Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Design of Welded Structures Omer W BL
Design of Welded Structures Omer W BL
rner
fficerr:
Secretary-Richard S. Sabo, Cleveland, Ohio
Price:
in U.S.A. (Postage included)
Ocerseas and Quantity Prices Upon Request
FB-37
Library of Congress Catalog Card Alumbe?: 66-23123
Printed in U.S.A.
June 1966
ITS
The author and the publisher firatefully acl<nowledge the organi-
zations and individuals who h a w contributed photographs or
other ihstrativo material:
Allied Stcrl Corporation Nathan N. Hoffman
Allison Steel Mfg. Co. HoyIc, Doran & B e q
Allison Structural Steel Co. Inland Steel Company
American Bridge Division, Jackson & hloreland Division,
U.S. Steel Corporation United Engineers and Conshxctors, Inc.
.4merican Institute of Steel Constmction Kaiser Steel Corp.
American Iron & Steel Institute Kansas City Stn~cturalSteel Co.
American Welding Society Felix hl. Krans, Consulting Engineer
Barb~r-Magee8 Hoffman 1.rhigh Construction Company
John F. Beasley Constmction Co. Lehigh University, Fritz Enginecsing Laboratmy
Bethlehem Fabricating Co. Robert Charles Lesser, Architect
Bethlehem Steel Corporation R. C. Mahon Company
J. G. Bouwkamp P. H. Mvllog Co.
Bnrklrardt Steel Company McGaw-Hill Book Co.
The California Co. Midwest Steel & Iron Works
California State Division of Highways Xelson Shld Welding Division,
Canadian Wuirling Magazine Gregory Industries, Inc.
J. A. Cappuccilli, .4rchitect New England Construction Magazine
Columi Resellrch Council Pacific Car 8 Foundry Co.
Connecticut Statc Highway Dept. Pacific lron and Steel Corporation
-
I h w i d d i o Constmction Company
uominion Brrdge Company, Ltd.
Phillips-Carter-Osbom, Inc.
Pittsburgh-Des Mo~nesSteei Co.
Dominion Structural Steel Co., Ltd. H. Platt Company
B. M. Domblatt 8 Associates, Inc. Port 01 New Yo& Authority
Dreier Structural Steel Co. Product Engineering Magazine
Edmundson, KochendotlEer S. Kennedy H q i i b l i ~Sled Corporation
Enginecring News-Record Joseph T. Ryerson 8 Sons, Inc.
Englert Engineering Company Van Renssrlser P. Saxe, Engineer
Flint Steel Corporation Schact Steel Construction, Inc.
Frankel Stecl Company Steel Joist Instihrte
General Electric Company, Tonnessec Gas Pipeline Co.
In~iwtrialHeating Dcpt. United States Stccl Corporation
David R. Graham & Asswiates I'eimont Stnictural Steel Ca.
Granco Steel Products Co. Paul Weidlinger, Consulting Engineers
Harley, Ellington, Cuwin 8 Stirton, Inc. Welding Engineer Magazine
Iiavmdusch Co. Welding Reseavch Co~mcil
Horzberg & Associates West Coast Stccl Works
Hewitt-Robins, Inc. hlinom Yamasaki-Smith, Hinchman & Grylls
In certain sobjeot areas, the author hns made adaptations of work
done by cailier investigators, to wit:
Friedrich Bleich S. Timoshenko
"Buckling Strength of Metal Stru~tures" "Theory of Elasticity"
hlcCraw-Hill Book Co., New York, N. Y1 McGraw-Hi11 Book Co., New York, N. Y.
Raymond Roark S. Timoshcnko and S. Woinowsky Krieger
"Formulas for Strcss and Strain" "Theory of Platcs and Shells"
McGraw-IiiIl Book Co., Sew Yor11, N. Y. McCraw-Hill Book Co., New York, N. Y.
F. K. Shanley S. Timoshenko and James Gerc
'Strcn@h of Materials" "Theory of Elastic Stability"
McCraw-Hill Dook Co., New York, N. Y. .McCTrawHill Book Co., New York, N. Y.
The publisher regrets any omissions from this list, and would
apprwiate being advised about them so that tho records can
be corrected.
G FOUNDATION
Mctcils und How to Weld Thcm. This dnal purpose texthook and
reference manual cle;irly describes thc internal strnctnrc of metals and
its relation to ri~eehanicalend physical properties and weldnbility. The
book thoroughly disc~~sses the metai1nrgic:rl aspects of welding various
metals used in Indnstry. drscrihing welding processes and procedures
that are applicable in each case. 400 pages, 195 illustrations. $2.00 U.S.A.,
postpaid.
Modern Wcldcd Strz~cttrrcs.Vol. I. h behind-the-scenes look at how
83 notcd arcliitrcts, enginwrs :md drsignars chose welded design to
economically improvc the fmiction and aesthetic appeal of varied strnc-
tures. -4dapted from outstanding papers submitted in the 1962 Awards
Program for Progress in the Desigri of Arc Welded Stmcturcs sponsored
by The James F. Lincoin -4re Welding Foundation. Each study relates
the ilesign problem, then tells and explains the soli~tionfound with
arc-wclded steol. 150 pngcs, 335 illilstrations. 52.00 U.S.A., postpaid.
Modem IYoldetE Structtjrcs, Vol. 11. Welded design aspccts of 64 excit-
ing projects developed by sonic of thc ~quntry's leading architects and
engineers are described in this book. These men tell you in their own
w-ords how they approached the dcsign problem and solved it; how they
applied the latest concepts and techniques in arc-a&ed design :ind
construction to improve function, add beauty, lower costs. Studies are
adaptcd from the best entries in 'Ilx janies F. Lincoln Arc Welding
Foundation's 1964 Awards Program for Progress in the Design of .4rc
Viield~dStructures. 280 pages, 335 illustrations. $2.50 U.S.A., postpaid.
Design of Wcldmenfs. Anthoriiative combined textbook and reference
manual describes in detail many desig~itechniques for creating macl3in-
cry &signs in arc-\vt:ided steel. h41ieh of this material riot available
elsen~here.Thcoreticnl analysis and prohlen~-solution examples explain
how to &sign machiiicry comporlcnts for manufacturing economies
and improvement of product performance. 464 pages, 823 illustrations,
nomograpi~sand charts. $5.00 U.S.A., postpaid.
Part Two
ANALYSIS
Part Four
Part Five
ELDED-CONN ECTI
ESIGN
Part Six
DESIGN
Part Seven
JOINT DESIGN
AND PRODUCTION
Part Eight
h m rlkrgrruns and Formulas 8.1
EFERENCE DESIGN Yo& Membw Diagrams and formulas 8.2
FORMULAS
n = angular acceleration (radians/sec/sec); in- t -- thickness of scrtim (in.); time (min.); time
cluded angle of beam cwvature (degrees); interval (sec)
form +actor u = material's tensile rnodulus of resilience
A = perpendici~lardeflection (in.), bending (A*) (in..lb/in!)
or shear (As) u, .= material's u l t i m a t e c n e r g y r e s i s t a n c e
E = unit strain, elongation or emtraction (in./in.) (in.-Ib/in.*)
c, = unit shear strain (in./in.) w = uniformly distributed load (Ibs/linear inch)
v = Poisson's ratio (steel = 0.3 usually); unit x = length of moment arm ( c u n e d beam)
shear force y == distance of area's center of gravity to neutral
o = leg size of fillet weld (in.); rate of angular axis of entir? se~.tion (in.)
motion about an axis (radians/sec)
+ = unit angular twist (radians/linear inch); in-
A = arrm (in.'); Iota1 area of cross-section
cluded angle; angle of rotation
E = sum C r= stiffness factor used in moment distribution;
u = nonnd stress, tensile or compressive (psi);
any specified constant
strength (psi) E = modulus of elasticity, tension (psi); arc volt-
age (volts)
ub = bending stress (psi)
u? = yield strength (psi)
E, .-- modulus of elslsticity in shear (psi)
T = shear stress (psi); shear strength ((pi)
Ek =r tangential modulus of elasticity (psi)
El, =r l<inetic energy
0 =, anglc of twist (radians; I radian = 57.3 d e
gets); angle of rotation (radians); slope of E, = potential cncrgy
tapered girder; any speckled angle F -- total force (Ibs); radial force (Ibs)
I = moment of inertia ( h 4 ) ; welding current
a = area of section beyond plane where stress is (amps)
desired or applied (in.'); langtb of plate J u polar momtmt of incrtia (in?); heat input
( joulcs/in. or watt-sec/in.)
(in.); ncceleration or docelmation (ft/min,
ft/sec); clear distance between transverse K - ratio of minimum to maximum load (fatigue,;
stiffeners of girder (in.) ratio of web doptl~to wkb thichness; distance
b = width of section (in. ); distance of area's cen from outer face of beam flange to web toe of
tcr of gravity to reference axis ( i n . ) fillet (in. ); thermal conductivity; any speci-
fied constant
c = distance from neutral axis to extreme Fibex
(in.); distance of elastic center from refer- L =. length of mcmber ( i n 01. ft. ); span between
ence axis supports (iu.)
d = depth of section (in. ) ; moment arm of force L, = effpctive length of column
(in.); distance (in.); distance betwcen cen- M = bending moment (in.-lbs)
ters of gravily of girder flanges ( i l l . ) M, -- applied bending momcnt (in.-lbs)
d, = clear distanm: between girder flanges (in.) M, = plastic moment at connection (in-lbs)
e = eccentricity of applied load (in.); total axial N = numbrr of service cyclcs; minimum bearing
strain (in.); moment arm of force (in.); d- Imgth of beam on scat (in.)
fective width (in.); length of Tee section. in P = conceiitrated load (Ibs)
open-web girder (in.) Q = shear centw; statical moment of cover plate
area about neutral axis of cowr-plated beam
f = force per linear inch of weld (lbs/in. ) ; hori-
zontal shear force (lbs/in.); (vectorial) re- section
sultant force (lbs/in.); allowable strength of R = reattion (11,s); torsiu~ralresistance of mem-
weld (lbs/in.) ber (in."; weld cooling rate ("F/scc)
f,' = mmpressiw strmrgth of concrete ( p i ) S : section modulus ( i d ) = I/c
g = accelrration of gravity (386,4"/seG) T = torque or twisting momcnt ( i w l b s ) ; tem-
h = height; height of i d ; distance oi expansion perature ('F)
on open-web girder (in.) U = stored energy
V := vertical shear load (lbs); shear reaction;
k = any specified mnstnnt or amplification factor
m = mass; statical moment of transformed con-
velocity; vnlume; arc s p e ~ d(in./min)
crete (composite mnstmction) W = total load (lbs); weight (Ibs); total width
n = distance of section's neutral axis from refer- (in.)
ence axis (in.); mmber of mits in scrics Y =- effective bearing length on base plate (in.)
p -- internal pressure (psi) Z :=- plastic section modulus ( h 3 )
q = allowable force on shcar connector
r = radius (in. ); radius of gyration C.G. = cmtcr of gravity
s == length of curved beam segment (in. ); clear HP = horsepower
distance betwecu ends of increments of weld N.A. = n c u t r ~ laxis
(in.) RPM = revolutions per minute
1. WELDING'S IMPORTANCE TO STRUCTURAL Today, thcre just arcn't marly rncn in industry who
FIELD speak disparagingly of welding. Most regnlatory agen-
cies of local and federal government now acccpt welded
Welding has been an important factor in our economy. joints which moet thr reqnirements imposed by code-
The progressmade in welding equipment and elec- writing bodies such as the American Institiitc of Steel
t r o d e , the advancing art and science of designing for Construction and the Arneri~inWelding Society.
welding, and the growth in trust and acceptance of
With this acceptarrcr. there rcmains however a
welding havo combined to make welding a powerful
implemcnt for an espanding constrnction industry. considerable task of education and simple dissemin:ition
of inionnation to achieve maximum efficiency in the
More and more buildings and bridges are being
application of welded design. And, there is even a
built according to the precepts of good welded design.
continning need for more thorough understanding of
The economies inherent in welding are helping to offset
welding by codewriting bodies who fail to use the full
evolutionary incrcases in the prices of materials and
cost of labor. In addition, the shortend production streugth of welded joints.
cycles, made possible by wclding, have helped cffect
a quickening in the pace of new construction. ELDED CONSTRUCTION?
Welded constrnction has paid off handsomely for
many architects, structural engineers, contractors, and There are ninny reasons for using welded design and
thcir client-customers. It will become increasingly im- constrnction, hut probably the two basic ones are 1)
portant as more people acqnirc a greater depth of welded design offcrs the opportnnity to i~cliieuemore
knowledge and experience with it. efficient nse of inateriais, and 2 ) thc speed of fabrica-
tion and erection can holp compress production sclied-
2. RECOGNITION OF WELDING nles, enabling the entire industry to he more sensitive
and react faster to rapidly shifting market needs.
The widespread recognition of welding as a safe mcans
of making structural connections has come about only
Freedom of Design
after years of diligent effort, pioneering action by the
more progressive enginaers and buildcrs, and heavy Welding pem~itsthe architect and structurd engineer
documentation of research findings and successes at- complete freedom of design-freedorn to dcvclop and
tained. use modem economical design principles, freedom to
FIG. 2 The athletic unit of Ladue Jr. High School (Missouri) features an all-welded steel
lamella roof frame spanning 252', expressing the strength of one-piece welded con-
struction.
introduction t a eided Construction / 1.1-3
joints exhibit less corrosion and require little or 110 inspection and Q u a l i f y
maintenance. The smooth wcldeil joints also make it hlnch money is spcnt :ninoally by industry and goverm
easier to install masonry, facia and other close iitting merit in obt;iining a i d inspecting for a specified weld
members, often reducing tire thickness of walls or q~xdity.Usually tlic weld quality specifiod is obtained,
floors in buildings. bxt too often the quality specified has little or no rela-
Structnrcs can be erected in rclativo silence, a tion to sorvice requirements.
definite asst,t in lxiilding in tlouiiliown art2ns,near office Welds that meet the ;rcti~alscrvice requirements,
b~iildingsor hospitals. at thc least possible cost, are the result of-
1) proper design of connections and joints,
4. HOW GOOD I S A WELD? 2) good welding procedure,
3 ) good weldor technique and workmanship, 2111d
Many engineers are unaware of the great reserve of 1) intelligent, responsible inspection.
strength that welds have, ;ind in many cases this is not In the follo\ving exnmpl(s (Figures 3, 4, 5 :md 6 )
recognized by code bodies. test specimens exhibit undercut; ondrrsize, lack of
Notice in Table 1 that the minimum yield strengtl~s fusion, and porosity. In spite of tlic:se adverse conditions,
of the ordinmy E6Oxx electrodes are about 50% higher
than the corresponding values of the A7, A373 and A36
structural steels with which they would be used.
e n d Steels
Moterial
I Minimum
Yield Strength
Minimum
Tensile Strength
considered individually, the weld imclcr steady tensile around a sniall radius. Figure 7. Apparently because
load was found to be stronger than the plate. Thcsc it is possible to do so, bend tests are often reqnircd.
examples are not neari it to show that the standard of Unfortunately, il-bend tcst results do not correlate
w-eld quality should Be lowered. However, they are wcll with actual service performance,
striking evidence of how easy it is to make full-strength Reca~iseit is possible to examine a welded joint by
welds, welds stronger than the plate. radiographic inspection, some engineers feel this must
Welding is the only process that prodt~ces a be done.
unitized, or one-piece, construction. The welded plate Most radiographic inspection is based on respon-
is so sound, strong, and ductile as to permit somc sible standards. These specifications assure the quality
trsting procedures that froq~ently are impossible or reqnircd, yet are realistic. Frequenly, however, local
impractical to perform \ritli other conr~ectionmethods. decisions arc made to require more perfect radiographic
The weld is so duvtile that it can bc readily bent soundness than the specifications demand.
H o w lmportont i s Porosity?
Normally, porosity if it should cxist is not a problem,
because each void is spherical. It does not represent
a notch. Even with a slight loss in section because of
FIG. 7 Weld mefol in
the void, its spherical shape allows a smooth flow of
w e l l - d e s i g n e d joints
stress around the void without any measurable loss in demonstrate much
strength. greater ductility than
Tests have shown that a weld can contain a large would be required in any
amount of porosity without materially changing the type of structures.
tensile or impact strength and ductility of the weld.
This porosity cwuld amount in total volume to a void
equal to 7% of the weld's cross-section without impair-
ing the joint's performance.
The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Sec-
tion VIIS and X, will allow porosity in a weld to the
extent shown on charts incorporated into the Code.
These charts consider size, distribution, and alignment
of voids, versus plate thickness.
The AWS Building Code will allow a slight poros-
ity if well dispersed in the weld. This is defined as "gas
pockets and any similar generally globular type voids."
The AWS Bridge Specification allows some poros-
ity. For porosity above Xt;" in void size, a table shows for example, were constructed with multiple cover
minimum clearance between voids and maximum size plates, the cost would be excessive. The use of only
of void for any given plate thiclaess. one flange plate with a reasonable number of butt
welded splices, at points where the plate thickness
5. DESIGN FOR WELDING can be reduced, is usually adequate and also gives
improved fatigue resistance.
A designer must know the fundamental differences bc- The selection of a connecting system should be
tween welding and other assembly methods if he is to made at the design level; for some types of structures,
detail economical welded members. If a welded girder, may even influence the architectural concept itself.
FIG. 8 Many contemporory structures are using exposed steel framing as part of the
ortistic scheme. Welding provides the unencumbered simplicity of form essential to
the modern look in architecture, typified in this showcase building.
The most efficient t ~ s cof steel is achieved with w l d e d designing for welding he saved 650 tons of steel. Com-
design, the adva~~tages of whicl~grow with the sizc of parison estimates show an additional saving of approxi-
the structure. In fact, the full advantages of using mately $16.00 per ton in fabrication and erection.
steel in competition with other materials will only he Futhermore, approxin~atelysix months in construction
realized w h m the structure is erected as a welded time will be saved as a result of using a welded steel
design, and when fabricators and erectors use modern frame.
techniques of welding, production scheduling, and Comparative experience has proved that had this
materials handling. type structure involved welded connections that were
A welded office building in Dallas, Texas, is an simply converted from another type of connection, there
example of the rxxmomies possible in structural weld- still would have been savings hut substantially less
ing. The building is 413 feet high, has 34 floors, and than when designing specifically for welding.
contains 600,000 square feet of usable floor space. The
savings are impressive. The contractor states that by 6. WELDED DESIGN OF BUILDINGS
ELDED C O N S T R U C T I O N O F BRI
Producer II Alloy
Yield
point,
~ l i
Uif
Strength, E l m g . ,
04 %
C Mn si
Nominol Composition. %
Cu Mo Ci Nl
Other
Lukcnr Steel / i-1 100.000 115,000 18 0.15 0.80 0.25 0.35 0.55 0.60 0.85 V.8
Crucible Steel
of America
Colorado Fuel
& Iron
Joltcn No. i
2
R
-
2
National Steel
IGreat Loker
steel ond
Weirton Steel]
V ~ A ~HXi g h Mangoncie
Republic Steel
US Steel
Youngstown '"Icy
Sheet & lube 'aioy A242
'oloy E HSX
'olay EHS
'oioy M-k
'oiay M ~ B
' 0 1 0 ~45W
'oloy 5 0 W
Properties of Materials / 2.1-3
The various properties are hest defined by a divided by the cross-sectional area of the specimen
description of what happens when a specimen of the within thr gage marks reprcsrnts the unit stress or
material is subjected to load during laboratory tests. resistance of the rnatcrial to the pulling or tensile force.
This sfrcss (a)is expressed in pounds per square inch,
2. TENSILE PROPERTIES psi. The rlongation of the specimen represents the
strain ( E ) induced in the material and is expressed in
In a tensile test, the machined and ground specimen inches pcr inch of length, in./in. Stress and strain are
of the material is rnarked with a centcrpunch at two plotted in a diagram, shown in simplified form in
points 2" apart, as shown in Figure 1. The specimen Figun: 3.
is placed iu a tensile testing machine, and an axial load The proportional relationship of load to elongation,
is applied to it by pulling the jaws h o l d i ~ gthe ends of or of stress to strain, continucs until a point is reached
the specimen in opposing directions at a slow and where the elongation begins to increase at a faster rate.
constant ratc of speed, Figure 2. This poiirt, beyond which the elongatior~of the speci-
As the pulling progresses, the specimen elongates men no longer is proportional to the loading, is the
at a nnifol-m rate which is proportionate to the rate at proporlionol elastic limit of the material. When the
which the load or pulling force increases. The load load is removcd, the specimen returns to its original
dimensions.
Hryond the clastic limit, further movmnent of the
test machine j a w in opposing directions canses a
permanent elongation or defor~nationof the specimen
~naterial.In the case of a l o w or mediurn-carbon steel,
a point is roaehcd h e y o ~ ~which
d the metal stretches
briefly withont an incrcase in load. This is the. yield
point.
For lo\v- and n1cdinn-c3rhon steels. the nnit stress
at the yirld point is considered to be the material's
tensile yield strcnclh (a,).* For other metals, the yield
strength is the stress required to strain the specimen by
a specifled small amount l~eyondthe clastic limit. For
I I
,
I I I I I I
,. ordinary co~nmereialpurposes, the elastic limit is as-
0 0.025 0.050 0.075 0100 4125 0150 0175 Q200 4225
sumed to coincide with the yield strength.
Beyond the material's elastic limit, continued pull-
Strain, in./in.
ing causes the specimen to neck down across its
FIG. 3 A stress-strain diagram for mild steel,
diameter or widtl~.This action is ;~ccompaniedby a
showing ultimate tensile strength and other -
properties. Here, the most critical portion of "'The symbols conimonly used for yield strength, ultimate
the curve is magnified. strerigth, and a r i d strain do oat indicate the type of load.
2.1-4 / Load & Stress Analysis
further acceleration of the axial elongation, which is with that of another material. This property is the ratio
now largely confined within the relatively short necked- of the stress to the strain within tile elastic range:
down section.
