3/12/2023

Statistical Fundamentals
Part 1

Dr. Maha Alkasasbeh

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Data
• Data may be collected by direct observation or indirectly through
written or verbal questions.

• Data that are collected for quality control purposes are obtained by
direct observation and are classified as either
variables or attributes.

Dr. Maha Alkasasbeh

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Attributes
• Attributes are those quality characteristics that are classified as either
conforming or not conforming to specifications, such as a “go–no go”
gauge.
• Attribute data is something that can be measured in terms of numbers
or can be described as either yes or no for recording and analysis.
• These data can be classified and counted. It cannot have fractions or
decimals.

• These data are described qualitatively in terms of dimensions, weights

or other attributes that meet or do not meet product specification.
Dr. Maha Alkasasbeh

Variables

• Variables are those quality characteristics that are measurable, such as

a weight measured in grams.
• If you can meaningfully add or subtract values of the data, then you
are working with what is called variable data or continuous data.
• Variables can be measured in fractions or decimals.

Dr. Maha Alkasasbeh

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Variables
• Variable data is data that is used to measure some physical
characteristics such as length, width, temperature, time, strength,
thickness, pressure, and so on
• These are quantitative data that can be acquired through
measurements.
• Mathematical calculations such as derive an average or standard
deviation from the data can be carried out on variable data . This is
what sets variable data from attribute data.

Dr. Maha Alkasasbeh

Population and Sample

• The population may have a finite number of items, such as a day’s reduction
of steel shafts. It may be infinite or almost infinite, such as the number of
rivets in a year’s production of jet airplanes. The population may be defined
differently, depending on the particular situation
• Sampling is necessary when it may be impossible to measure the entire
population; when the expense to observe all the data is prohibitive; when
the required inspection destroys the product; or when a test of the entire
population may be too dangerous, as would be the case with a new medical
drug.

Dr. Maha Alkasasbeh

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Population and Sample

• A sample frequency distribution is represented by a histogram
• A population frequency distribution is represented by a smooth curve
• To some extent, the sample represents the real world and the population
represents the mathematical world. The equations and concepts are based
on the population.

Dr. Maha Alkasasbeh

Population and Sample

Dr. Maha Alkasasbeh

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Population and Sample

• The primary objective in selecting a sample is to learn something
about the population that will aid in making some type of decision.
• The sample selected must be of such a nature that it tends to resemble
or represent the population.
• How successfully the sample represents the population is a function
of the size of the sample, chance, the sampling method, and whether or
not the conditions change.

Dr. Maha Alkasasbeh

Measures of central tendency

• There are two principal analytical methods of describing a collection
of data: measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion.
• A measure of central tendency of a distribution is a numerical value
that describes the central position of the data or how the data tend to
build up in the center.
• There are three measures in common use in quality:
(1) the average,
(2) the median, and
(3) the mode.

Dr. Maha Alkasasbeh

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Measures of central tendency

The average is the sum of the observations divided by the number of
observations. It is the most common measure of central tendency and is
represented by the following equation:

The same equation is used to find

Dr. Maha Alkasasbeh

Measures of central tendency

The mean of a frequency distribution for a sample is estimated by

Dr. Maha Alkasasbeh

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Measures of central tendency

• Median is another measure of central tendency which is defined as
the value that divides a series of ordered observations so that the
number of items above it is equal to the number below it.
• When the number in the series is odd, the median is the midpoint of
the values, provided the data are ordered.
• Thus, the ordered set of numbers 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 8, and 10 has a median of 6.
• When the number in the series is even, the median is the average of
the two middle numbers.
• Thus, the ordered set of numbers 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, and 8 has a median that is the
average of 5 and 6, which is (5 + 6)/2 = 5.5.
Dr. Maha Alkasasbeh

Measures of central tendency

• The mode of a set of numbers is the value that occurs with the greatest
frequency.
• It is possible for the mode to be nonexistent in a series of numbers or
to have more than one value.
• A series of numbers is referred to as unimodal if it has one mode,
bimodal if it has two modes, and multimodal if there are more than
two modes

