑖 + 𝑓𝑤 𝑖𝑛
4
−𝐶.𝐹 , 𝑖=1,2,3
𝑄𝑖

where
 𝐿𝑄𝑖 is the LCB of the ith quartile class,
 𝑓𝑄𝑖 is frequency of the ith quartile class,
 𝐶. 𝐹 is the L.C.F of the class immediately
preceding the ith quartile class
𝑄1 = 𝐿𝑄1 + 𝑓𝑤 𝑛
−𝐶.𝐹 , 𝑄2 = 𝐿𝑄2 + 𝑓𝑤 2𝑛
−𝐶.𝐹 and
𝑄1 4 𝑄2 4

𝑄3 = 𝐿𝑄3 + 𝑓𝑤 3𝑛
−𝐶.𝐹
𝑄3 4

Example: Marks of 50 students out of 85 is given

below. Based on the data find 𝑄1 ,𝑄2 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑄3 .
Marks 46-50 51-55 56-60 61-65 66-70 71-75 76-80

fi 4 8 15 5 9 5 4

L.C.F 4 12 27 32 41 46 50

Solution:
𝑄1 : 𝑛4 = 50
4
=12.5.

The minimum L.C.F greater than or equal to 12.5

is 27.
Therefore, the 3rd class is the 1st quartile class.

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Introduction to Statistics 2/18/2021

𝐿𝑄1 = 55.5, w = 5, 𝑓𝑄1 = 15, C.F = 12

𝑄1 = 𝐿𝑄1 + 𝑓𝑤 𝑛4−𝐶.𝐹 =55.5+15 5
12.5−12 =𝟓𝟓.𝟕
𝑄1

𝑄2 : 2𝑛
4
=
2×50
4
=25.

The minimum L.C.F greater than or equal to 25 is

27.
Therefore, the 3rd class is also the 2nd quartile
class.
𝐿𝑄2 = 55.5, w = 5, 𝑓𝑄2 = 15, C.F = 12
𝑄2 = 𝐿𝑄2 + 𝑓𝑤 2𝑛
4
−𝐶.𝐹 =55.5+
5
15
25−12 =𝟓𝟗.𝟖𝟑
𝑄2

𝑄3 : 3𝑛
4
=
3×50
4
= 37.5.

The minimum L.C.F greater than or equal to 37.5

is 41.
Therefore, the 5th class is also the 3rd quartile
class.
𝐿𝑄3 = 65.5, w = 5, 𝑓𝑄3 = 9, C.F = 32
𝑄3 = 𝐿𝑄3 + 𝑓𝑤 3𝑛
4
−𝐶.𝐹
5
=65.5+ 37.5−32 =𝟔𝟖.𝟓𝟔
9
𝑄3

So, 75% of the observation values are below

68.56 or 25% of the observation values are
greater than or equal to 68.56.

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Introduction to Statistics 2/18/2021

Thank you!!!

Compiled by: Bacha E. , ASTU 25