The pulling force eventually reaches a maximum
value and then falls off rapidly, with Iittle additional
Stress
-- a
Strain c
-
Modulils of elasticity E
MPRESSlVE STRENGTH
gation perccntage and reduction of area percentage
indicate the material's ductility. The general design practice is to assume that the
In the design of most members, it is essential to compressive streligth of a steel is equal to its teusile
keep the stresses resulting from loading within the strength. This practice is also adhered to in some
elastic range. If the elastic limit (very close to the rigidity d ~ s i g n ~dculations, where the modulus of
material's yield strength) is exceeded, permanent defor- elasticity of the m;lterial in tension is ilsrd even though
mation takes place duc to plastic flow or slippage along the loading is compressive.
molecular slip planes. When this happens, the material The actual ultimate comprcssiuc strength of steels
is strain-hardened and tbercafter has a higher effective may be sonrewhat greater than the ultimate tensile
elastic limit and higher yield strength. strength. Tlic variation in coniprcssive valnes is at
Under the same amount of stress, some materials least partially dependent on the condition of the steel:
stretch less than others. The modulus of elasticity ( E ) the compressive strength of an annealed steel is closer
of a material simplifies the comparison of its stiffness to its tensile strength than would be the case with a
cold-worked steel. (There is less of a relationship
between the cornpressive strength and the tensile
strength of cast iron and non-ferrous metals.)
A compressive test is conducted similar to that
ior tensile propcrtics, but a sllort specimen is subjected
to a compressive load. That is, force is applied on the
specimen from two directions in axial opposition. The
i~ltimate compressive strength is reachcd when the
specimen fails by crnshing.
A stress-strain diagram is developed during the
test, and values are obtained for compressioe yield
strcngth and other properties. IIowcver, instead of the
Young's modrrlus of elasticity conventionally used, the
tungential modulus of chsticity (E,) is usually ob-
tained. This will be cliscussed in Section 3.1 on Com-
Strain, in./in. pression.
Compression of long colurnns is more complex,
FIG. 4 Stress-strain curves for several materials
since failure develops under the influcncc of a bend-
show their relative elasticity. Only that portion ing moment that increases as tlre deaection increases.
of curve displaying a proportional relationship Geometry of the member has much to do with its
between stress and strain is diagrammed. capacity to withstand cornpressive loads, and this will
Properties of Materials / 2.1-5
5. FATIGUE STRENGT
The basic formulas nsed in the design of structural In working with the scction's moment of inertia, the
members include as one factor the critical property of ncutrul axis ( N . A . ) of thc section must he located. In
the material and as another factor the corresponding a member snhject to a bending load for example, the
critical property of the mcmber's cross-section. The neutral axis extends through the length of the member
property of the section dictates how efficiently the parallel to the menrher's structural axis and perpen-
property of the material will be utilizcd. dicular to the line of applied force. The neutral axis
The property of section having the greatest im- represents zero strain and therefore zero stress. Fibers
portance is the section's area ( A ) . I-lowever, most between the nentral axis and the surface to the inside
design problems are not so simple that the area is of the arc caused by dellection rmder load, are mider
used directly. Irlsteati therr is usually a bending aspect compression. Fibers between the nmtral axis and the
to the problem and, therefore, the rigidity factor nor- surface to the outside of the arc caused by deflection
mally is the section's moment of inertia ( I ) and the under load, are under tension.
simple strength factor is the section moctulus ( S ) . For practical purposcs this neutral axis is assumed
Another property of section that is o f major i n - to have a fixed relationship ( n ) to some reference axis,
portance is the section's torsional resistance ( R ) , a usually along the top or bottom of the section. In
modified valuc for standard sections. Figure 1, the refrrence axis is taken through the base
line of the section. The total section is next broken
2. AREA OF THE SECTION (A) into rectangular elements. The moment ( M ) of each
element about the section's reference axis, is deter-
The area (A) of the member's cross-section is used mined:
directly in computations for simple tension, compres-
sion, and shear. Area ( A ) is expressed in square inches. M = area of element multiplied by the distance
If the section is not uniform throughout the length ( y ) of element's center of gravity from refer-
of the member, it is necessary to determine the section ence axis of section
in which the greatest nnit stresses will he incurred.
The moments of the various elements are then
3. MOMENT OF INERTIA (1) all added together. This summation of moments is
Whereas a moment is the tcndency toward rotation next divided by tlie total area ( A ) of the section.
about an axis, the moment of incrlia of the cross-section This gives the distance ( n ) of the neutral axis from
of a structural member is a measure of the resistance to the reference axis, which in this case is the base line
rotation offered by the section's geometry and size. or extreme fiber.
Thus, the moment oP inertia is a useful property in
solving design problems where a bending moment is
involved.
The moment of inertia is needed in solving any
rigidity problem in which the member is a beam or
long column. It is a measure of the stiffness of a beam.
Moment of inertia is also rcqnired for figuring the value Neutral
of the polar moment of inertia ( J ) , unless a formula is Axis
available for finding torsional resistance ( R ) .
The moment of inertia ( I ) is used in finding the
section modulus ( S ) and thus has a role in solving
simple strength designs as well as rigidity designs. The
moment of inertia of a section is expressed in inches Base Line
raised to the fourth power (;xi). FIGURE 1
2.2-2 / Load & Stress Analysis
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .; . . . ( 3 )
1
n = - or s u n of all moments
total area
. . . .. . . . . . (1)
to the neutral axis squared.
Thus, the moment of inertia of the entire section
about its neutral axis equals the summation of the two
moments of inertia of the individual elements.
I Problem 2 1
Having already located the neutral axis of the section
in F i y e 2, the resulting moment of inertia of the
section (detailed further in Fig. 3 ) about its neutral
axis is found as follows:
Thus, the neutral axis is located 6.8" above the
reference axis or base line and i~ parallel to it.
I, = I, -
A M"
--
A2 1 Note: neutral axis ( n )
has dropped out
no'b
--
Thus : 4
..... .
........................( 6 )
" I d b -Zd)
40
where:
I. = moinent of inertia of whole section about its
nelltraI axis, n-n
I, = sum of the moments of inertia of all elements each element has in addition a moment of inertia (I,)
about a common reference axis, y-y about its own center of gravity. This must be added
M -- sum of the moments of all elements about in if it is large enough, although in most cases it may
the same reference axis, y-y be neglected:
A = total area, or sum of the areas of all elements
of section
-
from the reference axis. No other information is needed. in? in.) in? 12
in."
It is suggested that the plate section size be listed as
width times depth ( b X d ) ; that is, its width first and @ / 10x4" 2- 1 40.0 80.0 160.0
depth last.
@ i 8.' 1 16.0 128.0 1024.0 1 85.3
Total I I I I
The above table has been filled out with all of the
given infonnntion from the plates. The rest of the
<:omputations are very quickly done on slide rule or M -- -
and n = - 544
calculator and placed into the table. Notice how easy A - 80
and fast each plate is taken care of. = 6.8" ( u p from bottom)
Starting with plate A, 10" is multiplied by 4" to
givc an x e a of 40 sq. in. This value is entered into A recommended method of treating M2/A on the
the table under A. Without resetting the slide rule, slide rule, is to c h i d e M by A on the rule. Here we
tl~isfigure for A is multiplied by (distance y) 2," to have 544 divided by 80 which gives us 6.8. This
givc 80 inches c u l ~ d .This value for the element's happens to be the distance of the neutral axis from
moment is placed under M in the table. Without the base reference line. Then without resetting the
resetting the slide rule, this figure for M is multiplied slide rule, multiply this by 544 again by just sliding
by (distance y) 2" again to give 160 inches to the the indicator of the rule down to 544 and read the
fourth power. This value For the element's moment of answer as 3700. It is often necessary to know the
inertia about the common reference axis y-y is recorded neutral axis, and it can be found without extra work.
under (I,) in the table.
If the moment of inertia (I,) of the plate about
its own center of gravity appears to be significant, I Problem 4 1
this value is figured by multiplying the width of the
plate by the cube of its depth and dividing by 12. To show a further advantage of this system, assume
This value for I, is then placed in the extreme right- that this resulting moment of inertia (2359 i a 4 ) is not
Properties of Sections / 2.2-5
large enough and the section must be made larger. it will simplify his computations.
Increasing the platc size at the top from 6" X 4" to The closer thc reference axis (y-y) is to the final
8" x 4" is the same as adding a 2" X 4" area to the neutral axis (N.A.); the smallsr will be the values of
already existing section. See Fignre 5. The previous (I, and I,) and MYA. Hence, the more accnrate these
column totals are carried forward, and properties of values will be if a slide rule is used.
only the added area need to be entered. I, is then If the reference axis (y-y) is positioned to lie
solved, using the corrected totals. through the center of gravity (C.G.) of one of the
elements (the web, fol- example), this eliminates any
snbsequent work on this particular clement since y 0 --
for this element.
If the reference axis (y-y) is positioned along the
base of the whole section, the distance of the neutral
axis ( n = M/A) from the refercnm axis (y-y) then
automatically becomes the distance ( c b ) from the
neutral axis to the outer fiber at the bottom.
The following problem illustrates these points.
I Problem 5 1
FIGURE 5
I I I I
Previous Section ----
80.0
.
544.0 1 5888.0 I 170.6
New D b x / ~14" 1 8.0 / 112.0 1 1568.0 1 10.6
Moment of lnerlio of
It is very easy to incorporate a rollcd section into a
built-up member, for exampl~this proposed column to
resist wind moments. See Fignre 6. Find the moment
The fourih method is the use of steel tables found in of inertia of the whole srction about its neutral axis
the A.I.S.C. handbook and other steel bandbooks. These ( I , ) and than find its section modulus ( S ) .
values are for any steel section which is rolled, and Choosing reference axis (y-y) through the center
should be used whenever standard steel sections are
used.
Positioning the
and t11us eliminates somc work for R . 8
of gravity (C.C.) of thc web plate R makes y = 0,
Sire Y A M b IX
A 16"xZ" -17.0" 32.00 -544.W +9248.0 f 10.7
.
B l"x32" 0 32.00 0 0 t2730.7
.
A 18 WF 96# +16.25& 28.22 1-458.74 +7456.62 f206.8
.- . -- -- Since this distance ( c ) can be measured in two
Totcll 92.22 - 85.26 f19,652.8 directions, there are actually two values for this prop-
erty, although only the rnalirr value is usually avail-
able in tables of rolled sections because it results in
moment of inertia about neutral axis the greater stress. If the section is symmetrical, these
two values are equal. Section modulus is a mcasure-
ment of the strength of the beam in bending. In
an unsymmetrical section, the outer face having the
greater value of ( c ) will have the lower value of
section modulus ( S ) and of course the greater stress.
Since it has the greatcr stress, this is the value needed.
With some typical sections it is not necessary to
distance of neutral aris from reference axis
solve first for moment of inertia (I). The section
modulus can be computed directly from the simplified
formulas of Table 1.
In many cases, however, the moment of inertia
( I ) must he found before solving for section modulus
- ( S ) . Any of the previously described methods may be
- -.925" from axis y-y
applicable for determining the moment of inertia.
distance from N.A. to outer fiber
Q, = 18.00 - ,925
= 17.075" 1 Problem 6 1
section modulus (see Topic 4 which follows)
Using a welded "T" section as a problem in finding
the section modulus, its neutral axis is first located,
Figure 7.
Using the standard formula ( j r l ) for determining
the distance ( n ) of the neutral axis from any reference
= 1146 in." axis, in this case the top horizontal face of the iiange:
FIGURE 7
Properties of Sections / 2.2-7
FIGURE 8
The radius of gyration ( r ) is the distance from the Because of welding, increasingly greater use is being
neutral axis of a section to an imaginary point at found for structural shapes having thin cross-sections.
which the whole area of the section could he concen- Thin sections may be custom roll-formed, rolled by
trated and still have the same moment of inertia. This small specialty steel producers, brakc-formed, or fabri-
property is used primarily in solving column problems. cated by welding. Propt:rties of these sections are
It is found by taking the square root of the moment needed by the designer, but they are not ordinarily
of inertia divided by the area of the section and is listed among the standard rolled sections of a steel
expressed in inches. handbook. FJropcrties of thin sections customarily are
found by the standard formulas for sections.
With a thin section, the inside dimension is almost
as large as the ontside dimension; and, in most c a m ,
the property of the section varies as the cubes of these
two dimensions. This means dealing with the differ-
cnce between two very large numbers. In order to get
any accuracy, it would be necessary to calculate this
The polar monrcnt of inertia ( J ) equals the sum of out by longhand or by using logarithms rather than use
any two moments of inertia about axes at right angles the usual slide rulc.
to each other. The polar moment of inertia is taken To simplify the problem, the section may be
about an axis whiclr is perpendicular to the plane of '.treated as a line", having no thickness. The prop-
the other two axes. erty of the "line", is t l ~ e nmultiplitd by the thickness
of the section to giva the approximate value of the
section property within a very narrow tolerance. Table
2 gives simplified formnlas for nine properties of six
Polar moment of ine~tiais used in determining different cross-sections. In this table: d = mean depth,
the polar section modulus (J/c) which is a measure b = mean widtli of the section, and t = thickness.
2.2-8 / Load & Stress Analysis
bottom
e(4b+d)
6
bottom '
left side * 1
rr
max.
or
min.
-
d' dZ
2(b+d) b + 2d
down from top down from top
= add t / 2 to c for S )
The error in calculating the moment of inertia by An excellent example of the savings in design time
this Line Method varsus the conventional formula is offcrcd by use of the Line Method exists as (column)
represented by the curve in Figure 9, using a square Problem 4 in Section 3.1.
tu1,ular section as an example. As indicated, the error Table 3 givrs the most important properties of
increases with the ratio of section thickness ( t ) to additional thin sections of irregular but common con-
depth ( d ) . figurations.
Properties o f Sections / 2.2-9
9. SHEAR AXlS AND SHEAR CENTER This force also has an equal component in the
transverse dircction. A transverse force applied to a
Since the bending moment decreases as the distance beam sets up transverse (and horizontd) shear forces
of the load from thc support increases, bending force within the secticn. See Figure 11.
f, is slightly less than force f2, and this difference In the case of a symmetrical section, A, a force
(fy - f l ) is transferred inward toward the web by ( P ) applied in line with the principal axis (y-y) does
the longitudinal shear force (f.). See Figure 10. not result in any twisting action on the mcmber. This
FIGURE 10
2.2-10 / Load & Stress Analysis
FIGURE 11
FIGURE 12
is because the torsioud moment of the internal trans- 1. The applicd force I' should be resolved into
verse shear forces (4) is equal to zero. a forcc P' of ttic same \dire passing through the shear
On the othcr hand, in the case of a11 unsymmetri- ccntor ( Q ) and parallel to the origin:~lapplied force P.
cal section, U, the internal tra~xverse shear forces P' is then resolved into the two components at light
(4) form a twisting moment. Thercfore, the force angles to each other and p;rrallel to the principal axes
( P ) must bo applicd eecccntrically at a proper dis- of thc section.
tance ( e ) along the shcnr axis, so that it forms an 2. A twisting moinmt ( T ) is produced by the
exteinal toi-sional monierit which is equal and opposite applied force ( P ) about the shear center ( Q ) .
to ti-.,' intrrtui torsional momimt of the transverse The stress from tlw twisting moment ( T ) is com-
shear forces. If this pr~rc;iutionis not taken, tlrcre will puted separately and t h m silparimposed upon thc
be a I ivisting action ;ippli:d to the member \vhich will stresses of the two rrct:ingular componrnts of force P'.
twist under load, in addition to bending. Sec Figure 12. This means that the shear center must be located.
Any axis of symmetry will also be a shear axis. Any axis of symmetry will be onc of the shear axes.
'There will be two shear axes and thcir inter- For open sections lying on one common neutral
section forms the shear ccnter (Q). axis (y-y), the location of the other shear axis is -
A force, if applicd at the shear center, may be
at any angle in the plane of the cross-section and there
will be no twisting moment on the member, just
transverse shear and bending.
As stated pre\:iously, rniless forces which are ap- Notice the similarity between this and the fol-
plied transvetse to a int>rnbcr also pass through the lowing:
shear axis, the mcmher \?;ill be subjected to a twisting
moment as well as bending. .As a result, this beam
should be considered as follows:
FIGURE 13
Reference
oxis y-y
Y
2.2-12 / Load & Stress Analysis
4 +f + d 4
FIGURE 14
Y
d e b -
FIGURE 16
Normally Q might be assumed to be at the inter-
section of the centerlines of the web and the flange.
FIGURE 17
Eighty-foot hollow steel masts and suspension cables help support the
continuous roof framing system of the 404' x 1200' Tulsa Exposition
Center. Welds holding brockets (orrow) to which cables are anchored are
designed to withstand the high tensile forces involved in such a structure.
SECTION 2 . 3
where:
E = unit elongation (tensile strain)
where:
cr, = unit tensile stress
P = the tensile force applied to the member
E = modulus of elasticity (tension)
A = area of cross-section at right angles to line
of force The total elongation or displacement is cqual to
crt = unit tensile stress this unit strain ( E ) multiplied by the length ( L ) of
the member.
A tensile load that is not applied in line with the
center of gravity of the section, but with some eccen- Elongation = t , L
FIGURE 1
FIGURE %W - edlnig of
Built-up Tension Members
ENDING STRESS where:
A4 = bending nlornent at the section in question,
Any force applied transversely to the structural axis of in.-lbs
a partially supported member sets up bending moments
( M ) along the length of the member. These in turn I = moment of inertia of the section, in.*
stress the cross-sections in bending. c z:distarlce from neutral axis to the point at
As shown in Figure 1, the bcnding stresses are zero which stress is drsiretl, in.
at the neutral axis, and are assumed to increase linearly
ub = bending stress, may he tension or compres-
to a maximum at the outer fiber of the section. The
sion, psi
fibers stressed in tension elongate; the fibers stressed
in compression contract. This causes each soction so
stressed to rotate. The cumulative effcct of this move- TABLE 1-Beam Diagrams
ment is an over-all deflection (or bending) of the Maximum Maximum Mmxirnum
T y p e d Beam
member. moment deflection shear
~A-.~ -..___. i
FIGURE 1
I Fixedend 1 1
The cantilever beam shown in Figure 1 is in
tension along the top and in compression along the
bath ends a d d e d end
bottom. In contrast, the relationship of the applied
force and the points of support on the member shown
in Figure 2 is such that the curve of deflection is
inverted, and the member is in tension along the bottom
and in compression along the top.
Fixed end 1 Free end 1
center I center I
Fixed end 1 1
FIGURE 2
M = - -PL I '=- P L3
n = 1.47"
1, = 62.6 in'
P = 10,000 lbs
FIGURE 3
5,000 ibs 5,000 lbs
The bending moment ( M ) may be determined The top portion of the benm being in compression,
from standard beam diagrams. Table 1 lists several
of these, along with the formulas for bending moment,
shear, and deflection. A more complete presentation is
included in the Hcfsrcnce Section on Beam Diagrams.
Normally there is no interest in knowing what the
bending stresses are somewhere inside a beam. Usually
= 5,870 psi (compression)
the bending strrss at the outer fiber is needed because
it is of ~naximumvalue. In an unsymmetrical section,
the distance c must hr taken in the correct direction
across that portion of the section which is in tension
or that portion which is in compression, as desired.
Ordinarily only the maximum stress is needed and
this is the stress at the outer fiber under tension, which
rests at the greater distance c from the neutral axis.
FIGURE 4
A standard rolled '"I? section (ST-6" wide flange, Find the maximum deflection of the previous beam
80.5 lbs) is used as a bcam, 100" long, supported on under the sainr loading. From the beam diagrams,
each end and bearing a concentrated load of 10,000 Table 1, the appropriate iormula is found to he -
Ibs at the middle. Find the maximum tensile and
maximum compressive bending stresses. Amax = L:' and therefore
Figure 3 shows the cross-section of this beam, 48 E 1
together with its load diagram. ( 10,000) (100)"
Referring to Tahlc I, the formula for the bending = flr6-2q
moment of this type of bcam is found to be-
=r. ,111'
- '
PL
M = -- and therefore
4
. HORlZONTAL SHEAR STRESS
FIGURE 5
a - desird, in.
arca of section hiyxid planc where stress is
desired, in."
( a ) Substituting the above values into the formula,
the horizontal shear strcss ( 7 ) is found:
y = distance of wntcr of gravity of area to neutral
axis of entire section, in.
,. = VI at y
I Problem 3 ]
=-
1196 psi
f = T t 'and thus
= I196 X 0.905
FIGURE 7 = 1080 Ihs/in.
Assume that the "T' beam in our previous example There are two M e t welds, one on each side of
(Problem 1) is fabricated by wclding. Under the same the "T" joining the flange to the web. Each will have
load conditions, to support half oi the shear force or 540 ibs/in. and
( a ) Find thc horizontal shear stress in the plane its leg size would be:
wherc the weh joins the flange.
( b ) Then find thc size of co~itinuo~is fillet welds
on both sides, joining the web to the flange.
From the beain diagrams, Table 1, the appropriate
formula for vrrtical shear ( V ) is found to be-
This would be an extremely small continuous fillet
r
V = - and thus meld. Bascd upon the AWS, the minimum size fillet
2
weld for the thicker 1.47" plate would be 5/16".
If manual mtermittent fillet welds are to be used,
the percentage of the length of the joint to be welded
would he:
2.4-4 / Load & Stress Analysis
Amalysis of Bending / 2.4-5
More than a carlood of welding electrode was employed in the fabrication of this huge
bucket-wheel iron ore reclaiming machine at the Eagle Mountain Mine. Steel pipe was
used extensively in the 170' long all-welded truss, of triangular cross-section, that is the
main load-carrying member.
2.4-6 / Load & Stress Analysis
1. RIGIDITY DESIGN formulas arc, availahlc in the I'lcfercnce Section on
Hmm Diagrams incli~dcdat the e i ~ dof this book.
Under a transvtrrse bcnding load, thc normally straight Thrtre ;rrr s t w d m(&ods for finding the dcflec-
neutral axis of a bearn becomes a curved line. The tion of a brain. Foin of these will be slrown:
deflection of interest is the linear displacement of 1. Sncccssive intt.gration method
some point on the neutral axis along a path parallel 2. Virtnal n-ork method
to the line of applied force. IJsually it is the maxi- 3. Area momtint nrethod
mum deflection that is of value on our com~mtations, 4. Conjngatr beam method
although occasionally the deflection at a specific point
is needed. 2. FUNDAMENTALS OF BEAM DEFLECTION
Rigidity design iormulas for use when bending
loads are cxpt,rienced, are bawd on the maximum A transvet-se load placed on a he:im causes bending
deflection being - rnomcnts along the length of the beam. These bend-
ing moments set up bcnding stresses ( o )across all
swtions of the beam. See Figwe l a , where at any
given section:
-~
7
L
-----4-
Neutroi
OXlS
Tension it o 4 Extension - y p
Bending Stress (b) Sirain ( c ) Elongation
FIGURE 1
2.5-2 / Load & Stress Analysis
€(AX) -- c (AO)
The total angular change ( t i ) between any two
poi~its( a and h ) of thc hewn equals the sum of the
incremental changes, or:
, , A .= E
- M c (Ax)
(Ax) - ~
c E I c
or:
( @ A )x ---- M, (4x1
- -~-----
I? Ix
In other words, the infinitesimal angle cl~angein
ally section of the bcarn is r q u d to the area under It is also ohscrved from Figure 2b that -
the moment diagram (M, Ax) divided by the ( E I,) of
the soction.