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Measures of central tendency

• The average is the most commonly-used measure of central tendency. It is
used when the distribution is symmetrical or not appreciably skewed to the
right or left; when additional statistics, such as measures of dispersion,
control charts, and so on, are to be computed based on the average; and
when a stable value is needed for inductive statistics.
• The median becomes an effective measure of the central tendency when
the distribution is positively (to the right) or negatively (to the left) skewed.
The median is used when an exact midpoint of a distribution is desired.
• When a distribution has extreme values, the average will be adversely
affected, whereas the median will remain unchanged.

Dr. Maha Alkasasbeh

Measures of central tendency

• The mode is used when a quick and approximate measure of the

central tendency is desired.
• Thus, the mode of a histogram is easily found by a visual examination.
• In addition, the mode is used to describe the most typical value of a
distribution, such as the modal age of a particular group.

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Measures of dispersion

• Measures of dispersion which describe how the data are spread out or
scattered on each side of the central value.
• Measures of dispersion and measures of central tendency are both
needed to describe a collection of data.

Dr. Maha Alkasasbeh

Measures of dispersion

• The employees of the plating and the assembly departments of a

factory have identical average weekly wages of $325.36;
• However, the plating department has a high of $330.72 and a low of
$319.43,
• Whereas the assembly department has a high of $380.79 and a low of
$273.54.
• The data for the assembly department spread out, or dispersed, farther
from the average than are those of the plating department.

Dr. Maha Alkasasbeh

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Measures of dispersion
Range is one of the measures of dispersion which for a series of
numbers is the difference between the largest and smallest values of
observations. Symbolically, it is represented by the equation

Dr. Maha Alkasasbeh

Measures of dispersion
• Standard deviation is anther measure of the dispersion used in
quality. It is a numerical value in the units of the observed values that
measures the spreading tendency of the data.
• A large standard deviation shows greater variability of the data than
does a small standard deviation.
• In symbolic terms, it is represented by the equation.

The same equation

is used to find

Dr. Maha Alkasasbeh

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Measures of dispersion

• We can use another formula to find the sample variance

• Variance for Grouped Data

Dr. Maha Alkasasbeh

Measures of dispersion
The standard deviation is a reference value that measures the dispersion
in the data.
It is best viewed as an index that is defined by the formula.
The smaller the value of the standard deviation, the better the
quality, because the distribution is more closely compacted around the
central value.

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Measures of dispersion
• In quality control the range is a very common measure of the dispersion. It
is used in one of the principal control charts.

• The primary advantage of the range is in providing a knowledge of the total

spread of the data. It is also valuable when the amount of data is too small
or too scattered to justify the calculation of a more precise measure of
dispersion.

Dr. Maha Alkasasbeh

Measures of dispersion
• As the number of observations increases, the accuracy of the range
decreases, because it becomes easier for extremely high or low readings to
occur.
• It is suggested that the use of the range be limited to a maximum of ten
observations.

• The standard deviation is used when a more precise measure is desired.

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Example1
• Determine the average, median, mode, range, and standard deviation for the
height of seven people. Data are 1.83, 1.91, 1.78, 1.80, 1.83, 1.85, 1.87
meters.
• Solution:

Dr. Maha Alkasasbeh

Example 2
Find the average for the following grouped of data:
Solution:

Dr. Maha Alkasasbeh

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Example 3
What is the type of the mode foe each of the following?

Solution:

Dr. Maha Alkasasbeh

Example 4
• Is the average adversely affected by the changes occurred in round 2
observations?
• Is the median adversely affected by the changes occurred in round 2
observations?
• What is your suggestion?
Round 1 observations: 12, 13, 14, 15, 16
Round 2 observations: 2, 13, 14, 15, 16
Solution:

Dr. Maha Alkasasbeh

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Example 4
Calculate the variance and the S.D of the frequency table below.

Solution:

Dr. Maha Alkasasbeh

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