The angular rotation relative to stress and strain
is further illustrated by Figure 2,
Figure 2a represents a straight beam under zero and since -
bending moment. Here any two given sections ( a and (AO) V.V ( A x )
b ) \+-onid p:irallel each other and, in a stress-free E I,
condition, ~vouldthen have a radius of curvature (R,)
equal to infinity ( m ) . These two sections ( a and b ) thc reciprocal of the radins of curvatnre ( I / R ) at
can be set clost. together to define the segrnent of very imy ~ i w point
n (s) of the heam is -
small inwerncnt in length (Ax).
A t Figr~rc2h, the beam is subjected to a bending
rnonient and this small segrnent ( A X ) will compress
on one side and will elongate on the other side where
the onter fiber is in tension. This can bc related to The noxt logical step would seem to be applica-
a small ai~gularmovement within this increment. It tion of the Snccessiw Integration Method to deter-
can be seen that sections a and b are no longer parallel mine the heam d&ection.
FIGURE 2
Deflection by Bending / 2.5-3
kEJ
Slieoi
-- (V)
Moment (Mj
-
Slope (0)
Deflectmn ,y
/
'
FIGURE 3
For any given hiram with any given load, if the load
(w,) at any point ( x ) can be expressed mathemat-
ically as a function of ( x j and if such load condition
M, - (v, (dxj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ( 6 )
load
shear
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .( 5 )
Beom-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-31
FIGURE 59
are tr;ilisIiwrd into tlw colu~nnwel) within the con- Analysis of Required Web Thickness
nection rcgioo as shmr. The unit shear force applied to thc web of the con-
It c:m be assurni,d that xilost of tbib vertical shear nection is-
force
-~ , \ of thr beain weh is tra~~sferred
( V .,
\
diucctlv into
the flange of the supportiilg cohim~iarid does not enter - - - Vp
= .V- = - F, -
-
Mi Vq
the web of tile corin(,ctioi~. d dc dud, d,
The Iiorizontal shear force (V,) of the upper
columr~ will he translrrred through the web of the The resulliilg unit shear stress in the web of the
connection illto tlie luw.er column if caused by wind; comcction is-
or out across the beam to the adjacent column if ca~rsed
by gravity load. T = - -v 1 ME
wi - w ( d d.
Using plastic design concepts, the applied moment
(MI) will become tlic plastic moment. For this valuc,
thc allowable shear stress ( 7 ) will be based on the
yield streiigtli of the steel. The value for the shear
FIGURE 60
g<.omctricfaccs.
The \-oIumi: of :my c l ~ m e n of
t tl~issolid equals the
area of tlw (.lrrncnt's h;wr% smftrce nrr~ltipliedby the
verticd distarrcc froin tiir center of gravity of the hasc
surface. to tile npprr flat surhcc. This vcrtical distance
is shown hy a dotted line.
Thus, in Figrirr 7, with the M/EI ;rnd in diagrams
lined up o w alxivc the other, it is necessary to litlow
FIGURE 7
2.5-6 / Load & Stress Analysis
Real b o d
moment (M) diogiom
ol load
moment jM) diaginm
I + 30,000"$ t ,
1
,
,'
.. .I
Viiiuol Iood
moment [mjdiogioni
FIGURE 8 FIGURE 9
only tlrc height of the virtual nroinent diagram :tt the has a v;iriable section, scveral values of I umr!d hiivt:
sanre dist;orcc ( x ) ;is on tlrc r e d moment diagram. to i ~ ~ s e r t cearlier
d in the cornputation-lor the src-
The M;EI diagrerri is then dividcd into simple geo- tion taken tltrough the center of gravity of each geo-
metric shapes (in this case, riglrt trinnglrs), and the ini>tricnl arm of thc hIlI51 di:rgmm.
area of c:ich is found :md multiplied by the height of 'To simplify this further, a mothod of cross-
the rn c1i;igram ;tk~nga line throng11 the particular multiplying has hcwr found to give the samc rc.sults.
Iv/EI arca's centcr of gravity. Tho g v n t d nppro;rcI? is iilnstrated hy Figure 8, wl~ere
t'ronr this the volume is obtained: somc scgmmt of the, rtxl irrornr~nt ( M ) diagram be-
tween points s, and x, is at the top and a correspond-
irrg scgnlcnt of tlrr virtu:tl lnomerrt (rn) diagram is
below.
Tlro rcquirrd ~oliinrt~ can be fonnd directly by
inriltiplying Mi by rn, and W:, i)y m:: and then by cross-
multiplying hl, by in, and Mr by mi using only ?-: of
the products of cross-muitiplicatioi~.This is more fully
related to the 1)asi~.iutegration eqoation hy the fol-
lowing:
and sina::
Volume = I" . y
The n l u e of I can now be inserted iir this to give Figure 9 s h o w :ipplic;itio~r nf this method to the
the defl~ction ( y ) in inches. Howcvcr, if the beam original Problcin 1.
Defiectron curve
.,
Deflection by Bending / 2.5-7
From Figure 9:
Moment diogrom
Defiect!on curve s
@
5. AREA MOMENT METHOD
This a very nsefnl tool for engineers and is illustrated FIGURE 11
in Fignrc 10 by a gmcral inoment diagram and the
L,~I-responding dcfl<,ctioli curvc. Ilrrc points o and b
reprcwnt any two points defining a sinrple geometric @ Load
;ire.? of an actual inorncnt diagram.
Tlie two flinda~nontalrules for of this mcthod
are:
FIGURE 13
2.5-8 / Load & Stress Analysis
2, Fixed ends
ai zero deflection
/ 2. Free ends because -
o zero moment
I
b l zero slope h. zero shear hcnce no support
-.
3. Free ends 3. Fixed ends because - 6. CONJUGATE BEAM METHOD
u] o maximum drf1e.rtion 0, 0 m3xirnum moment
b) a maximum rlnoc b; a moximum shear hence o
I n using this method, the bcnding moment diagram of
tlic i-cal i~camis constnrctrd. A sntxtitutiond beam or
continuous beom coiljugate heam is t h m srt up; the load on this is the
/ b i graduol chongc in shear momrnt of the real heam divided by the E I of the
real heain; in other w)rils it is loadtd with the M/EI
of the rcal Iwam.
..~..
mum moment
~~.-. ... -
Five colditions milst be met:
1
, ~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~
6 Either itu:icaliy dcfern?inate 6. A l w o y i staticoily determinote 1. The ltwgtli of the conjugate beam equals the
or stnticolly indeterminate length of the rcal beam.
Deflection by Bending / 2.5-
FIGURE 15
2. Tlirrc arc two cqilntions of eqoilil,ri~~rn- \r<lticC!tliat lhc snpport of the conjngate beam can be
The snm of forces acting in any one direction wry unlike the support of the real bcam.
on tlic conjugate beam ~ q n n I szero. The last I in 'I'alde 2 is similar to the
?'he sum of momcmts ntmut an>- point of the I'roblrm 1 brmn to n.liidl scvrml mrtliods of solving
cmjngate hcam t:qoals zcro. dc,flcction ha1.e alrcncly h : w ~ ;11:plied. Here the con-
3. Tho load at any point of the conjugate bean1 jiigati tmun i s hingpd at the point of ssccond siipport
equals the moment of the r e d bcam divided by the :IF r l ~ crwl brarn, and wilhout this 11ingc thc Conjugate
Ii I of the rcal beam at the same point. The real bcam R(wn Metiiod would not hc workable.
,,
could imve vwiahle I. Ihe same I'robltm 1 is illustrated in Figure 15,
4. Thc vei-tied shmr at any point of thr conjugate \?:hc~rthr rr.d hram momont is first diagrm~med.This
heam equals the slope of the r e d hrnm ;?t the same is then dividcd by E I of t l x real beam lor tile load
point. on the ~u~njugatc beam shown next.
5. The bending moment at any point of the con- To find the right 11in1d rcaction ( R ) take mo-
jugate heam r:qn;rls the deflection of thc rcal beam at ments, about p i n t 30, on the conjngate beam between
the same point. ~wints30 ;ind 90. See Figuro 16.
The conjugate beam n ~ ~ i sbet so sripportcd that
conditions .1 :~nd5 are satisfid Thc abovr statements
of col~ditionmay b i r e \ w x d
By knowing some of the conditions of the real
beam, it will he possiblc to rwson the nature of the
support of the eonjugate beam. 'i'l~e cc~~np:wativcstate-
ments of Table I will help in setting lip the conjugate
beam.
Some osamples of re:d h e a m and tbeir corre-
sponding cm~jr~gate beams are prcsentcd in Table 2.
Since:
ZV=O
FIGURE 17
and:
Sl =
: 24.5"
2,150,000 in.: -
ynmx =
E I
~
FIGURE 19
2.5-12 / Load & Stress Analysis
FIGURE 20
or:
hf,,
Note:
- F -
x,, 1s found for eacb segment.
- These
1"
values are added togr:tl~cr, and this sum is miiltiplied
by s/E to give the total deflection.
FIGURE 21
FIGURE 23
Moment diagram
FIGURE 25
I"
Normally, thr calculation of the maximum deflection
of members suhjected to bending loads is very comples.
The moment of inertia of each scgment (I,) is Tilt: poiirt of maximum deflection must first be found;
taken at tlle sectional centroid of the segment. t h w , from this; the mnxim~~m deflcctiorr is found.
~h~ formllla L.ompont~l,tsM,, x,, and 1,: are easier I h I ~ ~ stlx,r.re
s arc no more than two loads of cqnal
to hwdle in t&le form: vahir. and rqnal distance from thc ends of the hczm
(Fig. 26), existing l ~ e a mtat~lesin handbooks do not
cover this pn)hlem.
FIGURE 26
FIGURE 28
FIGURE 29 FIGURE 30
FIGURE 31-Required Moment of Inertia to Resist Bending
2.5-16 / Load & Stress Analysis
TABLE 3-Values af Constants ( A and B) for Simplified Formulas (16 and 17)
of points at which the pressure is applied. This concept as the reaction in question, the resulting ddledion
supplies a very useful tool for finding influence lines curve becomes the plot of the reaction as the load is
lor reactions, deflections, moments, or shear. In this moved across the Icngtli of the beam.
case, the interest is in reactions. This is called an "iniiuaice cnrve". Considering
To find the value of the reaction ( R , ) at the left- the conditions of tlie rwl beam representlted by Figwe
hand support in Figure 32a, the support is rcnloved; 32a, the reaction ( R , ) at point 1 due to a load (P,)
this causes the left end to deflect ( A b ) ,as at Figure 32b. at point x will be proportional to the ratio of the two
111 order to restore the left end to its initial position, ordinates at points x and 1 of the deflection ciirve.
an upward reaction ( P C ) must be applied, as in In other words:
Figme 32c.
In extending h4awwell's theorem of reciprocal de-
fiections to Figure 32b and Figure 32c, it is noticed:
if P, = P . then A,, = A,
For continuous beams of constant cross-section,
However, in order to return the beam to the initial a ~viremodel may be set u p on a drawing board, with
condition of Fignre 32a, Ad must be reduced until it the wire beam supported by thumb tacks spaced so
i:quals A,. To do this the upward reaction ( P C )must as to represent the supports on the real beam. See
be rednccd by the factor: Ah/Ad And since A, = A,, Figure 33. A load diagram of the real beam is shown
this reduction factor becomes Ae/Ad. at the bottom. Notice that the thumb racks used for
supports of the wire must be located vertically so as
A to function in the opposite direction to reactions on
.'. RI = Yb-2
Ad
or, usmg Fignre 32a -
the real beam.
The point of the model beam at the reaction in
question ( R , ) is raised upwlu.d some convenient dis-
tanct,, for example 'h" or l", and the deflection curve
of the wire beam is traced in pencil. This is shown
This means that if the model bcam (as in Fig. 32c) immediately l ~ l o wthe model.
is displaced in the same direction and at the same point The final value for tlie reaction ( R I ) is equal to
Thumb tacks
FIGURE 33
2.5-18 / Load & Stress Analysis
I Problem 3 1
A continuous beam has 5 concentrated loads and 4
supports. The problem is to find the reactions at the
supporzs.
The reactions are found by comparing the ordinates
of the deflection curve of a wire representing the beam.
See F i y r e 35, where the critical dimensions appear on
the (upper) load diagram.
For the ends, reactions R, and R4, displace the
FIGURE 34 end of the wire a given amount as shown. The portion
of each applied load ( P ) to be transferred to the
the sum of the actual applied forces mnltiplied by the reaction RI is proportional to the ordinate of the
ratio of their ordinates of this curve to the original deflection curve under the load ( P ) and the given dis-
displacement at RI. placement at R,.
The influence curve for the central reaction (Rn) For the interior reactions Rz and R3, displace the
may also be fouud in the same manner. See Figure 34. wire a given amount at Rn. From the ordinates of this
FIGURE 35
Deflection by Bending / 2.5-19
FIGURE 36
deflected wire, determine the ratios of each applied Reactions, either horizontal (11) or vertical ( V )
load ( Y ) for the reaction at Rlr. at the supports, may he found by displacing the frame
The cornputation of forces for the rcaetions R, and at the support a given amount in the direction of the
R, is as follows: desired reaction. Sce Figure 36. The outline of the
displaced model frame is traced in pencil, and this
becomes the curve showing the infinenee of any load
(at any point) upon this reartion.
The displacement of each point of the model frame
( A ) u~herca load is applied is measured in the same
direction as the application of the load, and the re-
sulting reaction may- be computed from the following:
R2 = + ,695 PI + 1.11 P, + 5 6 Pa - ,352 P4 - horizontal reuction
,296 Po
=z .695(2000#) f 1.11(2000#) +
.56(1000#)
- .352(15OO#) - .296(1500#)
= -C 3198 lbs
vertical reaction
Rcactious R:, and R, can be found in like manner.
Application to Frames
This same method may be extended to the analysis Moments at the ends of the frame (or at any point
of frames. If the frmr has a ninstant r ~ o m e n t of in the frame) may he found by rotating the point in
inertia, a stiff wire may lie bent into the shapc of the question a given angle (+,) and again drawing the
frame. If the frame has a variable mornwt of inertia, resulting displaced model frame. See Figure 37.
the model may be made of a sheet of plastic or card- The displacement of each point of the model f r a n c
board proportioned to the actual moments of inertia. (A) where a load is applied is measured in the same
direction as the application of the load, and the re-
sulting moment may be c o m p u t ~ dfrom the following:
FIGURE 38
T A B L E 4-lncremenral Deflections of R e d B e a m A wire model of this beam is held at the two sup-
Paint Ordinate Deflecsion
ports (trailer hitch and the wheel assembly) with
At Free End (In.) tbnnrh tacks on a drawing board. The outer end is dis-
placed an amount equal to 3.25 on a snitable scale.
The dt4ection c t m e is traced in pencil from this dis-
p l a c ~ dwire beam. The ordinates of this resulting de-
flection ciirvc become the actual deflections at the free
md as the I-lb load is moved across the length of the
beam.
Multiplying each of the loads on t!ie real beam by
the ordinate at that point gives the deflection at the
free end cansed by enc?~load on the real beam. See
Table 4. Summing these incremental deflections gives
tluc total deflection:
------ ~
Drawing boord
+ 3.2:
FIGURE 39
FIG. 2 Deflection caused by shear increases linearly as length of beam, but that caused by bending increases as the third
power of beam length.
2.61
2.6-2 / Load Stress Analysis
the member and also tihe value of the shear stress (7).
Figure 3 shows the shcar stress-strain diagram which
is similar to the usual stress-strain diagram, altE~ough
the shear yield strength is much lower than the tensile
yield strength of the same material. After the shear
+d strength is reached, the shear strain (t,) ir~creases
rapidly and the shear strength iricreases because of
i
r, = 0.3 [Poisson's ratio] strain hardening.
........................ ( 4 ) Segment
1
4 29 550 i 1.53
lever beams connected end to end. Thus, the pre-
5 32 800 1.28
diction of dcflection in a curved beam can be ap- 6 32 800 1.28
proached in a manner similar to finding the deflection 7 29 550 1.53
in a straight cantilever beam. 8 23 358 1.48
9 15 216 1.04
10 i 5 119 21
FIG. 2 For deflection of simple curved beam, use Eq. 4 or nomograph, Fig. 3.
FIGURE 3-Deflection of Curved Beam
(Stiffness Nomograph)
Moment of inertio
of section (I,)
i n.4
-I
Deflection o f
curved beom
where
I X,= 50 in. Ii
M u l t ~ p l ythe sum of these
values by "st' to get total
deflec!inn of t h e curved
beam
'i .00000,
2.7-4 / Load & Stress Analysis
1 P X,,'
E,,, 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .( 5 )
I Problem 2 I
Use the same heam examplc as in Problem 1,
the same valzrrs for l', s. X,, and I,,; and the s u m form
of table. Complrte the compiitation.
Engineers of the Whiskey Creek Bridge i n No. California specified that the 300' welded
steel girders across eoch span utilize three types of steel in order to meet stress require-
ments economically while maintaining uniform web depth and thickness and uniform flange
section. High strength quenched and tempered sieel was prescribed for points of high
bending moment, A-373 where moments were low, and A-242 elsewhere.
SECTION 2.8
Heovy rock :oiled from shovel Fort moving, boded wogon Sudden ignition of missile;
onto frome without ony p a r i n g over supporting or niisrile miifires and
initial drop in height: beom: then re-ignites
h=O F = between W and 2 W F = 2 T (thrust)
F=2W
E = -F d
2
t is also the amount of work a body con do by virtue of its d- -
Spring
;tote of strain or deflection.
Fortunatrly the mernber will dtbflcct slightly and LE I-Basic Laws Used in Analvris of l n r ~ a c t
allow a certain time for thc moving body (W,) to Angular
come to rest, therehy reducing this impact force ( F ) .
Since the time interval is usually ~nrknown, the
above formul;~ cannot h r wed directly to find the
force ( F ) . I h v e v e r , it is us~rally possible to solve
for this force by finding thc nlnount of kinetic energy
( E L )or potential encrgy (E,,) that must be absorbed
by th,e memlwr (Fig. 2 ) . d perpcndiculnr dis:onre
f r o m center of rolotion
This applied cncrgy ( E k ) or (E,,) rnay then be to line of force
set equal to tbc energy ( U ) dxorhed by the member
within a given stress (a), see Table 2.
(See Figure 3)
Then:
F
but K =r - being the spring constant of the beam
A
or since V .-: \/ 2 g b
Bending
D
u=
simp y suppor e simp y suppor e
concentroted lood uniform lood
uniform section uniform section
(Coefficient = ,1667) (Coefficient = ,26671
Bending
W
uy1I L
U=-
10 E c 2
10 E
concentroted load uniform lood
uniform section (Coefficient = ,1667) uniform section (Coefficient = ,1000)
simply supported
concentrated load
variable section so o = constant volue
uniform section (Coefficient = .500) (Coefficient = ,3333)
Torsion
I9 0,' R L
U = ------
2 E,,,,t
where R = torsion01
E, = shear resistance
modulus of elasticity
round shoft open section
(Coefficient = ,250) (Coefficient = ,500)
Designing for impact Loads / 2.
a concrete bridge deck in reducing the impact forces If the applied cnergy is expressed in terms of the
transferred into the member supporting it. height of fall of the body ( h ) , the reduced velocity
If the applied energy is expressed in terms of the (V,,) may be expressed in terms of a reduced effective
velocity of the body ( V ) , the reduced velocity (V,) height ( h , ) :
at instant of irnnact is-
If the member were compact and anc cent rated The allou~ableenergy load, or load that can be ab-
at a point, the entire weight of the member would sorbed elastically (without plastic deformation) by the
be effective in rtducing the velocity of thc body. How- mernber in bending, is basically-
ever: the supporting mernber is spread ont in the form
of a beam or frame and therefore only a portion of its
weight is effective in moving along with the body and
slowing it down. Tinmhenko shows the portion of the
weight of the member to be used is:
where (k) is a constant for a specific type of beam
Simply supported beam with concentrated load at with a specific t y p of loading. Table 2 shows the
midpoint application of this formula to various member and
load conditions, with numerical values substituted for
the ( k ) factor.
Obse~vation shows that the critical property of
* Cantilever beam with ~mmzntratedload at end I ,, 2
the section is --,,while that of the material is -.~L
W, .;- ,236 W,,, c- 2 I;'
Unit
Stress
0 5
Unit strain [ r /
.. D
Material
1-1 Steel
FIGURE 5
In Table 3 the member in tension (No. 4 ) has which detemiines this is I/?, and this is constant for
t h e e times the energy-absorption capacity of the a given rectanqular area repaniless of its position.
simple beam with a concentrated load (No. 1). This
is because the tensile member (No. 4 ) has its entire
cross-section nnifor~nly stressed to maximum for its
full length. In contrast, the maxinn~~n bending stress
in beam No. 1 is at thc outer fibers only; and this
bending stress decreases away from the central portion
of the beam, being zero at the two ends.
Notice that decreasing the depth of the beam at
its supports, so the n~aximnrnbending stress is uniform
along the entire lcngth of the hram, doubles the energy
absorbing ciipacity of the beam. See (1) and (9).
For a steady load, doubling the length of a beam
will double the resnlting bending stress. However, for
an impact load, doitbling the length of the beam will
reduce the resulting impact stress to 70.7% of the
original.
Two identical rectangular beams can theoretically
absorb the same amonnt of energy and are just as
strong under impact loading. The section property
2. / Load & Stress Analysis
-I-
101 Tensile member. unifbrm section Tensile member with notch
/Stress a t notch
k!
7 1 ,,Sfrerr in member
FIGURE 8
Designing for Impact Loads / 2.8-9
ence n - --
us2
-. Materials having lower modulus
I Problem 1 Accelerating a load
9. F
of elasticity ( E ) generally have lower values of
yield strength (us),and this latter value is more
important becanse it is squared. Therefore steels
with higher yield strengths have higher values of
modulus of resilience and are better for impact
loads. k Beam
9. The material should be ductile enough to plas-
tically relieve the stress in any area of high stress
corrccntration; and have good notch toughness.
10. Thc: material shonld have high fatigue strength
if the impact load is vepeatedly applied.
11. The material should have good notch toughness,
and for low temperatnre service, a low transition
temperatnre.
12. Reduce stress concentrations to a minimum and
avoid a b n ~ p tchanges in section.
13. If possible, place material so that the direction of
hot rolling (of plate or bar in steel mill) is in
line with impart force.
14. For inertia forces, decrease the weight of the
member, while maintaining proper rigidity of the FIGURE 10
member for its particular use. This means light-
weight, well-stiffened members having sufficient Find the load placed on the supporting beam for a
moment of inertia ( I ) should be used. hoisting unit in the shaft of a mine if the 5000-lb load
15. One aid against possible inertia forces caused by ( W 2 ) is accelerated upward to a velocity ( V ) of 1800
the rapid movcment of thc member due to ex- feet per minute in 5 seconds ( t ) . The dead weight of
plosive energy, earthquakes, etc., is the use of the hoisting unit is 1000 lbs ( W , ) .
2.8-10 / Load & Stress An~lyris
= 6 ft/sec' deceleration
force of accelcratio?~
V = 60 MPH
6------- W :40.000 lbi
FIGURE 1 1
F = 7275 FIGURE 12
Designing for Fatigue Loads
1. ENDURANCE LIMIT in the specimen. Once this has occurred, the subse-
quent time to nltimate failnre is fairly well confined
When the load on a member is constantly varying and proceeds in a rather uniform manner.
in value, or is repeated at relatively high frequency, The designrr when first encountering a fatigue
or constitutes a complete reversal of stresses with each loading probleni will often use the material's endurance
operating cycle, the material's endurance limit must limit or fatignc strength value given in his engineer-
be suhstitnted for the ultirnate strength where called ing handbook, ~vithnut f d l y considcring what this
for by design formulas. value represents and how it was obtained. This pro-
Under high load valnes, the variable or fatigue cadure wnld lead to scrioiis trouble.
mode of loading reduces the material's effective ulti- There are many types of fatigue tests, types of
mate strength as the nnmbcr of cycles increases. At loading, and types of specimens. Theoretically the
a given high stress value, the material has a definite fatigue value used by the designer should be deter-
service or fatigue life, expressed as N cycles of op- mined in a test that exactly duplicates the actual ser-
erations. Conversely, at a given nnmber of service vice conditions. The sample used should preferably
cycles the material has a definite allowable fatigue be identical to the member, the tcsting machine should
strength. reproduce the actnal scrvice load, and tlie fatigue cy-
The end:~raiicc limit is the maximum stress to cle and frequency should be the same as wonld be
which the material can be subjected for a given ser- enconntcri~din actlid scrvice. For example, if thc prob-
vice life. lem is a butt xvdd in tension, the allowable fatigue
strength used in thc design must come from data ob-
2. NATURE OF FATIGUE LOADING tained from loading a hntt weld in axial tension on
a pulsating type of fatigne testing machine, with the
Fatigue failure is a progressive failure over a period same range of stress.
of time which is started hy a plastic movement with-
in a localized region. Although the average unit stresses 3. ANALYZING THE FATIGUE LOAD
across the entire cross-section may be below the yield Fignre 1 illustrates a typical fatigue load pattern, the
point, a non-uniform distribution of these stresses may cnrve represeuting tlie applied stress at any given mo-
cause them to exceed the yield point within a small ment of time.
area and catlse plastic movement. This eventually pro- There are two ways to represent this fatigue load:
duces a minnte crack. The localized plastic movement 1. As a niwn or average stress (v,,,) with a super-
f u r t h ~ raggravates tlie non-iuiiform stress ditribution, imposed variable stress (r,, ).
and frrrther plastic movcment causes the crack to pro- 2. As a stress varying from maximum value (IT,,,,,)
g e . s . The stress is important only in that it causes to a minimum (IT,),,,,!.Here, the cycle can be repre-
the plastic nrov~ment. sented by the ratio--
Any fatigne test usnally shows considerable scatter
in the resnlts obtained. This resnlts from the wide
range of time required hcfore the initial crack develops
FIGURE 1
I Time ----+
2.9-2 / Load & Stress Analysis
FIGURE 2
where: FIGURE 3
urnin
Fatigue strength formulas, for determining the allow-
where K = - able maximum stress for a given service life of N
urnax
cycles, are presented in Table 1for A7 mild steel, A373
The next diagram, Figure 5, is constructed with and A36 steels, in Table 2 for A441 steel, and in Table
the values for complete reversal ( a , ) and the ulti- 3 for T-1, quenched and teropered high yield strength
mate strength ( u , ) for butt welds in tension. The steel.
fatigue data from test results are also plotted. Notice Reqnircd fatigue life or number of cycles will vary
the values lie on or slightly above these straight lines but usually starts at several hundred thousand cycles.
for service life ( N ) of 100,000 cycles and that of 2 It is assumed that by the time the value of several
million cycles. million cycles is reached, the fatigue strength has
@ 100,000 cycler
2,000,000 cycles
Allowable values- ----
FIGURE 5
2.9-4 / Load & Stress Analysis
leveled off and further stress cycles wor~ldnot produce The constant (k) will vary slightly with the speci-
failure. For any particular specimen and stress cycle men; however, 0.1:: has been widely used for butt
there is a relationship between the fatigue strength welds and 0.18 for plate in axial loading (tension
(o-) and fatigue life ( N ) in number of cycles before and/or compression ) .
failure. The followmg empirical formula may be used The curve in Fignre 7 illustrates the general in-
to convert fatigue ytrengths from one fatigue life to crease in fatigue life when the applied fatigue stress
another: is reduced. As an cxarnple, in this case, reducing the
fatigue stress to 75% of its normal value will in general
increase the fatigue life about nine times.
where:
Bane Metol
0= ---------
c 10.500
psi
in Tension I-213K
Connected
By Fillet
-
2 P,
I( psi
Weldr
But not to exceed
Bare Metal
Compression
Connected
By Fillet
Weidi
Butt Weid
0=
T
'
18.000
in Tension K psi Pt psi
1- -
2
---
But1 Weid
0 --
d- = 18,000 psi
Comprersion I -.8K PI psi
-- .
Butt Weid
@
r
9.000
= ----
0= --
7
10.000
in Shear K psi K psi
1- - i --
2 2
--
fillet
Weids
0, = Leg Sire
"II/ = + max K = +
-+ Time ---+-
mln
(steady)
1
-
"I 1
-
+
-
Time - min = + 1/2 m m K = f 1/2
-+
FIGURE 6
4
: mln = - max K = - 1
"I- [complete
reversal)
-I
FIGURE 7
Base Metal
in Tension
Connected
23 pRI
.- psi
By Fiilet PCpsi
Weidr
Bore Metal
Compression -PC-
psi
Connected 1 - i/z R
By Fillet
Weldr
Bun Weld
Pt psi
in Tension
Butt Weld
In Shear
Fiilet Weidr @ *
w = leg liz f = 8800 iblin. = 10,400 w iblin.
i-fiR
Fiilet Weld
w = leg size
n I
f
-
6 360 W
= 2--
-Ibrlin.
i .A0 K
- lap.TT
I
9,900 w
f = -------
I - .75 K
Ibrlin.
I
f =
14,500 W
1 -
.6O K
Ibrlin.
I
f = 26.1600 Ibrlin.
FIGURE 8
FATIGUE NOMOGRAPH
and since the butt weld's k factor is .13, the nomograph indicates
--
ah -- 96.8%
0-
or a, = 30,000 X 96.8% = 29,000 psi
3=
0,
(2-) ii
and: = 29,020
- psi at Nb = 2,000,000 cycles)
The nomograph, Figure 8, further facilitates such
conversion and permits quickly finding the relative
allowable stress for any required fatigue life provided
Using logarithms* for the right hand side: the fatigue strength at some one fatigue life is h o w n
= 0.13(log 0.775) = 0.13(9.88930 - 10) and that the constant k value has been established.
Conversely, the relative fatigue life can be readily
= 1.285fX9 - 1.3 (add 8.7 to left side and found for any given stress and any constant ( k ) .
+ 8.7 - 8.7 subtract 8.7 from right
side)
-
* A log-log slide rule could be used to find the value of 0.775
9.985609 -10.0 raised to the 0.13 power.
/ Load & Stress Analysis
FIG. 9 Severity of fatigue depends on stress value and range of fluctuation, as well as service life.
esigning for Fatigue Loads /
Reiniorcement On 31.9
Sties, Relieved
Ploin Plote
Mili Scole Machined O i i
ond Surioce Poished
I I 1 76 U
100,000 cycler 25.800 psi 25,400 pri I 22,900 p d
By means of Table 4, we can see that removing quency of individual member or whole structure to
the reinforcement of a butt weld increases its fatigue avoid excessive amplitude.
strength to that of unwdded plate, also that stress 6. Perhaps consider prestressing a beam in axial
relieving the weld has no appreciable effect on its compression. This will reduce the tensile bending stress
fatigue strength. and lessen chance for fatigue failure even though the
Table 5 illustrates the effect of transverse fillet compressive bending stress is increased to some extent.
welds upon the fatigue strength of plate, this is %" 7. Avoid eccentric application of loads which may
plate. cause additional flexing with each application of load.
The attachment causes an abrupt change in sec- 8. Stiffeners decrease flexibility of panel and result
tion, and this reduces the fatigue strength of the plate. in better fatigue strength, unless they cause a more
It is believed these results could be duplicated by abrupt change of section.
machining these joints out of solid plate, without any 9. A rigid frame type of structwe or statically
welding. indeterminate type of structure may be better than
a simple structure since the load is shared by other
members; hence, the structure is less likely to collapse
ING FOR FATIGUE immediately if a fatigue failure starts in one member.
LOADING 10. Avoid biawial and triaxial stresses, avoid
restrained internal sections.
I. Usually a member is stressed to the full maxi-
mum value for only a portion of its fatigue life or cycles.
For most of its fatigue life, the member is stressed to
a much lower value, and not to its full rated capacity;
hence, most fatigue loading is not as severe as it may
first appear.
Consider actual stress rather than average stress.
Reduce if possible the range of stress without
increasing the maximum or average stress.
2. Fatigue loading requires careful fabrication,
smooth transition of sections.
Avoid attachments and openings at locations of
high stress.
Avoid sharp comers.
Use simple butt weld instead of lap or T fillet
~ e c o m e ~ d emethod
d if fatique or impact ioodinq
weld.
Grinding the reinforcr:ment off of butt welds will
increase the fatigue strength. This weld will have about
the same fatigue strength as unweldt-d plate. Grinding,
however, should not be specified unless essential, sincc
it does add to the final unit cost.
Avoid excessive reinforcement, undercut, overlap,
lack of penetration, roughness of weld.
Avoid placing weld in an area which flexes.
Stress relieving the weld has no appreciable &ect
upon fatigue strength.
DBiculties are sometimes caused by the welds
being too small, or the members too thin.
3. Under critical loading, place material so that
the direction of rolling (of plate in stml mill) is in
line with force, because the fatigue strength may be
higher in this direction than if placed at right angles Direit8on of hot rollinq
ofsheets insteel mills
with the direction of rolling. See Figure 10. e e c o w e n d of Least on boitom h d f or thlrd,or
4. Where possible, form member into shape that w h o i e t a n k , s h e e t s be run lenqthwise with tonk
it tends to assume under load, and hence prevent the
resulting Aexial movement. FIG. 10 Grain direction of sheet or plate should
5. Avoid operating in the critical or resonant fre- be in line with force, for greater fatigue strength.
S E C T I O N 2.1
/ Angle of twist
Conventional
FIGURE 1
poior moment
equal to the sum of the torsional resistances of the
two flanges and weh (Fig. 1).
Figure 2 shows the results of twisting an I beam
made of three equal plates. Calculated values of twist
by using the conventional polar moment of inertia ( J ) Resistonce
and the torsional resistance ( R ) are compared with
the actual results. This shows greater accuracy by using
torsional resistance ( R ) .
This means that the torsional resistance of a flat
FIGURE 2
ifor mlid -b
d
= 1.00 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.50 3.00 4.00 6
rectangular- ---
jsections a 2 0 8 1.31 ,239 .246 .258
Use t4.s
[&yo& Rz3.542
bracing l of
ning for Torsional Loading / 2*T&
FIGURE 3
where:
The solid or tubular round closed scction is best
HP = horsepower
for torsional loading since the shear strmses are uniform
around the circumference of the member. RPM = speed of revolution
Next to a tubular section, the best section for re- P I- applied force, lbs
e = moment arm of force (the perpendicular
distance from the center of rotation to the
line of force)
Case 1 CA
FIGURE 6
and the angular twist is-
Case 2
From Table 1, the tors~ollalresistance of the slotted
= 0.000485 radians, or -
0.0278"
- round tube is found to bc-
r NP
= 63,030 X --
RPM
-- 0.018 radians, or 1.04"
Based on strength of shaft:
Thus, the tube witlmut the slot is many times more
rigid than the slotted tube.
-
1 Problem 2 1 where S, = 25,000
Two 6" X 2" X 10%-lb chaniids are to be used in 2945 dz4 - dl4
making a 100"-long frame, which will be subjected to T = --
dz
a torque of 1000 in.-lbs. In what relationship to each
other will these channels offer the greatest resistaxe to Based on safe twist of shaft (.08"/ft):
twist?
Case 1
Based on fillet weld leg size around
These two channels when separated but fastened ihaft or hub:
together by end plates do not have much torsional
resistance.
T = 20,420 d2 t
Case 2
When these two channels are securely fastened
back to back, there is suitable n:sistance to any slip
or movemcnt due to horizontal shear. Here the two
FIGURE 7 webs are considercd as one solid web, and the top and
bottom flanges are considered solid.
From Tdhk 1 . the \.due of R for each of the
flanges is found to b e -
Rl = 0.0306 in4
and that of each web is-
RP = 0.0586 in.'
and thus the total angular twist is-
= 0.0348 radians, or --
2.0" FIGURE 8
2.10-6 / Load & Stress Analysis
From Table 1, thc value of R for each of the two The nomogl-aph, Figure 10, permits the designer
conlposite flanges is found to he- to quickly find the torsional resistance of a proposed
design. The total torsional resistance of a built-up
R1 = 0.066 design equals the sum of the resistances offered separ-
and that of the composite web is- ately by the memhers.
R? = 0.459 in4 On this nomograph:
m d thus the total angular twist is-
Line 1 = Type of section, or element of a built-up
scdion. Obscrve caution as to meaning of
letter symbols. For a solid rectangular
= 0.0141 radians, or 0.81"
- section use the ratio of wiclth ( a ) divided
by thickness ( b ) ; for a hollow rectangular
~ohichis much less than in Case 1 section use width ( b ) divided by depth ( c ) .
Line 2 = Dimmsion ( a ) , in.
Case 3 Line 3 = Pivot line
If these two channels were welded toe to toe to Line 4 = Dimension ( b ) , in.
form a box section, the, torsional resistance would be Line 5 = Torsional resistance of the section ( R ) , i n 4
greatly increased. Thcse values for cacli crlement are added
together to give tho total torsional resistance
of the section, and the resistances of the
sections are added to give the total torsional
resistance of the frame or base. This is used
in the design formula for angular twist, or
in the next nomograph, Figure 14.
I Problem 3 I
A 6" X 2" X 10%-lb channel is subjected to a torque
of T = 1000 in.-lbs. Find the shear stress along the
FIGURE 11
web. See Figure 13.
Applying the fotmula for rectangular sections from
Table 1, find the torsional resistance of each of the
two identical 2" X %" flanges ( R , ) and of the gr X
5/16" web ( R 2 ) :
where:
Q, = unit angular twist of whole section (each
element twists this amount), in radians/linear
inch of member
t = thickness of rectangular section
R = torsional resistance of entire member, not
necessarily just this one flat element Then:
This formula can be used for a flat plate, or the
flat plate of a built-up section not forming a closed
section (i.e. channel, angle, T- or 1-beam section).
111 such a built-up open section, the unit angular
twist (4) of the whole member is first found:
= 2,580 psi
I Problem 4 1
and then the maximum shear stress in the specific
rectangular element. Two 6" X 2" X 10%-lb cha~melsare welded toe to
toe, to form a short box section. This is subjected to a
torque of T = 100,000 in.-lbs. Find the horizontal
shear stress at the toes and the amount of groove
welding required to hold these channels together for
this torsional load. See Figure 14.
'1 FIGURE 12 From Table 2, the shear stress at mid-length of
the short side is found to be-
7-
T where:
- .. 100,000
2(5.625 X 3.6817%
where a = inside corner radius. = 6420 psi
,
FIGURE 13
Designing for Torsional Loading / 2.1
FIGURE 14
The horizontal shear force is then- 4" limestone -t 9" brick = 140 lhs/sq ft
Since the wall is 12' high, this is a load of 1680
f =7.t lhs/lincar ft or 140 lbs/linear in. Or, use w = 1.56
1 6420 X ,375 Ihs/lin in. to include beam weight.
= 2410 lbs/linear inch bending resistance (monwnt of inertia)
Since weld metal is good for 13,000 psi in shear,
the throat or depth of the continuous hutt weld must
he-
torsional resistance
uniform torque
FIGURE 15 t = 150 lhs/in. X 6"
= 900 in.-lbs/in.
angular tzoist at center of beam
= 4100 psi OK
-
torsional shcar stress Then to determine the required size of Ulet weld
between flange and web:
T where:
T =
2 [A1 ts t, = thickness of single web
= 1410 psi
unit shear force from torque
ft=.it
= (1410) ('12)
= 700 lbs/in.
unit shear force along N.A. from bending FIGURE 17
v = w L/2
= (150)(120)
= 18,000 Ibs unit shear force at weld from bending
FIGURE 19
FIGURE 20
4 members t
Then:
A A
&=-and&=-
W L
Using the common formula for angular twist-
TL 1.~-. TT W
. - - . . . . . (4)
& = ----- and 81. =
E, n~ RI. E, n~ KT
FIGURE 21
E, = modulus of elasticity in shear some deflection due to bending of all the members, and
(steel: 12 X lo6), psi this would slightly i~lcrcasethe over-all deflection of the
A = vertical deflection, in. frame. For simplicity this has been neglected in this
analysis.
It can be seen that the torque on a given member
is actually produced by the transverse forces supplied
by the cross members attached to them. These Fame
pzzq
forces subject the cross members to bending. In other To illustrate the use of the preceding deflection formula,
words, the torque applied to a member equals the end consider a small elcvator frame 15" wide and 30" long,
moment of the crosq member attached to it. There is made of standard 3" channel, Figure 21. Find the
A = -Ln:
PLW
-
1
+ -
nT]:
2 t t, ( b - t)2(d - t p
R=
d bt + d t,- t2 - t12
L
2.10-14 / Load Stress Analysis
Wall load
FIGURE 22
vertical deflection of the unsupported comer when centerlines of the longitudinal members is 34.75", and
under a load of 5 lbs. the latter are 82" long. Determine:
Using the appropriate formula from Table 4, a ) The approximate vertical deflection of the un-
torsional resistance of the U channel cross-section supported comer,
1s - b ) the shear stress in lougitudinal and transverse
members, and
R =
2 ht," dtS3 -
-
2 htr3 + dtw3 c ) the size of the connecting weld between the
3 3 longitudinal and transverse members.
- 2 (1.875) (.3125)3 3( 1875)3
-- +
torsional resistance of longitudinal membe~s
3 3
FIGURE 23
= 3820 psi
shear stress in transverse member
A = P -W - - L. .- - 1
"s [+di + yT]
-- (438,500)
- -(-17,000)
-
= .35"
--
( 34%)(82)
(12 X 10")
i ( 2 ) (137.5)
( 343h)
1
+ 11) (298.3)
(82) I - Z(7.5 X 9.5)(%)
= 6160 psi
size of connecting fillet weld
shear stress in longitudinal member Treating the weld as a line -
The applied torque on only one longitudinal mem-
ber is -
= 2300 psi
and the shear stress at midpoint of the member, on the
ming for Torsional Loading / -17
/-\ diagonal
\ , brace)
There i5 no twisting
action on 45'diagonal
FIGURE 28
member since s h e a r
components cancel out
0
3560
=- -
11,200 - (E70-weld allowable)
Since these two shear stresses cancel out, there is
no tendency for a diagonal member placed in this
direction to twist.
The diagonal tcnsih: and compressive stresses try
to cause this diagonal member to bend; but being very
resistant to bending, the diagonal member greatly
stiffens the entire frame against twisting.
FIGURE 33
esigning for Torisonal Lcadin
FIGURE 34
The top frame in Figure 33 has conventional cross A = . (' F, Y3 (simply supported)
bracing at 90' to side members. It twisted 9". 48 E I
The above frame is little better in resistance to
twist than a flat sheet of the same thiclmess, as shown
in the middle. The plain sheet twisted 10".
% = =A - - ' La - - 12FEY3I L,
--
FIGURE 38
I = -b d3 CONNECTIONS
12
There are several methods of locking the flanges
where b = the section width (plate thickness), and together. The simplest is to weld the end of the member
d = the section depth to the supporting member as in ( d ) . If the supporting
member is then neither thick enough nor rigid enough,
a thin, squiue plate may he welded to the two Banges
at the end of the member ( e ) . Another method is to
use diagonal braces between the two flanges at the
two ends of thc member ( f ) .
then substituting into the formula for R - Either of these methods reduces the angular twist
by about %.
Members having a box section, when butt welded
directly to n primary member, have the fully rigid
end connections required for high torsional resistance.
The angular twist on the frame is then-
I Problem 10 /
A 12" WF 27-lb beam, 25' long, with a uniFormly dis-
tributed load of 8 kips, is supported at each end by a
box girder. See Figure 38. If the beam is continuously
= .0000152 radians or -
.00087" welded to these girders, estimate a ) the resulting end
2.10-22 / Load & Stress Analysis
FIGURE 39
R =
2 b2 d2 - L,
- -W
Me -
b d (See Figure 39) 12
,+t,
- (8") (25'12X 12")2
- 2(13.33)2(10%)2
- (13.33) (10%) -. 200 in.-kips
-+pBq
(%)
= 910 in.4 torque on box girder
See Sect. 8.2 Torsional Member Formulas.
Torque in the central section of the box girder
support is equal to the end moment of the supporting
beam.
= ,0049 radians
A moment-rotation chart shows the relationship;
Now, if the ends of the beam are so restrained that see Figure 40. A straight line represents the end moment
it cannot rotate, the end moment becomes - ( M e ) and end rotation (8,) of the supported beam
esigning for Torsional Loading / 2.18-23
FIGURE 40
under all conditions of end restraint. A similar straight torsional shear force on fillet weld
line, but in the opposite direction, represents the
applied torque ( T ) and angular rotation ( 8 ) at the f i = rb tb
central section of the supporting box girder. = (1830)(%)
These two lines arc plotted, and where they inter- = 690 lbs/lin in.
sect is the resulting end moment (Me) or torque ( T )
and the angular rotation ( 8 ) : which must be transferred by the ellet weld joining the
top and bottom plates to the side channels, lo make
Me = T = 190 in,-kips up the box girder.
0, = ,0002 radians
l~orizontulshear force on fillet weld due to bending
torsional shear stresses in box girder
-
FIGURE 42
d = I 03/a"
FIGURE 41
1
Half of the $-kip load goes to each end of the
beam, or a Ckip load is applied to the central section
= 1830 psi of each box girder. And V = 2 kips.
2.10-24 / Load & Sfress Analysis
- (F)
(4.875) (594,)
(468) ( 2 welds)
= 54 ibs/lin in.
total shear force on weld FIGURE 43
f = f, + f,
= (690) +
(54)
= 744 lbs/lin in.
torsional resistance of suppoiting beam
required leg size of fillet weld (E70 weldsj
0 = --actual force
allowable force
= ,066" (continuous)
torque on suppoi-ting beam
However, AWS and ASSC would require a min- Detelmine what torque must be applied to the
imum fillet weld leg size of 3/1," (See Section 7.4). central section of this supporting beam for it to rotate
If intetmittent fillet welds are to be used, the length the same amount as the end rotation of the supported
and spacing of the welds would be- beam, if simply supported (0, = ,0049 radians):
= 35%
or use 3" - 8"
Alternate Design
As a matter of interest, consider the support to be The moment-rotation diagram, Figure 44, shows
provided by a 1 0 WF 39-lb beam. the resulting end moment on the supported beam to be
(See Figure 43) 4.67 in.-kips. Thus, this beam could be connected as a
FIGURE 44
simply snpported beam with just vertical welds on the 1. The volumes under tht: membranes will be pro-
web si~fficicntto carry the 4-kip shcar reaction. Thc portional to the torsional resistances of the correspond-
end restraint is ahout 2.3%. ing srctions.
2. The slope of the membrane's surface at any
imint is -propor-tional
- to the shear stress of the section
;it this point.
Mcmhrane analogy is a very :isefnl method to mder-
3. A narrow section (thin plate) has practically
stand the behavior of open st,ctions mhrn subjected to
the same torsional resistance rcgardltss of the shape
torsion. To make nsc of this method; holes are cut into of tht: scction it is formed into. Notice a, h, and c in
a thin plate making the outline of varions shaped sec- Figure 45. For a given area of section, the volume un-
tions. it m e m b r n e material si~chas soap film is spread der the membrane rcmains the same regardless of the
owe tbc open surface and air prcssure is applied to sIi;ipr of the section.
the film. The mathematical expressions for the slope It is possihlt? to dctcrminc the torsional resistance
and volrnnc of this membranr or film cowring the open- oE these opcrr st:ctions by comparing them witli a stand-
ings rt:presenting diffr:rimt cross-sections are tho samt: ard circle on this same icst plate whose torsio~ialre-
as the expressions for the shcar stressas and torsional sistance can readily he calculated.
resistance of the actual member being studied. Tt is fly comparing thc memhrarrc of the slottcd open
from this t p e of analysis that formulas for various tube, ( c ) in Figure 15, to that of the mt,mhrane of the
types of open sections subjected to torsion have been closed t~~brx ( c ) , it is I-cadily seen why the closed tnhe
developed and confirnred. is several hundred times morr. resistant to tu-ist, when
If several outlin<,s are cut into the thir plate and it is renrembcred that the v o l ~ ~ mundere the membrane
the same pressure applied to each membrane, the fol- is proportional to the torsiol~alresistance.
lowing will b e tnie:
FIGURE 45
2.10-26 / Load and Stress Analysis
FIGURE 2
.I14 / Load Stress Analysis
FIGURE 4
FIGURE 5
FIGURE 6
r2 -
=0
0
It is seen that, in this example, the maximum
shear stress is 6,000 psi, and not the 2,000 psi vali~c
On graph, right: Locate stress points (mi) ( u a ) , that would usually be found from the conventional
(US) and draw three circles through these points, Now formulas for biaxial stress.
determine the three maximum shear stresses.
There are three values for the maximum shear 3. TRIAXIAL STRESS COM
stress, each equal to half of the difference betweell STRESS (See Figure 7)
two principal (normal) stresses. The plane of maximum
shear stress (shaded in the following sketches) is always The three principal stresses (ex,,, u?,, r a p ) are given
at 45' to the planes of principal stress. by the t h e e roots (u,,) of this cubic equation:
a =-(u x + u 2 + ~ )
b = Flu* + cgr3 + - 7? - 7 2 - 72
UlUj
-
= 6,000 psi 'Solution of Cubic Equation from "Practical Solution of Cubic
Equations': G. L. Sullivan, MACHINE DESIGN, Feb. 21, 1957.
2.11-4 / Load & Stress Analysis
T + 0.2 3
C
0-2-t(a+ul,)up--= 0
TIP
FIGURE 7
Determine the maximum normal and shear stress
in this web section, Figure 8:
Then calculate- 0 3
N3
K = - as a test ratio.
Q"
Case 1
Case 2 -
uD3 ( - 13,650 - 14,500)uD2 +
[( - 13,650) ( - 14,500) - (11,000)2]o;, = 0
When ( 1 + K) is negative (three real and un-
u," 28,150 a, f 76,925,000 = 0
eaual roots)
A
calcnlate-
the tbree principal normal stresses are-
T=q=x Ul, =0
and compute the root- uz, = - 25,075 psi u3, = - 3,075 psi
Analysis o# Combined Stresses /
FIGURE 9
b4 z p =- 1-
25,075 psi (rnox)
FIGURE 11
Here:
4' -
FIGURE 10
2.11-6 / Load & Stress Analysis
The apparent factor of yielding is actual testing of members under various combined-
load conditions, and from this a simple formula is
derived to express this relationship.
If points a and b are the ratios produced by the
actual loads, point c represents the combination of
these conditions, and the margin of safety is indicated
by how close point c lies to the interaction curve. A
suitable factor of safety is then applied to these values.
This seems reasonable and under these conditions,
the beam flange could be groove welded directly to Combined Bending ond Torsion
the edge of the girder flange without trying to isolate
the two intersecting flanges. ,
Pure bending
Pure torsion
R, = constant R, = variable
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
R.
FIGURE 12
Combined Axial Compression rrnd Bending The bending moment applied to the member
(chosen at the cross-section where it is maximum) is
in this case, the axial compression will cause additional then multiplied by this amplification factor (k), and
deflection, which in turn increases the moment of the this value is then nsed as the applied moment ( M ) in
bending load. This increase can easily be taken care the ratio:
of by an amplification factor (k). See Figures 15 and
FIGURE 15
FIGURE 17
FIGURE 16
bending
Here:
The chart in Figure 18 is used to determine the
amplification factor ( k ) for the bending moment
FIG. 18 Amplification
factor (k) for bending
moment on beam also
subject to axial compres-
sion.
1 2 .3 .4 5 7
?/PC,
2.11-8 / Load Stress Analysis
-
Top panel
width b = 56"
thickness t = $6"
Transverse load
w = 185 lbs/in
FIGURE 19
With L = 16%"
The resulting combined stress formula being-
A = 21 in."
I = ,247 in.4
First the critical load-
of which there are two components:
Oc =-
126,000 11,600( x6)
= 272,000 lbs 21 + .247
=: 14,800 psi
Then the ratio-
( b ) and the tensile stress below the neutral axis of
the top panel being-
Mu = 64,900 in-lbs
r'm = $07
FIGURE 1
where:
the type of steel (represented by its stress-strain dia- the following would give better results:
gram) and the actual stress under consideration (posi-
tion on the stress-strain diagram). See Figure 3.
Above the proportional limit (u,,), the modulus
of elasticity ( E ) must he multiplied by a factor (A)
to give the tangent modulus (E,). The tangent modulus
(Ei) is still the slope of the stress-strain diagram and For steel, this becomes-
Et = U / E , but it varies.
If it is assumed that the plate is "isotropic" (i.e.,
having the samc properties in both directions x and y ) ,
the critical buckling lorrnula hecomes-
I where:
A=+
If the critical buckling stress (u,,) is less than the
proportional limit (up)then A = Ei/E = 1 and
formola #4 could he used directly in solving for critical
stress (u~,).
However, if the critical huckling stress ( u ) is
greater than the proportional limit (u,), then A < 1
and formula $4 cannot be used directly. It would be
If it is assumed that the plate has "anisotropic"
better to divide through by ?'x and express the
formula as-
behavior (i.e. not having the same properties in both
directions x and y), the tangent modulus ( E t ) would
he used for strases in the x direction when the critical
stress (u,,) is above the proportional limit ( u n ) .How-
ever, the modulus of elasticity ( E ) would he used in
the y direction because any stress in this direction From the value of re,/\/T;;formula #6 will give
would be bek~wthe proportional limit (up). In this the value of re,.Obtain proper value for the plate
case, the above formula #2 would he conservative and factor ( k ) from Table 1 or 3.
inelastic
10 20 30 40 50 60
Buckling of Plates / 2.1
where:
rr, = yield point
u, =3 propostional limit
u,, = critical buckling stress
TABLE 2-Shear Load on Plate
If we use a ratio of-
I--- " -4 I I
-Sleich, ',Buckling Strength of Metal Stiucturer." p. 395
2.12-4 / Load & Stress Analysis
CImnrrrslan
when
a, 1 k = 4
--
when
a ;z 1 k = 7.7
.
when
2 i k = 7.7 + 33 (1 - 0i9
1nir
Buckling of Plates / 2.12-5
Since the plate constant ( k ) can be adjusted to siort, in the irrelastic rangc the critical stress ( u , , )
3 factor, this becomes-
contain the 1
' exceeds the proportional limit (u,,), and the tangent
modulus (E,) is introduced by the factor ( h = Et/E).
2
Therefore, folmulas #5 and #6 would be used also
k + E
ccr= 12(L - v2)(i) in the buckling of plates by shear.
Proper values for the plate factor ( k ) are obtained
from Table 2, for purc shear load, and Table 3, for
As before in the buckling of plates by compres- shear load comhined with compression.
when
$21
where il = -
3
4
+-l
'a
when
%-
5.5 l
k =(
'I3
a+ )i
4 a' + 5.34
[- + q7]
I
where n = -
!az + 1)'
when
where 'i =
5.34 + 41a'
77
when
% s = s l
k = 3.85 n2~fl+3
where q = -
2
9
+' -6 I'a- -
when
fiCa(1
J
I
k = 2 4 n m
where n =-
6
1
+ -~r
2
9 '
a
2.12-6 / Load & Stress Analysis
.I - .".I
bit
a. If u,,/\ I-h '
= uD,this is the value of ucx,SO o,, = 1.8 0, - n --
-
3820 5720 v'k
go to step 4.
b. If u , , . / \ T > u,,, go to step 3.
BtoC
\,% to -x where:
" =
\/-."
-7-
4770
- - -
3. Insert this value (u,,/ \ / x ) into formula #6,
and solve for the critical buckling stress (uc,). c to 0
". 6. =
4. After the critical stress ( ) has been deter- \/G
mined, the critical buckling stress of the given plate
(u',, or r',,) is determined from the relationship shown
in the right-hand column of Tables 1, 2, or 3. The horizontal line ( A to B ) is the limit of the
yield strength ( u , ) . Here uc, is assumed equal to u,.
5. BUCKLING STRESS CURVES (Compression) The curve from B to C is expressed by-
1
In regard to plates subjected only to compression or
(b/t) where:
only to shear, H. M. Priest and J. Gilligan in their ucr= 1.8 uy - n
"Design A4anual for High Strength Steels" show the n = -.
cwrve patterns, Figure 5 (compression) and Figure 10
'
I 4770
(shear). They have divided the buckling curve into
three distinct portions (A-B, B-C, and C-D), and have The curve from C to D is 75% of the critical bock-
lowered the criticd stress values in the elastic buckling ling stress formula, Figure I, or:
region by 25% to more nearly conform to actual test
r&ults. k r 2 E
Values indicated on this typical curve are for U", = .75 12 ( 1 -.2,(t)'
ASTM A-7 (mild) steel, having a yield strength of
33,000 psi.
The buckling curve (dashed line) of Figure 2
has been superimposed on the Priest-Cilligan curve for
comparison.
- -
- 4434
[%I
All of this is expressed in terms of the factor
b/t
Ratio
s-r
C r i t i c o l b u c k l i n g compressive stress [n,,) for A-7 steel having 0, = 33,000 psi
.I24 / Lood & Stress Analysis
TABLE 5-Factors -
for Eucklina Formulas of b i t are recognized, Tablc 7 , extended to higher yield
strengths, lists these limiting values of b/t.
of Steel 4770
- 3820 5720
-
7. EFFECTIVE lDTH OF PLATES I
-.
\6 --- \/< COMPRESSION
Yield
Side Strength
Conditions
FIGURE 8
"
Critical buckling rheor stress for A.7 i t e e l hovng a, = 33,000 psi
FIG. 10 Buckling stress curves for flate plates in shear.
Of
Curve I Fccaor --
Vi
Critical Bvckling Sheor Strerg
(T,,) Determined by
% , w e is expressed in t e r n (3).
Table 8. Comparison of Figure 10 and Table 8 with
%e
Tensile b/o = 1
Yield Strength ($quore panel
PI psi
10 20 30 40 50 60 10
Rotto &i
FIG. 11 Buckling stress curves (plates in shear) for various steels.
.12-12 / Load and Stress Anolysis
XM - 21.0
NA,., =-
ZA = 12.0 = - 1.75"
NA,., XM -
= -7-
,A
- +12.09.0 - + 75"
Knowing I,, I,, and I,, it will he possible to find I,;,. product of inertin
It will he nwessary to find the product of inertia
I Problem I I ( I ) of the scction. This is the area ( A ) times the
product of distances d, and d, as shown in Figure 3.
Locate the (neutral) x-x and y-y axes of the offset T (Set: Figure 3 on facing page).
section shown in Figure 2:
In finding the moment of inertia of an area about
a given axis (I, or I,), it is not necessary to consider
the signs of d, or d,. However, in finding the product
of inertia, it is necessary to know the signs of d, and d,
hecnnse [lie product of these two could be either posi-
tive or negative and this will determine the sign of
the resiilting product of inertia. The total product of
inertia of the d i o l e scction, which is the sum of the
values of the individual areas, will depend upon these
signs. Areas in diagonally opposite quadrants will have
prodncts of ineltia having the same sign.
The product of inertia of an individual rectangular
area, the sides of which are parallel to the x-x and
y-y axes of the entirc larger section is -
FIGURE 2
FIGURE 4
to locate neutral axis x-x:
where:
a and b = dimensions of rectangle ( = A)
d and c = distance of area's center of gravity to
the x-x and y-y axes (= d, and d,)
where d = distance from center of gravity of element The product of ir~crtiaof a T or angle section is -
area to parallel axis (here: XI-XI) (See Figure 5 ) .
Analysis of Compression / 3.1-3 I
l x = A d: I -
A d : iXy : A dx dy
Moment of inertlo Moment of inertia Product of i n e ~ t i u
obout x - x axis about y y 0x1s about x-x and y ~ yu x c i
FIGURE 3
Y
Xow use formula given previously for product of
inertia of such 21 section:
x
Ixy =
a d t (d-&)(a --
t) +
4 (a d) +
( 5 ) ( % ) ( 5- 2.5)(4
( 4-).- + %-~)
+ ..~
-- ~~
4 (4 5)
r + 3.125
-- in.'..
Y
FIGURE 5
I,, = ZA ( & ) ( d l )
= 2.5 ( - + 1) ( - 1 - ,555) + 2 (- 1.25) (-- ,695) FIGURE 6
= t 1.388 + 1.737
= + 3.125 in."
3.1-4 / Column-Related Design
tan20 = -. --
2 I,, (See sketch below).
moment of inertia about axis x-x
sx - Iy
;')
,, -
x '6
Total - pzlimp I=
ZM - -- .-
21.0
'--.:-~--+
! 6 - 3 . 5 - I . I + 73.5t18.00
I , $
-
~ 2 . 0
20 = -- 46.4" or
0 ~and 0 = -+-
66.8"
+ 133.6"
1 Problem 4 1
Thc clian~icl section, Figtire 8, is to be used as a
collinrn. Determine its radins of gyration about its
minimum moment of inertio X-x axx.
['sing the conventional formulas for the properties
of the section -
Analysis of Compression / 3.1-5
FIGURE 8 FIGURE 9
radius of gyration
X
FIGURE 10
error of -
If a slide rule had been used, assuming a possible
one part in 1(K)O for every operation, this
ms\var co111dbe as high as 1.336" and as low as 1.197".
This represents an error of t 4.3% and - 6.6%. For
Sometimes (as in Problcm 3 ) the moment of inertia
of a sedion is nedehl about an axis lying at an angle
( 0 ) with the cor~ventionalx-x axis. This may be found
by using the prodt~etof inertia ( 1 of the section
this reason it is necessary, when using these conven- about the conventional axes (x-x and p-y) \?,ith the
tional formulas, to make use of logarithms or else moments of i~wrtizi ( I , ) and ( I , ) about these same
do the n:ork longhand. To do this rcquires about 30 axes in the following formnla:
min~ites.
The radios of gyration \ d l now he found directly,
using thc properties of thin sections, treating them
as a line. Sce Table 2. Section 2.2.
3.1-6 / Column-Related Design
/ pinned
FIGURE 11
where:
Et - tangent modulus of elasticity, corresponding
to the modulus of elasticity when stressed to
ffw
5. TANGENT MODULUS
TABLE 1 TABLE 2
ingcsrer of curve
lioeloriir bending:
FIGURE 13 FIGURE 14
3.1-8 / Column-Related Design
and the critical slerrdcrncss ratio (I.,,/r) is determined stress (cr) d t 1 ;ipplyiug
~ a factor of safety of 1.8.
~ .~
for ~ w i m t s~ d t r c sof strcss ( c r , ) , restilting in Tables I
and 2 for qucnchcd and teinpered steel only. 7. BASIC FORMULAS FOR COMPRESSION
Table 1 givcs rorrwporlding \;altles of slendemcss MEMBERS
ratio (I&) for given v;ilucs of strcss (u,,) above the
proportio~i:il limit of ;I quimched and tempcred steel. In "lirirklirrg Strmgtli oi h?ctal Stnicttlrcs," page 53,
firlow tlrc m;itrrinl's propor-tiod limit, the use of 131r~icIrintnxliir~sa pit-:rbolic formtila to csprcss this
Yot~ug's modt~lris (I.:) or tangrnt modiilos ( E , ) pro- tangent rnodiiltrs i:i~rvt. for comprcssiorr, i3y applying
vide the sanrr vdite. Tablc 2 for qtienclied and temp- a factor of s;tfrty (F.S.). this Iitwmcs thc allowable
cred stecl givcs ihc slerr~lernt*ssratio (L,/r) for stress cot~ipri~ssiv~~strws, l ' l r t ~ hasir paralwlk: formula thus
levtals (cr,) \viihin the prip~-tied portion of the rnuilificd is -
stress-strain cur\,tr. Si~iccthe o t i i i Eitler fornrula
for cr,, iipplics here, this portioir of the crirvc is often
called tho Eolcr curve
These val~tesfrom Tabltx I and 2 arc now plotted to o-, z proportiond limit
i'orm the cilrvc in Figurr 11.The Eulcr portion of the
u -::: yirld point
curve is cxtmded upward hy a hrokcn line to indicate
the variance that would 11c o b t x i n d by continuing to F.S. : factor of s;~f(t!-
use the Euler formula beyond tlie proportional limit.
This must be kept in mirid in designing compn%ion Any rcsidiml coniprcssive strcss (ir,,) in the mem-
members having a low slenderness ratio (L/r). ber tends to lo\ver tlie 171-oportional limit ( c r ) os
A few test results are also sliown to indicate the straight-liw prirtio~~ of thc stri,ss-stmirr ciirvc, in rom-
close relationship hetwem thr Modulus for- puessioir: \vitlioirt 2iff1,rting tl~t. yicld p i n t For the
mula and actual valiies. purposr of tlic ;thov<-fonnula, it is assumed that
Note that a correporiding wrvf has been plotted
below the main citrve, r r p x w i ~ t i i ~ the
g allowable
Also assriming this value of residual co~npressive
TABLE 3-Allowable Compressive Stress (AISC) strcss is ahorit half of the yield point, or cr,, = '12 cr,,
Ronga of Formula 1113 becomes:
Average Allowable
LI compra*,ive
-Values unit st,e,s (C)
-
, .. ., .
- F.S. 4 .ii" F.S.
I-,.
..
-. 2:3.925 for stecl . . . ( 15)
r \,'cry
l1)ovc~tliis slc~tdcrrlt~s
ratio, the 1:ulcr fonnula
is I I ~ :
with ~ e p o ~ o t o r
FIGURE 15
The above rotioi of b ' t may be exceeded i f , b y u i n g n the coliuiationr a w d t h equol to the
maxmum of these limits, the cornpierrive itreis value obtamcd ti wtthln the oliowobe sties
8,000
va,
10,000
--
b'a,
44.0
55.0 1
i
4 2 .
52.6
39.0
- -
48.7 47.1
I I)I 1 1
37.3
. ~.~ .~~
46.6
~ ~
44.7
34.1
p~
42.6
32.6
40.8
31.4
39.2
~I 1
26.6
33.4 /
25.9
32.4 /
25.3
31.6
FIGURE 16
Analysis o f Compression / 3.1-1 1
2. RESTRAINT A N
MEMBER
Section 3.1 explained how a compression member's TABLE 'f-Effective Length (L. of
slendei~icssratio (L/r) relates to its buckling strength. Compression Members
The degree of end restraint on a member results in its
having an effective length wvl~ichmay vary considerably
from its actual unbraced longth. This ratio ( K ) of
effective length to actual unbraced length is wed as a
multiplier in determining the dfedive length (L,) of
a compression member.
Buckled shape o f member i
shown by doshed line
where:
L = actual length of the column
L, = effective length of the column to b e used in
column formulas
K = effective length factor Theoreticol K value
--
Recommended design volue
Table 1 lists theoretical values of K and the Column when ideal cond:tionr
Research Council's corresporrding recommended values o m ooaroximoird
of K for the effective length (L,) of columns under
ideal conditions. ,totion fixed translation fixed
094 0 999999 9 9 9 9
boo d 0GXOICW 0 d- M N - 0
$Q'D" c
u -
m I l l 1 1 1
(3 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 Ill I I I i I I I I I I
oqo q q 0mcof:wIq
d- ?i N -
d
8 a-o & n cu -00000 0 0 d 0 0
m '&, l l l t l l , 1 I I l l I I I l l I I I I I I I
(3
Design of Compression Members / 3.2-3
''
L" the joint considered. far end of beam fixed
I Problem I I
Find the effective ltmgth factor ( K ) for column
A-B under the following conditions:
Sldesway
Sidesway
prevented
FIGURE 2 FIGURE 3
Here: Here:
= ,260 = ,620
GB = o ~ use
; 10 Gg = zero; use 1.0
From the nomograph read K = .76 From the nomograph, read K = 1.26
3.2-4 / Column-Related Design
1 .o
Margin of hafety
R, = constant
R, = vanoble
0 .2 .4 6 8 1 .O
R,
FIGURE 4 FIGURE 5
load is expressed as a ratio of the actual load to the vertical axis is the ultimate value for this type of load
ultimatc load which would cause failurt. if acting alone. on the meniber when acting alone. The value of R, = 1
at the extnxme right end of the horizontal axis is the
axial load ultimate value for this type of load on the member
P when acting alone. These ultimate values are deter-
R. = --
Pa, mined by experiment; or w h m this data is not available,
suitable calculations may be made to estimate these
bending load values.
M The interaction curve is usually determined by
Rb = - actual testing of members undcr various combined-
Mu
load conditions. From this, a simple formula is derived
torsionul load to fit the cnrve and express this rclationship.
If points a and b are tlrc ratios produccd by the
T
Rt = - actual loads, point c represents the combination of
T" these conditions. Thc margin of safety is indicated by
In the general example shown in Figure 4, the how close point c lies to the irrteraction curve. A suit-
effect of two types of loads ( X and Y ) upon each other able factor of safety is then applicd to these values.
is illustrated. Figure 5 illustrates this for axial compression and
The value of R, = 1 at the upper end of the bending.
IIowever, the applied bending moment ( M I )
c a w s the column to bend, and the resulting displace-
ment or eccentricity induces a secondary moment from
the applied axial force. See Figure 6.
Assume that the moment ( M i ) applied to the
n l nati~re;Figure 7.
column is s i ~ ~ a o i d in
A siniisoidal moment applied to a pinned end
member rcsults in a sinllsnidal deflection curve, whose
- M "?ox
maximum deflection is equal to -
FIGURE 6
esign of Compression Members / 3.2-5
this becomes
Applied Resulting
sinvsoidol deflection
moment Curve
FIGURE 7
This slightly higher moment (M2 + MI) will in (ultimate load condition)
the same manner produce a slightly greater deflection
+
(A2 A l ) , etc. Each successive increment in deflection
Each ultimate load condition factor in the above
becomes smaller and smaller. formula is equal to the corresponding factor for working
The final values would be -
conditions multiplied by the factor of safety ( n ) ; or
<
= 1 and
since
M,. = MI + P Ail,,, then
Or, on a stress basis - the Euler stress (u,) divided by the factor of safety
( n ) . The term (v',) is used here in place of AISC's
(Ffe).
where:
o; = computed axial stress
ub = computed compressive bending stress at point
considered
a. AISC uses E = 29,000,000 psi and n = 1.92 in the
- =: allowable axial stress permitted if there is no
bending moment; use largest (L/r) ratio, above.
regardless of plane of bending
u, = allowable compressive bending stress per- Here:
- mitted if there is no axial force. (AISC Sec. r, = radius of gyration about an axis normal to the
1.5.1.4) plane of bending
The AISC Specification Sec. 1.6.1 uses the same L, = actual unbraced length of column in the
amplification factor. They use the term (F',) which is plane of bending
- ..
140 7,620 7,510 7,410 7,300 7,200 7.100 7,010 6.910 6,820 6,730
....
i 50 6,640 6.550 6,460 6,380 6,300 6.220 6,140 6,060 5,980 5.910
......
i 60 5,830 5,760 5.690 5.620 5,550 5,490 5.420 5,360 5,290 5,230
-. ... - .
170 5,170 5.110 5,050 4,990 4.930 4,880 4,820 4,770 4,710 4,660
-.
-
180 4,610 4,560 4.510 4,460 4,410 4,360 4,320 4,270 4,230 4.180
.- ....... -
190 4,140 4,090 4,050 4,010 3,970 3.930 3,890 3,850 3.810 3,770
---
200 3,730 1
is = octuol unbioced length of column in the plane of bending
iB = radius of gyration about the oxir of bending
Design of Compression Members /
According to AISC Sec. 1.5.6, this value (o',) may TABLE 3-Value of $ for Several
be increased 'h for wind loads. Load Conditions
Table 2 lists the values of 5', (Eulcr stress divided Core
where:
MI and M2are end moments applied to the column.
MI 5 M2, and the ratio (MI/M2) is positive when
the column is bent in a single curve and negative when
bent in reverse curve.
AISC 1963 Cornmentori
.. -
(see Table 3 for values J, and C,, for several
load conditions)
(AISC Formula 6 )
Here:
A = maximum ddection due to transverse load When
L = actual length of member also used in deflec-
tion ( A ) calculation
M = maximum moment between supports due to
transverse load the amplification factor must he used
AlSC Formulas For Checking
Formula #8 now becomes-
When
AISC formula 7b
In this exompie:
A36 steel
L i r = 80 -7
3 = 15,360
-
0, = 22,000
1
0: = 23,300
0, = 36,000
FIGURE 9
,
old AISC formulo
Tionrvene l o o d i
v
Siderwov permitted Sideway orevented No tionriotion of iointr
ou - M
2
S
--
a,. oh ond .60 or moy be
increoied $6 i o r wind (AISC
S e i iSd!
(AISC Forrnulo 7b)
3.2-10 / Column-Related Design
Comprer%ionelement8 which are not "campoct" but meet l i i n addition. lateral sirppait of iamprerriui flange
the lollowing AISC Sec 1.9 ieqvirementi does not exceed:
L
when T5 40 don't need AiSC Foirnuio 4
In Tables 5 and 6: ment at the ends of the nilbraced length,- taken abont
L = unbraced length of the compression flange the strnng axis of the member, and where MI/& is the
ratio of end moments. This ratio is positive when Mi
br = width of ~vmpressionflange and M2 have the same sign, and negative when they
d = depth of member treated as a beam have different signs. When the bending moment within
r = radius of gyration of a Tee section comprising an unbraced length is larger than that at both ends of
this length, the ratio shall be taken as unity.
the compression flange plus % of the web
area; about an axis in the plane of the web.
For shapes symmetrical about their x axis of
bending, substitution of r, of the entire sec-
tion is conservative
At = area of the compressiort flange
(but not more than 2.3 can
MI is the smaller and Mp the larger bending mo- conswvatively be taken as 1.O)
Design of Compression Members / 3.2-1 1
No AlSC limit on laterol rupport And if lotero! support doer not exceed:
of compresdon flange beiowe box
A7, A373. A36 steels
section is torsionally rigid
13 bz
Other rtronger steels
2400 h i 20,000,000 A,
"' d <,
Compiession elements which ore not "campad" but meet And compoiiion eiernrntr meet the following
the following AlSC Sec 1.9 requirements (1.5.1.4.31 AISC Sec 1.5.1.4.1 "compoct section" iequliernentr;
TABLE 6 A
yield strength of steel * * *
33.000 36,000 42,000 45.000 46,000 50,000 55.000 60,000 65,000 90,000 95,000 100.000
Allowable n = ,605, 20.000 22,000 25,000 27,000 27,500 30,000 33,000 36,000 39,000 54,000 57,000 60,000
~-
bending
ttres e = .66 s, 22,000 24,000 28,000 29,5001 30,500 33,000 36,500 39.500 1 43,O0Oi 59,400 62,700 66,000
1600 1
fl .
-
Width-to-
-
3000 9.5
thickncrr
13,300
\K
Lotero! support 2400
of compression 6
flonge of "compact" -
sectionr not 20,000,000 Ar
t o exceed: a~ 4
---- -.
C. =
Welding a t t h e ends of
built-up compression mem-
bers bearing on base plates Weld odequote to transfer
or milled surfaces ( A I S C any calculated force
1.18.2.2):
Continuous fillet weld
at end of all elements
in contact with each
other (AISC 1.18.2.2)
FIGURE 10
FIGURE 14
-
S of elemc-nt = (if whoL member
rl
Single Double
B!oiiriy C1:ocin~ FIGURE 16
Design laciug bar for axial compressive force ( F ) : Typical Built-Up Compression Members
Figure 18 slrows a number of examples of com-
pression members built up from common shapes by
means of welded construction. As indicated in lower
views, perforated plates are often substituted for lacing
bars for aesthetic effect.
\vhere:
(AISC 1.18.2.6)
I Problem 2 /
To cheek the design of the following built-up section
n = number of bars carrying shear ( V )
for the hoist of a boom. The 15' column is fabricated
Determine nllowablr compressive stress ( u a from from A36 steel by welding four 4" x 3%" x 'h" angles
- ) together with lacing bars.
one of the following two formulas:
( A I S C Formula 1 ) I
(Use Tables 6 through 14, Section 3.1)
I
Design of Compression Members / 3.2-15
uc =
- 17,780 psi
I Problem 3 1
A multi-story building, having no interior columns, has
a typical welded built-up cdumn with the section
shown in Figure 21.
A36 steel and E70 welds arc employed.
The following three load conditions are recognized:
Care A Case C
dead and iive loodr deod ood iive loodr
no wind with
~ . . . wind
.
~~
in v-v with wind in x-x
direction direction
P = 2500 k i p P = 2700 kips P = 2800 kips
Mr = 250 ft-kips M, = 2200 ft-kips Mr = 250 ft-kips
M, = 0 M, = 0 M, = i 200 ft-kips
FIGURE 21
L I I Allowcrble
---A Stresses
Total 25625 + 727 + 76.570
The various axial compressive stresses 'and bending
stresses on the built-up cohlmn are checked according
to Formulas #I1 and 12 (AISC Sec. 1.6.1, Formulas
6, 7a, and 7b).
=: 74,507 in.' When wind loads arc included, the basic allow-
able stresses are increased by %. provided the resulting
section is not less than that required for dead load, live
loads, and any impact (AISC Sec. 1.5.6).
= + 2.84" (from a-a) Compression members are considered "compact"
when syn~metricalabout an axis in the plane of bend-
ing, with lateral support of the column's compression
flange not exceeding a distancc equal to 13 times its
width (A36 steel) (AISC Sec. 1.5.1.4.1). For "compact"
columns, the engineer can use just 90% of moments
applied to ends of the column if caused by gravity loads
on connecting beams (no wind loads) and ua 5 .15 u,, -
moment of inertia about y-y (AISC See 1.5.1.4.1).
If the section is not "compact", AISC Formulas 4
and 5 must be used to determine the allowable com-
pressive bending stress (ubr and -ub,).
.
1
About strong
axis [x-x)
I
-
L
I
L
= B m 11"= 5720
36" W 3 0 0 4
- U 9 O . d = 405 8
50'
13'
/'
1 - 74,507 1n4 = 5720L-
-
L - 13'
rbr
- = --
-
'Not
@ 4;
@
fixed
13'
4 FIGURE 22 (a)
8000
but need not be less than -
V T Sidesway being permitted, from the nomograph (Fig. I):
I< = 3.65 and
L,=KL
but need not be less than 42.1 = (3.65)(13' x 12")
42.1 > 22.6 OK = 569"
Design ot Compression Members / 3.2-19
FIGURE 22 (b)
FIGURE 23
applicd loark
This value of r, = 54.4 governs, and from Table 7 in
Sect. 3.1 (A36 steel) P -- 2500 kips
cr* = 17,970 psi M, = 250 ft-kips
M, = 0
Column Analysis applied stresses
The following three analyses of the column (Cases A,
B, and C ) are for columns with computed moments
maximum at the ends with no transverse loading and
with sideswny being permitted.
This would be catezory A on Table 4. In this case
(6, = .85) for both axes (x-x) and (y-y). = 9760 psi
3.2-20 / Coiumn-Related Design
applied loads
p = 2700 kips M, = 2200 ft-kips My = 0
applied stresses
P - .-2700
- lo0O = 10,520 psi
=K 256.25 FIGURE 24
checking against Fornizrlti $15 (;1lSC 7b) . i\4g o
~
Obi li
-. m,, h --.I . I .()
0.6 w, + F,, I ..
V,,?
--(10,520)
-- .--
(8330) 14.500 1'" ; m i x ;it fi;nigc of W F section)
(22,000 x 1.33) ~2-t.(nx)x~~ i . 3 3 )
,621 < OK
1.0 -
or
allowable s t r t w r s
o;, = 17,070 ;,< 1.33 Wind in addition
(SK 15.6)
= 24,000
cr,, No wild in this direction
uby= 24,000 >: 1.33 Wind in this direction
(Sec 1.5.6)
z z 13X750
utCx No wind in this direction
5 = 50,400 >< 1 3 Wind in this direction
FIGURE 25
applied loads
P 2Y00 kips
M, 2,70 ft-kips
M, 1200 ft-kips
: 10,920 psi
olumn-Related Design
4" X 20" R
J
Torque box
-V
FIGURE 26
Torsion on Built-Up Column torque box, made by adding %"-thick plates to the
One item left to investigate in the built-np column is built-up column in line with the beam connections.
the twisting action applied to it. In Case C, the wind This torque box is checked for shear stress; Fig-
in the x-x direction causes a moment of M, = 1200 ure 27.
ft-kips because of the restraint of the spandrel beams.
( 1 ) One way to analyze this problem is to assume
that this moment (M,) is resisted by the elements (the
14" W F section and the 4" X 20'' flange plate) of the
built-up column in proportion to their moments of
inertia about axis y-y. See Figure 26. = 6600 psi OK
-
FIGURE 27
Shear oxis
I
I
Torsue box
FIGURE 28
No
twisting
action
Twisting
oction o
section
3.2-24 / Column-Related
P = 1000 lbs
A
column offers very little torsional resistance, two plates this 1-kip force will be applied in the opposite direction.
will be added within this region to form a closed Treating this short section of the built-up column
section about the shear axis to transfer this torque. See as a bcam, the shear forces due to this I-kip force will
Figure 29. he analyzed on the basis of shear flow. In an open
If this torque had to be transferred from one floor section it is not difficult to do this because there is
to the next, these plates would havc to be added the always one or more starting points, the unit shear force
full length of the column. How-ever, this torque is only a t the outer edges alwtys being zero. But in a closed
within the region of the connecting beams which apply section such as this, it is necessary to assume a certain
these forces, hence plates are only added within this value (usually zero) at some convenient point, in this
short distance. case at the midpoint of the web of the W F section. The
unit shear forces are then found, starting from this point
and working all the way around the section using the
general formula-
V a y
q2 = q, + I
area and the neutral axis of the boilt-up In order to couiiterbalancc thiq moment, a negative
section (in.) moment of the same value is set up by a constant shear
% = unit shcar force at the start of this area force flow of-
(lbs/in. )
q = -51.1 1bs per linear inch
q a = unit shear force at the end of this area
(Ibs/m. ) When this is sr~perimposedupon the original shear
flow, Figure 30, we obtain the final %ow shown in
This work is shown as Computation A. Relow, in Figure 31. The resulting shear stress ( r ) is obtained
Figure 30: the total shear force ( Q ) in the various by dividing the unit shear force ( q ) by the thickness
areas of this section are found; thcse are indicated by of the section. Also the valucs must bc increased be-
arrows. This work is shown as Computation R. By cause the actoal forcc is 111 kips instcad of 1 kip, the
Computation C, thesr shear forces are seen to producc work and resulting shcar stresses are shown as Compu-
an unbalanced moment oi 70.519 in-lhs, which if nn- tation D. Sce Figuw 37 also. These shear stresses seem
resisted will cause this section of the colurnn to twist. reasonable.
FIGURE 30
FIGURE 31
olumn-Related Design
Computation A
1.q. = 0 0
(1000)(7.83 X 1.8751(3.921 =
- I+0=.q.2 v L 1 ~ - o + + 5,01 = 5.01
11,491.
3. q a = 0 0
4. qe' = q s + v-
I
Y
=0 +
0 IlOOO)i8.35 X 3.03%!7.83) =
11,491.
+ 17,24 = 17.24
6 . q a = q," "
+ Ta = 22.25 + 110003(8.35 X 3.03W.83)
11.491.
= 22,25 + 17,24 =
39,49
7. qir = qa " --
+I 39.49 + i10001l28.64 X '/2)!9.095)
11,491.
= 39,49 +
=
8. qp = 0 0
9. qc' = q. + 7= 0 +
V o Y l1000)1.905 X 4)(9.548) =
11,491.
+ 2.99 = 2.99
Computation B
Computation C
(@ 1450 psi
FIGURE 34
FIGURE 32
Reentrant Corners (Figures 33 and 34) In structural steel. any stress concentration in this
area probably would be relieved through plastic flow
The only other concern on this built-up construction and could he ncglectcd nnlcss fatigne loading were a
is the sharp reentrant corner at points ( d ) and (f). factor or there were sonic amount of triaxial stress
Timoshenko in "Theory of Elasticity", p. 259, in- along with impact loading.
dicates thc following shear stress increase for a re- Of course if a fillet weld could be made on this
entrant comer: inside corner, it would eliminate this problem. See
Fignre 35. This is possible in this case, because these
plates for the torque box ;ire not vcry long and the
welding operator could reach in from each end to make
this weld.
3.2-28 / Column-Related Design
ELDS FOR FABRICATED COLUMN moment cnters upper colt~mnand half enters 1owcr
column.
The melds that join the web of a built-up column to
its inside WF seetion and its ontside flange plate, me
subject to longitudinal shear forces resulting from the F,, = --M
'6 h
changing moment along the length of the column.
As an example, continue with the conditions stated - 1100 ft-kip
for the preceding Problem 3. 6.5'
The bending force in the flanges of the girder = 170 kips
applied to the colunm is found by dividing this moment
(M,) by the depth of the girder: The moment and shear diagrams for the column
when loaded with dead and live loads and wind in
the y-y direction (Case H ) are given in Figure 38.
This shear diagram indicates the transverse shear
ft-kip X 12"
- .2200
- within the region of the beam connection is Vz I= 584
35" kips, and that in the remaining length of the column
= 754 kips is V, = 170 kips.
The size of the connecting weld shall be deter-
Thc point of contraflexure, or zero moment, is mined for the larger shear within the region of the
assumed at about midheight of the column. The hori- beam connection, and for the lower shear value for
zontal force at this point, or bansverse shear in the the remaining length of the column. The minimum
column, may be found by dividing half of the moment fillet weld size is aiso dependent on the maxi~num
applied to the column at the connection by about one- thickness of plate joined (AWS Building Article 212
half of the column height. This assumes half of applied a 1, and AISC Sec. 1.17.4).
Wind
T
J
-*
Midheight
Shear diagram
Moment diagram
This is also o picture of the amount
and location of the connecting welds
to hold column together
FIGURE 36
Design of Compression embers / 3.2-29
-
minimum size of fillet weld for this thickness is W'
(AWS Bldg Art 212 and AISC: Sec. 1.17.4). IIcncc use
33"
( , 5-
- - s l k )(SO)
- (21.84)
- (74,507) ( 2 wc4ds)
6860 lbs/in.
6860
leg size w = ------
11.200
Unfortunately the usually higher cost of round tubular For another rxamplc, consider the following A36
sections prohibits their universal use for columns. Techon:
However, a sqnare tube is slightly better than the
round section; for the same outside dimensions and
cross-sectional area the square tube has a larger radius
of gyration. This of course would allow higher corn.
pressive strcsses. Consider thc following two sections,
12' long, made of A36 steel:
FIGURE 40 FIGURE 41
FIGURE 38 FIGURE 39
P = (15,990) (9.71)
uc
- - 19,460 psi
P : (19,169) (9.18)
r,,, = 1.31" r,,bi,,= 1,503"
= 155,0k = 184.3"
The 32-lb/ft 10" square tubular section has a radius
of gyration which is more than twice that about the
weak y-y axis of the 33-lb/ft 1 0 W F section. This
results in an allowahlr compri:ssive load 19% grcater.
ue = 11,670 psi
- u, =
- 13,500 psi
The second advantage to the square and rcctangu-
Iar sections is thc flat surface they offer for connections.
This results in the simplest and most direct type of joint
with minimum preparation and wclding. Also by closing
In this example, the square ttlbe has 3.9% less the ends, there would be no maintenance problem. It
wcifiht and yet has an allou&le load 11% greater. Its is common practice in many tubular structures not to
radius of gyration is 14.7% greater. paint the inside.
3.2-32 / Column-Related Design
1. BASIC REQUIREMENTS area (A). Tablc 2 lists standard sizes of rolled plate
used for bearing plates.
Rase plates are reqnirtd on the ends of columns to 3. Determine overhanging dimensions m and n,
distribute the concentrated compressive load ( P ) of the projection of the plate beyond the assumed
the column over a much larger area of the material (shaded) rectangle against which the load ( P ) is
which supports the column. applied.
The base plate is dimensioned on the assumption
that the overhanging portion of the base plate acts as
a cantilever beam with its iixed end just inside of the
column edges. The upwnrd bending load on this canti-
lever beam is considered to be uniform and cqual to 4. Use the larger value of m or n to solve for
the bearing pressure of the supporting material. required plate thickness ( t ) by one of the following
formulas:
Derivafion of Formula # I
The primary fnnction of the plate thickness is to pro-
critic$ Section
vide sufficient resistance to the bending moment ( M )
in Bending
on the overhang of the plat(, just beyond the rectangu-
lar area contacted by the column. Treating this over-
LE 1-Masonry Bearing Allowabler
(AlSC Sec 1.5.5)
3.3-1
3.3-2 / Column-Related Design
FIGURE 2
hang (m or n ) as a cantilever beam with M being plates over 2" hut not over 4" in thickness may be
maximum at the fixed or column end: straightened by pressing; or, if presses are not available,
by planing for all bearing surfaces (except as noted
bending moment under requirement 3 ) to obtain a satisfactory contact
p m' bearing; rolled steel bearing plates over 4" in thickness
M = ---- parallel to thc column's x-x axis and shall be planed for all hearing surfaces (except as
2
noted under requirement 3 ) .
M=- parallel to the column's y-y axis "2. Column bases other than rolled steel bearing
2 plates shall he planed for all bearing surfaces (except
bending stress in plate as noted undcr reqnirement 3 ) .
"3. The bottom snrfaces of bearing plates and
where, assuming a 1" strip: column hnses which are grouted to insure full bearing
I S = (I")
--
6
t' contact on fonndations need not be planed."
The above reqnirements assume that the thinner
base plates are sufficiently smooth and flat as rolled,
to provide full contact with milled or planed ends of
column bases. Thicker plates (exceeding 2") are likely
and by substitution:
to be slightly bowed or cambered and thus need to be
straightened and/or made smooth m d flat.
(a) Base plate shop welded to (b) Bose plate shipped separate-attaching
column. angles shop welded to column.
3.3-4 / Column-Related Design
FIGURE 8
FIGURE 9
at its toe to the column (Case B); here formula #5 construction. Aim included are dimensions of standad
applies- bols. (Tablc 3.4).
,
Tension Sheor
AlSC 1.5.2.1 (Building) psi psi
A307 boltr ond threaded parts of
A7 ond A373 rteei 14,000 10.000
A325 boltr when threading ir
excluded from shear planer 40,000 15.000
A325 bolts when threading
excluded fiom rheor ~ l a n e r 40,000 22,000
A354, Grode BC, boltr when (4 lbl
thieoding ir not excludcd from rhear ploner 50.000 20,000
A354. Grode K , Y h e n threading
FIGURE 10
excluded from rheor planer 50,000 24,000 In either representation, there is a combination of
- -.
AASHO 1.4.2 (Bridge) psi axial compressive strcss arid bending stress acting on
tension - boitr ot root of threod 13,500 a cross-section of the column See Figure 11.
shear - turned bolts 11.000
Multiplying this stress by the width of the Range
beoring - turned bolts 20,000
tffeitive beorjog o m o of o pin or bolt iholl be its diometer multipiicd
(or the thickness of thc web) over which the stresses
by the thickness of the metal on which it beoir. are applied, gives the following force distribution
Column Bases /
Compressive stress
= $
Bending stress
" = -P, e
S
FIGURE 14
FIGURE 15
If the eccentricity ( e ) is less than % D, there is
no uplift of the base plate at the surFace of the
masonry support (Figure 15):
aud
......... (Qb)
Also where:
A, = total area of steel
hold-down bolts
under tension
us = stress in steel
bolt
Es = ah in s t d
bolt
E. = modulus of elas- FIGURE 17
ticity of steel bolt
then and: Solve for Y:
7, o: = stress in concrete
-
rt support
a A, - Pt eC = strain in concrete
6 = - Twc-n support
E, = modulus of elas-
and from similar triangles ticity of concrete
SUPP0l.t
D
- - Y + f n = modular ratio of
;
= 2
Y
elasticity, steel to
concrete
* * *
This reduces t ( t -
Substituting formula #10 into formula #8a:
FIGURE 19
FIGURE 20
diagram
where: bending
ub = s t r e s in outer fibers M
fl, =-
S,
M = hcnding moment
c -- distance to neutral axis - (l0.000* x -- 4")
(78 in.')
I = moment of inertia
Since:
shear
P
f"
= 19,400 psi
Hence, thc. dfstail with %" angles is OK for this
load.
Check Welds to Column Web leg size of (170) fillet weld
The angles are welded to the column web with
= .actual
- -
force
- --
'h" fillet wclds; this will now be checked. allowable force
The heel of the angle is in coinpression against
the wt:b of the column and is equivalent to an addi-
tional weld across the bottom for rcsisturg moment.
On this basis, the section rnodulus of the weld is = .06"
calculated. For simplicity, the weld is treated as a line but 3k"thick angle requires a minimum of Ydl
without any cross-sectional area. From Table 5 ; Sect.
(Table 3, Section 7 3 ) .
7.4, the section modulus of a rectanzular connection is:
If it is dcsircd to incrrasc the anchor bolt capacity
of the d i p angle &tail, tllicker arrgles should be used
with large plate w~ishcrs on top of the angle. The
;ittaclrmc~lts s h o ~ ~ lbe
d maclc to the column flanges,
sincc the welds arc more accessible there and the
bolts Iiave better leverage.
and liere: To ilhistrnte how the colnmn Aange can lx: checked
to clctcmiine whcther or not it is too tliin, considcr a
clip angle mchored with two 1%" bolts centered 2?W
out l'rorn the face of the cohimii flange; see Figure 21.
The angle is att;iclied to the column flange by fillet
Normally, section modulus is expressed as inches ~velclsacross the top a i d down each side.
to the third power; however, here where the weld has The capacity of thc two lx~ltsat 14,000 psi allow-
no area, thc rcsultirrg swtion modulus is expressed as able stress on nntlircaded area (AISC Sec 1.5.2) is-
iiiches squared.
When a stmdard bending formula is used, the 2 (1.2") (14,otl()) =: 31,400 lbs > 28,500 lbs OK
--
answer ( ) is strcss in lhsjin.\ however, when this
new section modulns is used in the bcnding formula, Tlie hending nioment on tire ~ c l dis-
the answer ( f ) is forcc on the weld in lbs/linear in. (28,500 lbs) ( ~ ~ h =
) , )71,250 in.-lbs
n-Related Design
-
zootal tor, weld. At the ends of the angle,
- the force
(915)(3) -
couple is - --- -- - 1370 lbs centered 1" below the
2
top toe of the angle. See Figure 22.
This is the force on each of the vertical welds at
ends of the angle. Since these forces are not resisted
by anything but the flange, they have to be carried
transversely by bending stresses in the flange until
they reach the resistauce in the column web.
The bending moment in the column flange is com-
putod as follows:
FIGURE 22
Column Bares /
FIGURE 23
3.3-14 / Column-Related Design
+
.'. D = 7.73" 13.31" f 7.73"
= 28.77" or use 28%''
Bolt load
The load on the bolts is supported by the top flange of
the 13" channel, reinforced by four 3%" X 'ii' s t B -
cner plates welded between the channel flanges. See
78.Ek Figurc 23.
The two interior plates each support a full bolt
FIGURE 24 load of '/, (78,800 Ibs) or 26,300 lbs. Thesc stiffeners
are attached to the channel web with four I" X
the altitude is the maximum hearing stress at the edge intermittent fillet welds on each side of the plate, and
of the plate, and the base of the triangle is the effective to both flanges by continl~ous3$,j" fillet welds on each
bearing length ( Y ) against the plate. (See short side of the plate. See Figmo 25. The welds at the
method described on page 10.) Since the area of this chnnncl flanges transmit the moment to the channel
triangle has a center of gravity % Y h e k from the flangcs, and the welds at the channel web support most
altitude, the bearing pressnre may be resolved into a nf the shearing load.
concentrated force at this point. This point will be Thc 2" eccentricity of the bolt load to column
assumcd to lie wh'ere the column flange's concentrated Range is trar~sposedto a force couple acting on the
compressive load of 208,800 1hs is applied. channel flanges. This couple is obtained by dividing
FIGURE 25
Column Bases / 3.3-15
the momeut by the depth of the stiffeners: For simplicity, this analysis has assumed that the
effective bearing length ( 1 ' ) was such that the center
of gravity of the triangular bearing stress distribution,
C.G. a t % Y, lies along the centerline of the column
Bange where the comprcssive force of the colunm is
applied.
This is a hori~ontalload acting at right angles to
the column flange. I t is delivered as four concentrated
loads at the tops of stiffeners and then carried hori-
zontally by the channel flange to a point opposite the
column web where it is attached to the column with a \With the same column base detail as in Problem 3,
we will now m e the original derivation for this effective
2%'' x M" fillet weld.
bearing length ( Y ), treating the analysis as a reinforced
2%" X 5600 lhs/in. = 14,000 lbs. concrete beam and solving the resulting cubic equation.
The work may takc longrr, hut rcsults are more ac-
The concentrated load valucs are 2015 lbs at each curate. See Figun: 26, temporarily ignoring the anehor-
end stiffener for one-half a bolt load, and 4030 lbs at bolt channel attachments.
each interior stiffener.
= 15,800 psi
To keep the channel section from sliding parallel
to the column flange, the direct vertical pull of the
bolts is supported by two 13" X continuous fillet
welds between the edge of the cnlumn flanges and the
web of the 13" channel section. The shear on these
welds is-
FIGURE 26
The problem in Figure 23 has been analyzed on
the basis of simple levers with the compression load Here:
concentrated on the colnmn flange. It ignores the com- e = 16.15"
pression are:> under the web of the column and illus- f = 9"
trates the prohlcrn where the channel flange of the
anchor bolt attachment does not bear against the base D =z 283/4"
plate. B = W
3.3-16 / Column-Related
Tensile stress
FIGURE 27
in bolts
Compression stress at outer
1 edge of channel st~ffcners
E
n = = 10 (E, = 3000 psi)
Ec
15h" bolts
A. = 3 (2.074)
= 6.22 in.' (bolts under tension)
Plotting these three points, the curve is observed
Q, = 130 kips to pass through zero at-
Y = 13.9"
-
from formula #13 (cubic ~ q u a t i o n j
Y3+K1YZ+K2Y+K3=0 which is the effective bearing length.
.1=3(~-$)
28%
=3
(16.15 - -
2
= 5.33
6 n A,
K' = --
B (f + e)
-6 (lOj(6.22)
(9 + 16.15)
24
= 392 which is the tensile load on the hold-down bolts.
= lOiiO psi
Therefore.~ substitutinr" into formula &13:
which is the bearing pressore of the masonry support
E3 + 5.33 Y2 + 392 Y - 9160 = 0 against the bearing plate.
Letting Y = +lo, --1-12, and +15 provides the follow- If the anchor hold-down bolt detail is milled with
-
ing solutions to the cubic equation as the function of the column base so that it ht:ars against the base &ite,
Y: it must be made strong enough to support the portion
Column Bases / 3.3-17
-
- (199.98 + 2 1 n")
(27.36 + .42 n ) = 8220 + 4300 = 12,150 psi
I Dirtonce: C.G. to
ref. mi. y y
I Moment
4.688 +n
Poition 2
= .21n2 -- 4.615
of web
- - .--
Column flonge 4.344 42.83 -
~-
1 86.05
Sa =
d212b + dl S, = bd
d2
+ - s ," -
-
d2
-.
3ib + dl 3 3
-
- 1131212 X 14.5 f 13) -
- + (13)'
- -
-
(131"
- -
- 114.51li3)
3114.5
2
13) + ll4.5)(13)
3 3
-
- 86.1 in. -
.- 242.2 in.' -
- 56.3 in." -
-- 185.9 in."
M M M M
i a = -
S,
f --
Sx,
i" = --
Sr
is = -
S,
- -
- l174.2001 -
- -I 174,2001
(242.2)
-
- -( 1 74.2001
156.31
-.-I 174,2001
-
186.11 (185.91
-
- 2020 lbslin. -
- 720 Ibdin. - 3100 l b d i n . - 935 ibslin.
-
v = -
v - v = -
v
i. = - f. f
- fe
L L L L
-
- (123.4001 -
.
.
f123.4001
-
- I-
123.4001
-
-
1123,400)
-
2(i3) + 04.5i 2(13 1-14.5) 2 (13) 2 114.5)
-
- 3050 i b d i n . -
- 2240 i b d i n . -
- 4750 ibslin. -
- 4260 I b d i n .
i. = v' ib2
= f(2020,Zf;3050)
+ isn
- 3670 i b d i n .
-
7
f. =
==
-
-
d "8(
fx-.
+(211;;;;2
2350 Ibsiin.
fez i? = V' f,,2
= '"i3100li
-
.-
i*z .+
+
i475012
5680 Ibrlin.
- \/1937t;4260iz
f , = V fb2
-.
-
+
4360 ibnlin.
/.?
0 =
actvol farce " = uctual force . "= aituol force (11 = octucl force
cliawabie force ollawoble force aliowabie farce oilowobie force
= -(36701
111.200) t E70%
.- -(23501
-
i11.2001
-
- -156801
111.2001
= ,328'' or 5/16" A - ,210.' or *,,A
- -
- .506" or X" A
Column Bases / 3.3-19
At the center of the 3" bar, the bolt loads are section moddus of weld
snpported by tension and compression forces in the
1" thick web platcs above and below the bar. The
web plates are attached to the column flange, opposite
the column web, by welds that carry this moment and = 112 in.'
shear into the column.
The shear pnd moment caused by the anchor bolt ( 1288)
S, = --
forces, which are not in the plane of the weld, deter- (9.5)
mine the size of the vertical welds. The welds extend = 135.5 in."
15" above and 3" below the 3" transverse bar.
The properties and stresses on the vertical welds maximum bending force on ueld
are figured on the basis of treating the welds as a line,
having no width. See Figure 30.
- -- -. I
2weldrX15" 30 15.3 405.0 5467.5 562.5
required flkt weld size
3000
Total 36 414.0 6048 a =-
113J0 WI E70 allowable
moment of inertia about N.A
M"
I, = I, +
I, - -
A
This requircs continuous fillet welds on both
sides for the full length of the 1" vertical web plate.
If greater weld strength had been required, the 1" web
platc could be made thicker or taller.
For bolts of ordinary size, the upper portion of
the plates for this detail can be cut in one piece from
colnmn sections of 14" flanges. This insures fnll con-
tinuity of the web-to-flange in tension for carrying the
bolt loads. By welding across the top and bottom edges
of the liorizontal plate to the column flange, the re-
= 11.5" (up from base line y-y) quired thickness of flange plate in bending is reduced
by having support in two dircctions.
distance of N.A. from outer fiber
6. TYPICAL COLUMN BASES
cbotbm = 11.5"
In ( a ) of Figure 31, small brackets are .groove butt
olumn Bares /
y stiffeners moy be
FIGURE 31
\voided to the oirtcr edges of thc colnmr Annges to this moment. The only slight drawback is that the
develop greatcr moment resistance for the attachment attaclring plntcs will not stiffen the overhung portion
to the bas? plate. This will help for moments about of the base plate for the hending due to tension in the
either the x-x or the y-y :tsis. A single bovel or single V hold-down bolts, or due to the upward hearing pressure
joint is preparcd by beveling just the edge of the of the masonry support. Mowevrr if this is a problem,
brackets; no hcveling is done on the column flanges. smxll hrackrxts shown in dottrd lines may be easily
For colnnrn flanges of nominal thickness, it might added.
he easier to simply add two brackets, fillet welded to The plates can he fillet wrlded to the outer edges
the base of the column; see ( h ) and ( c ) . No beveling nf thc column flange as in ( c ) , although there is not
is required, and handling and assembling time is re- good accessibility for the welds on the inside. Some of
duced hecat~seonly two additional pieces are requirod. these inside fillet welds can be made before the unit
In ( b ) thc bracket plates are attached to the face is assembled to the base plate.
of the coluin~rflange; in ( c ) the p1atr.s are>attached to For thick Ranges, clctail ( a ) might represent the
the outer edge of the column Nange. In any rolled lrast amount of \velding and additioml plate material.
section used as a column, greater berrtling strength Short lengths of pipe have been welded to the
and stiifiress is obtained about the x-x nxis. If the outer edge of the cohnnn flange to develop the neces-
moment is ahont the x-x axis, it would be better to sary moment for the hold-down bolts; see ( d ) . The
attach the additional plates to the face of the column length and leg size of the attaching fillet welds are
as in ( b ) . This will provide a good transverse fillet sufficicnt for thc moment.
across the n)lumn flange and two longitudinal fillet In ( e ) two channels with additional stiffeners are
welds along the outer edge of the column flange with w c l d d to the cohnnrr flanges for the required moment
good acct%ssihilityfor melding. Thc attaching plates from the hold-down bolts. By setting this channel
and the welds connecting thein to the base plate are assenibly back slightly from the milled end of the
in tho most effcct~vcposition and location to transfer column, it does not have to be designed for any bear-
3.3-22 / Column-Related Design
7 . HIGH-RISE REQUIREMENTS
P = A w
= (690 in." (750 psi) moment of inertia about N.A.
= 516 kips
Since:
M = a S
FIGURE 36
3.3-24 / Column-Related
= 8400 psi OK
-
distance of N.A. to outer fiber
shear force at face of 6" base plate
cb = 9.27"
(to be transferred through fillet welds)
bending stresses
Vb =M Cb = 24,630 llx/in. ( t o be carried by four fillet
I welds at 1%" thick brackets)
leg size of mch fillet w d d joining base plate to brackets
= 4370 psi
W
l/g (24,630)
=----
(11,200) -
= ,545"or use %/,Br'[l
E70 allowable
---
(The minimum fillet wcld leg size for 6" plate
is WB .)
same region as does the maximum unit shear force. Alternate method. In cases where the forces are
However the analysis docs not take long: high, and the requirement for welding is greater, it
would be wcll to look further into the analysis in order
bending force on weld to reduce the amount of welding.
f, = u t In Figure 37, it is seen that the maximum unit
force on the vertical wt:ld due to bending moment
= (9770 psi) (1%")
occurs at the top of the bracket mnnection ( b ) in a
= 14,660 lbs/in. (one bracket and two fillet rcgion of very low shear t~msfcr.Likewise the maxi-
welds ) mum unit shear force occurs in a region of low bending
or moment ( c ) . In the following analysis, the weld size
= 7330 lbs/in. (one fillet weld) is determined both for bending and for shear, and the
larger of these two values are used:
vertical shear force on weld
(assuming unifolm distribution) ccrtical shear requirement
(maximum condition at N.A.)
fl = 25,200 lbs/in.
= ,562" or %,/,,"
bending requirement
(maximum condition at top of bracket)
required leg size of certical fillet weld
actual force
0 =
allowable force
= -. actual force
allowable force
Column stiffeners
A rather high eompr~~ssive force in the top portion of
these brackets is applied horizontally to the column
Range. It would hs wcll to add stiifenors behveen the
column flanges to transfer this force from one bracket
through the column to thc opposite column flange;
Figure 38.
It might he argncd that, if the brackets are milled
to brar against the column flanges, the bearing area
may then be considered to carry the compressive hori-
zontal force bctwecn the bracket and the column flange.
FIGURE 38 Also, the connecting welds may then be considered to
/ Column-Related
FIGURE 39
Slight tensile prestress
Unit sheor ' between bracket in weld before load is
force on weld ond column flange applied
carry only the vertical shear forces. See Figure 39, left.
If the designer questions whether the weld would
load up in compression along with the bearing area
of the bracket, it should be remembered that weld
shrinkage will slightly prcstrrss the weld in tension and,
the end of the bracket within the weld region in com-
pression. See Figure 39, right. As the horizontal com-
pression is applied, the weld must first unload in bnt 3" thick column flange would require a minimum
tension before it would be loaded in compression. In lhr' h (Table 2, Sect. 7.4).
the meantime, the bracket bearing area continues to If partial-penetration groove welds are used (as-
load up in compression. suming a tight fit) the following applies:
This is very similar to standard practice in welded
allowables (E70 welds)
plate girder design. Even though the web is not milled
along its edge, it is fittpd tight to the flange and simple compression: same as plate
fillet welds join the hvo. In almost all cases, these welds shear: 7 = 15,800 psi
are designed just for the shear transfer (parallel to the
weld) between the web and the flange; any distributed shear jorce on one weld
floor load is assnmed to transfer down through the f. = 4310 lbs/in.
flange (transvrrse to the weld) into the cdge of the
web which is in contact with the flange. Designers required effective throat
believe that even if this transverse force is transferred
through the weld, it does not lower the capacity of
the fillet weld to transfer the shear forces.
Refer to Figure 37(b) and notice that the bending
action provides a horizontal compressive force on the
vertical connedng wclds along almost their entire
length. Only a vcry small lcngth of the welds near
the base plate is subjected to horizontal tension, and i j using bevel ioint Y6 ,ik
these forces are very small. The maximum tensile
forces occur within the base plate, which has no con-
necting welds.
FIGURE 40 FIGURE 41
COLUMN BASE PLATE DIMENSIONS (AISC, 1963)
- / /
II
L--?Q
c
COLUMN BASE PLATES
Dimensions for maximum
column loads
Cuacilic, <', -
Base nlaien, ASTM 1116. h -
30UO or,
27 iri
For 'Or COLUMN BASE PLATES
Dimensions for maximum
column loads
-
Bare OaiPs, hSTM A16. F,, = 27 kr,
coacrsts. l , 3OM nri
mT
.1- . J-
. 1.-
Wt.
P"
Fi.
-
tn. ib.
61:16 1w
W 161
133
120
106
99
92
85
79
72
65
58
53
50
45
40
I12
100
89
4 X 14% 77
W 72
66
60
54
49
45
1 X 12 39
W 33
1 X 10 67
W: 58
48
40
1 x 8 35
W 31
28
24
20
17
~. ~-
Note' i
SIlO
- Wht
. 2
xk
-
"
X;
-
E
5!
a a
x x- r x sa x z "
a F
xm
a L
I
Y . L D
x
D
XS
- -
S r ,
F
x x
-
F
a
F
X-
m F
X-
"
s
X-
?
8
X-
ases / 3.3-31
Column base plates for the 32-story Commerce Towers, Kansas City,
Mo., were shop-fabricated and shipped separately. At the site they
were positioned and bolted to the concrete. The heovy columns were
then erected ond field welded to base plates. This was facilitated by
use of semi-automatic arc welding with self-shielding cored electrode
wire. Process quadrupled the speed of manual welding and produced
sounder welds.
Ten-ton weldments were required for tower bases on lift bridges along
the St. Lawrence Seaway. Edges of attaching members were double-
beveled to permit fuil penetration. Iron powder electrodes were speci-
fied for higher welding speeds and lower costs. Because of high
restraint, LH-70 (low hydrogen) E7018 electrodes were used on root
posses to avoid cracking, while E6027 was used on subsequent passes
to fill the ioint.
3.3-32 / C o l u m n - R e l a t e d Design
.41SC specifies that, where full-milled tier-huitding In Fignre I ( a j, a plate m d two :mgles are punched
coliirnns are spliced, there shall be suflkicnt welding or, if nccessary, drilled. The plate is shop welded to
to hold them securdy in place. These connections shall the top of the lower colrrmn. The two angles are shop
be proportioned to rcsist any horizontal shear forces, welded to the web at the lower end of the npper
and any tension that would be developed by specified rolnmn. The r r p p ~column~ is erected on top of the
wind forces acting in conjnnction with 75% of the l o u w column and eroction bolts are inserted. The
ea1c:ulated dead load strws and no live load, if this tipp'r c~lnrnnis then &.Id \velded to the mnnecting
condition will prodrice more tension than full dead load plat?. Where additional clc.ar;mce is needed for erec-
and live load applied. (AISC: Sec 1.15.8). tion of beams framing into the web o i the lower
Figures 1 and 2 show various designs of column c,olumn, it might be nccessary to shop weld the plate
splices mhicli diminate punching of the columns. Note to the upper col~m~rr and tlicn field weld in the over-
that these details require only llandling and punching licnd position to the lo\vcx colun~n.
of small pieces of angles or plates v&ch are easily If tlre nppm and lowcr colnrnns differ in size, the
carried to, and welded to, the columns in the shop. conn<z~.tingphti. is dcsi~nedas a member in bending
The details provide for temporary bolted connections due to misalignm~~nt of the fiangcs, and its thickness
in the field prior to making the permanent welded is dctcrrnincd from this; Figure l ( b ) . If the lower
connections. coltnnn's section is mrirh dceper than the upper column,
Sometimes the column connections are placed stiffeutm c:m he wcldcd directly helow the flanges of
about mid\~ayin height, in order to get the connection the rlppor coli~mn. Tllese stiffeners will reduce the
away from the regiorr of heavy bending moment caused required thickness of thr i.onnccting plate*; Figure l ( c j .
by windloads, etc. The resnlt is a. ~wnncctionsufficient A splice for heavy coliimns is shown in Figure
to hold tlre columns in place and designed for hori- I ( d ) . Turo small platcs arc prmcl~edwith holes aligned
zontal shear m d axial compresion only as indicated. They are then carried to the column sec-
Cc)
FIG. 2 - Typical Column Splices
tions and welded thereto. In the field the colun~n on ttw ~ r v hof thc colririms. Figwr '(b). Trie advantage
sections arc bolted temporarily prior to welding, as of this position is that tlwy do not i ~ t i : n dhcyond the
indicated at ( d ) . eiids of the coliimri for possihlc drm~iigedr~ringtransit
In Figure 2 ( a ) the ends of both column sections or ertrtion.
are first milled for a square bearing surface. Then F m r plntcs xi-e piiiichctl, timi shop welded he-
the two lower ewction splice angles are shop welded t\veen the A:inges of tlrc two colurrin sections as sliown
on opposite sides of the web of the heavier w l u m ~ i i r ~ Figure 2 ( c ) , lraving enorlgh space hetween the
section, so as to project past the end of the column. back of the, platc.s and tlic colt~mn web to insert a
The outstanding legs of these angles are provided with \vrtmcl~.Two splicc plates art: also punchcd and shop
holes for erection bolts to engage the outstanding legs wrldcd to the l o u - < ~ coli~mn sc~ctiorihcfore siripping
of the other two angles that are shop welded to tlie to the crcction sit<,. .After bolting in the field as indi-
11pper column section. In this type of detail where cated, the permanent coii~iwtitmis in:& by welding.
lighter con~iectingmaterial projects from heavy main Tlic splico in Figr~rc2(1l) is similar to that at ( a )
sections, care should he taken in handling to prevent but is lor coiinccting two coliimiis of differrnt sizes.
damage to the lighter material. The flanges 01' tht. r~ppcrcolumlr lic inside of thc flanges
The flangcs on the lower end of tlie upper column of the 1ov;ol- colririm Rcfort, shop \vtIding tile erecting
section are partially beveled or "J" grooved, and this arlglcs, spiicc phies art, first shop fillet welded to the
partial pelletration groove joint is then welded in thc ir1sid.r. face of ihc ilarigc 01' the lowcr colrunn. Tliey
field. are milled with tlw lowcr col~imn section. As an
The ~ u r p o s eof the angles is to splice and hold the altrrnate to this, spliw plates with their lower edges
two adjacmt columns together kemporarily while they prepared for wcldiiig are slrop fillet wi-oided to the
are being fir:ld welded. outside face of tlrt. fiarigcs on the uppcr column.
These erecting angles may be placed horizontally In case only m ~ cside of the i d u m n is acccssil)le,
far example wlim new stecl is crccted adjacent to an
old stmcture, a cornhination of this procedure may
LE 1-Allowables for Weld M e t a l in bc usrd. Placc the lowcr splice plates on the inside
Partiol-Penetration Groove Welds
face of the lo\vcr coliinln a i d the ~ ~ p p esplicer plate
For Field Splices of Columns
oii tlw oi~tsideface of thc r~ppcrcolr~mn;See Figure
E60 Welds E70 Welds 2 ( d ) . In this m a ~ i ~ i eall
r fiold w\.olds on both a)!umn
SAW-I SAW-2
flmgcs can he maclt from the one side.
campreision some or piate some os plate \t'Iisrc splice platc,s arc used and filler plates are
1
..... . .-
needed l~ecanseof the diflerencc in sizes of the upper
1:
~ ~
15,800p
iippcr coliiinii. Sre Figiirt, 2(tS).This allows the greater
amount of \velding to ljc d o i ~ cin the shop where
larger electrodes arrd higher \velding currents used in
Column Splicer /
the fiat position result in higher welding speeds and unwe!ded portion, these field splices should never be
lower cost. After erection the splice plate is Iicld welded subject to radiographic inspection.
to the lower column.
Two attaching plates are shop welded to the upper . EXAMPLES
end of the lower column. The column may be hoisted
by attachiug the cable to the erection holes of these Figure 4 illusbates a typical field splice used on
plates. After erecting the upper columns, these plates columns of the Detroit Bank & Trust Buiiding in
are field welded to the upper column. Detroit, htichigan. These fabricated columns were
spliced by partial-penetration bevel joints in the column
3. WELD ALLOWABLES
BUILT- UP
COLUMN
FIELD SPLICE
FIGURE 1
eccentricity. since this will also line up with the center of gravity
Thc bearing pin is subjected to a double-shear of the compression member (CG = ,933').
load: 90,OOO lhs on two areas, or 45,000 lbs cach. See The next step is a simple determination of the
Figure 2. .4c(:ording to AASI-IO (Scc 3.4.2), the allow- required depth ( d ) of this courrecting plate. See Figure
able stress on this pin is 13,500 psi. 4. In this analysis, some structural designers consider
this connecting plate as a beam supported at the
center, or pin. and withstanding the tvmpression loads
transmitted from the compression tncmber.
= 3.33 in.+equired pin area In most cases, the compression load (here 90 kips)
or -use a 2%"-&a pin having A = 3.98 ia2
-- is assumed to bc ~ q u a l l ydistributed tllroughout the
3.5-2 / Column-
various parts of the compression memher by the ratio Since the required section modulus is in tenns
of the individual areas to the total area. Accordingly, of ( d ) :
the compression load carried by each angle wodd h e - M:=,,S
= 56 kips
= 2.8 kips/linear in. and the minimum depth of upper plate is found to b e -
Treat this connecting plate as a cantilever beam d = 6.58"
from the centcrline with these two loads: or 7" deep beyond the pinhole would he sufficient.
( 1 ) the concentrated load of 16.9 lups at 8.75"
from center, and . FINALIZING +
( 2 ) the unifonn load of 2.8 kips/in. for a distance
of lo". The final detail has k e n sketched in Figure 5. The
The resulting bending moment i.; then computed: outer leg of each angle might be triinmed back slightly
so as to fit to the 2" connecting plate. Whether this
is cut back or not, there will be a loss of 25h1t of the
angle leg. This area ( A = 2 X 'h" X 2.625" = 2.625
is made up by additional attaching stiEening
= 288 in.-kips plates. These have been chosen to be two %" X 3"
plates ( A = 4.5 in.2) and two 'h" X 13h" bars ( A =
1.375 i n 2 ) . The total added area is thus 5.875 square
inches. The entire built-up compression member has
an area of 20 square inches. These additional attaching
plates simply mean that the cross-sectional area in
contact with the 2" cunnecting plate is in excess of the
required 20 square inches.
After the compression member has been welded,
its end might he nulled to provide a Bat, smooth surface
for bearing against the 2" plate. If this is done, the
entire section would not have to be welded 100% all
the way through. Under these conditions, it is suggested
that a bevel he made part way through these plates
of the compression member and that a groove weld
be made on the outside. Reinforcing Ellet welds should
then be made on the inner side of this compression
member where it co~mectswith the 2" plate.
FIGURE 4
FIGURE 5
lost at connection;
replaced by adding
/ Column-Relate
FIGURE 3
fillet welds are usually used. When their size becomes
too large, they are replaced with some type of groove
weld because iess weld metal is required.
FIGURE 5
hE 2-Partial-Penetration Groove
depth of
leg sire of
fillet weld
a FIGURE 8
FILLET WELDS
tor any direction of force' 7 = 13,600 psi
I i = 9.- 6 0 0 ~
~ 1 7 = 15,800 psi
!=11,300"
PARTIAL PENETRATION GROOVE WELDS
1r,
sheor
##tension transverse t o
axis o i wcld
13,600 pi
o = 13,600
!
I o
i =
1=
15,800 psi
15.800 psi
tension poiallel to
axis of weld 1 some or piote 1 scme or p o r e
1st value force ibs per lineor Inch A7, A373 s i t e l & E6O welds
2nd value loice ibr per lineor inch A36, A441 steel & E70 weids
3rd valve weight of weld metol lbr per foot
IlillMG WELD TYPES The wcb plate is txvdcd to the proper drpth on all 4
edges dong tllc ci~tirclength. Croovr weld ( a ) is
There arc! several w:rys in which different types of iirst made :iIoiig the rntire Icngill. Second, fillet weld
welds can be combined in economically fabricating ( b ) is made over tilo groove \veld within the connection
built-up colunins to meet the two basic rtqiiirements: region to hiilg it rip to the propvr size.
a ) welds from end-to-end of column to withstand
longitudinal shear resulting from (wind and beam
load) applied momonts, and 11) hcavier wclds in
connection rcgions to withstand higher longihdinal
shear due to abrupt change in moment, and to carry Region of beam to
tensile force from the beam flange. The following cases ( coiurnn carinecfion
illustrate combinations that permit optimum use of
automatic welding:
Region of beam to
column connection
FIGURE 11
FIGURE 9
If the weld sizes are not too large, the column may be Additlono! beveling in
first fillet welded with -hw!ld ( a ) along its entire length. region of beom to
Second, additional passes are made in the mnnection (column COnneCTiOn
region to bring the fillet weld a p to the proper size for
weld ( b ) .
no Weld o
Region of beom to
,,,column connection
FIGURE 12
FIGURE 14
a box column, Figure 1 5 ( a ) , is based upon a simila
analysis of a line forcc applied to a cover-plated WF
column, i'igure 15(1)). The latter analysis was made
by Dr. T. R. Higgins, llirrctor of J",ngint:ering and
Research of the AISC.
The following assrlmptions are made:
1. The length of the box column Aange resisting
this line forcc is limittd to a distance equal to 6 times
its thickness abovc arid below the application of the
line force. See Figure 16.
2. T l ~ eedge welds oirer no restraining action to
this Clmge plate. 1.11 oilier words, these two edges are
just supported. The nppcr and lower bo~uidaryof this FIGURE 15
portion of the column flange are fixed.
3. The tensile line force applied to this Aange ini~ltipliedhy tlie angle change (6)along these edges.
area is urriiormly distributed. 'I'he exten~alwork done equals the ultimate load
At ultimate load (P,l), it is assunied that this (P,,) rnrrltiplied by the virtual displacement ( A ) .
roctirngdar plate has failed as a mechanism with plastic By setting those two exprrssions equal to each
binges Forming along thc dotted lines. othcr; it is possible to solve for the ultimate load (P,,)
The internal work done by the resisting plate which may be applied to this portion of the flange
eq11aIs the summation of the plastic moments (M,) plate.
FIGURE 16
At ultimate loading (P,), plastic moments (M,)
will build up along the dashed lines (Fig. 16) to form
plastic hinges. The iutemal work done, when this
plate is pulled out, will be the plastic moment (M,) or distance = -6 t \/ a' 4- 36 t2
a
multiplied by the corresponding angle changes (+)
along these lengths: Now find the angle changes (+) along the hinges
an& +I along @-@ & @-@ at ultimate load:
angle +, along @-@ A
5-t
angIe 4, along 0-0, @-a &
0-@,
+I=
A
GI-@ +2=2+1=-
3 t
With reference to Figure 17: and sirice
Distance @-@ = J aZ + 36 tz
@-m
az + 36 t2
-e
a
Sectiori x-x
FIGURE 17
p Columns I'
allowable force
,
; ,$,= +3
A
+ +,, = -
6 at
&Ctt3;-;;~-
e x t e n d work = internal work
internal ~ o r k
..-
= M. [ m , 2 ( 2 a + b ) + ~ b + m , * d a ~ + 3 8 t ' ]
A
Applying a load factor of 2, and using the yield
strength (u,),the allowable force ( P ) which may be
applied to the plate would be-
Example
where the plastic moment (M,), in in.-lbs/liuear inch Here:
is-
t = 31/2''
a = 5 "
b = 14"
u = 22,000 psi
calculated tensile force on beam flange = 386 kips
Tt
The allowable force:
FIGURE 18
external work
= P" A = 1178 kips > 386 kips OK
-
FIGURE 19
Exterior columns started with a 42" web at the
bottom, tapering to a 1.2" web at the 14th story level;
Equitable Life Asmrcmce Building Figure 20. Flanges were 18" X 3" at the h e . The
Colurnns for tlm Equitab1.e Life Assmxnce build- tapered columt~swere fabricated by welding two flange
ing in Sun Francisco, an earthquake area, were built plates and a web together. L-shaped columns were
and erected in 3-story lcngtl~s. The columns were used at the corners of the building.
uniformly tapered :$$, in./ft from the base to the 14th
C.IL. House
story.
The 32-story C.I.L. House in Montreal, Caiiada
has the heaviest TI"section columns ever constructed.
The fabricated columns weigh as much as 2,000 lbs/ft.
A t y p i ~ dcolumn, Figure 21, consists of two 7%" X 28"
fiange plates welded to a 5" X 16%" web plate.
FIGURE 20
FIGURE 21
FIGURE 23
attached to the column ends so that all welds could nsually reqnires the design and fabri~lltionof special
be deposited in the Bat position. The columns with colnrn~~s; Figure 24.
trunnions attached were then transferred to the auto- The ~ o l u m ndesign on the right was used in the
matic welding unit. After preheating to the correct Inland Stet:] Bidding in Chicago. The inner portion
temperature, using natural gas torches, the shorter- of the built-up colt~rnnis a standard WF section; the
length groove welds were made first. The remaining outer portion is a flat plate from 1" to 3" thick. A web
length of unwclded ailurnn was then fillet welded. plate, From %" to 1'W thick, joins thcse tw-o segments.
After welding, trumions were removed and the Notice that a section of the main girder was shop
column ends machine facod to proper length. Con- welded to the fabricated column. Dotted lines show
nection plates were attached after machining, with most the spandrel bean~sand remainder of the girder that
weids positioned downhand to achieve maximum wcld- were fidd welded to prorluce a rigid vonnection. The
ing spced. Preheating preceded the manual welding of main ginlrrs span 60'.
these plates in position, using low-hydrogen electrodes; On t t left
~ is n typic;il column from the North
Fi@re 23. Carolina National Rank B~~ilding in Ch;dotte. A spc-
cially rolled V\'F sertion is tlic innin s q p e n t of this
Inland Steel Building
column. Wing plates have bix+*rriaddrd to one flange
& N o ~ t l r Carolina h7alional Bunk Building
and a mvcr plate to the othel- to d w d o p the necdvd
Elimination of interior colnmns in a building de- ~.olrimn proportics. The m;iin girrl<~-sand spandrels
signed for wclded coiistruction is not unique, but (dotted sections) were later att:~chedby field welding.
FIGURE 24
3.612 / Column-Related Design
Fabrication of special colnmn seetiom demand ifux recovery nnit, and welding generators are mounted
low cost, high production assembly and welding tech- on a self-propelled carriage having a G5 ft track travel
niques. Submerged-arc automatic welding is uscd ex- distance. Two identical welding fixtures are positioned
tensivcly in fabricating these columns. The welding parallel to and on either side of the carriage track.
head, Figure 25, is mounted on a universal, track This has rcduced handling time for setup and re-
traveling type welding ma~ripuletor.The manipulator, positioning of the columns.
During fabrication of columns for the North Caro-
lina National Rank Rnilding, they were placed in a
specially designed trunnion fixture; Figure 26. This
stood the columl~son end. Shop welding of connection
dotails could then be performed in the fiat and hori-
zontal position. This, facilitated use of semi-automatic,
submerged-arc welding and minimized weld costs.
FIGURE 27 FIGURE 28
41/811 444 % L
First Federal Savings b Loan Co. Building smaller plates were set out slightly.
In general, these full-length welds were 'h" fillets;
On this project in Detroit, Michigan, the engineer
with %'' fillets for plates 2%" or less in thickness. This
originally detailed the fabricated columns to the 17th
eliminated plate preparation except for short distances
Soor as built-up box sedions, flush around the out-
in the region of the beam-to-column connections. Here
side periphcry. U-groove welds were to be used; Figure
the plates were previously beveled, to the required
29(a). This would have meant grooving the platcs for
depth, varying from 3/8" to 5/1,j'' depending upon load
the entire length of the column.
requirements. The typical joint consisting of the beveled
Tile falxicator, chose to set one set of plates slightly groove weld topped by the continuous fillet weld ex-
in or out; Figurc 2 9 ( h ) . This w-odd allow use of con-
tended 9" above and below the beam-to-column con-
tinuous fillet welds for the basic welding. The fabricator
nection.
obtained pcrmission to exceed the original outside col-
umn dimension in one direction by '1'4''. Any further . FIELD SPLICES
adjustment was prccluded because of the already de-
iailed curtain walls, etc. Partial-penetration groove welds; either single bevel or
The original outside dirncnsions of the columns single J, may he used for the field splicing of columns.
were 18" X 22" to the 5th floor, 18" X 20" to the The information presented previously under ''Partial-
11th floor, 18" X 19'' to the 13th floor, and 18" X 18" Penetration Groove Welds" will apply here.
to the 17th floor. Above the 17th floor, W F sections Attaching angles shop-welded to the coh~mns
were used. The modified box section on the lower floors serve to temporarily hold the column sections in align-
were then built u p from two 18%" X 4S/s'' flange plates, ment. For the II colum~i in Figure 30, using high
with two 12%'' X 4%" web plates recessed slightly to tensile bolts, this connection was considered sufficient
permit tlie fillet welding. Above the 5th floor, the to transfer any horizontal shear force across the
3.6-14 / Column-Reloted
BUILT- UP
BUILT-UP COLUMN
COLUMN
2. & under
I I I I
BUILT- UP
BUILT- UP
COLUMN
COLUMN
FIELD 5PLICE
FIELD SPLICE
LA FIGURE 31
FIGURE 30
web in this dir<,ction. Tlx. colnmn field splice, con- For the box colnmn in Figure 31, the column
sisting of two sirrglr bevel. partial-penetration groove ficld splice consisted of a partial-penetration J groove
welds, wonld transfer any horizontd shear in the other weld on all four sides of the column. These four welds
direction. would transfer any horizontal shear in the column
splice. The attaching angles here were used simply to
facilitate erection.
Partial-penetration welds on colornn splices pemut
fast semi-automatic welding techniques to be used in
the field. In the Commerce Towers project, semi-
automatic arc welding with self-shielding, cored elec-
trode permitted dqxxition of 100 lbs/mam/8-hour day;
Figure 3%.
. COPICLUSION
The full econoinic impact of welded steel built-up
columns in constn~ctionof t d l multi-story btiildings,
can be realized by carefully considering the major
cost factors. These are colnmn design, placement of
welds, joint design, weld size, and procedure. The
dominating objective is the fullest use of automatic
arc welding lncthods in the shop, with an extension of
these henefits into the field l ~ yusc of semi-automatic
arc welding for beam-to-column connections and for
field splices.
FIGURE 32
Designing B u i l t - U p C a l u m ~ s / -1 5
Also,
box girder
tension (1.5.1.4.31
a = .60 o,
~~~ .- .
compression (1.5.1.4.3)
. ..
(AiSC Formuio 4) (AiSC Formula 5)
(AiSC Farmulo l li
*?his ratio may be cxweded i f the camproiaive bending stress, using a width not this limit, is
within the oi!owable stress, i n e above toble does not include tho higher bending rtreir to = .66 <,I for
":ompart" sections because most fabricated piate and box girders will exceed the widtli-thickness ratio of
' ' c o ~ O C ~ C ~ 5ections.
''
ending Stresses
Table 2 suinm;irizes tho AISC allowable bending
stresses for plate a n d box girders.
I
In Table 2:
L = s p a n or iinlxaccd length of compression
flange
r = radius of gyriitiml of ;I Tw section compris- o-, = aiiowable compressive bending stress from
in7 tlic cornprcssioir flarigc plus 1/6 of the nhn.,a
---""
~ ~ ;rrea,
1 3about the y-y axis (in the plane
of thc we11). For girders symmetrical about MI is the smaller, und Mz is the larger bending
tlieir I-x ;%\isof hending, substitution of r, moment at tl,e ends of the onbraced length ( L ) , taken
of ilrc: enlirc section is conse~ative about the strong axis of the member. M1/M2 is the
At = area of the compression flange ratio of these end moments. When MI and Mz have
Bme Girders for
the same signs, this ratio is positive; when they have for t h e fillet welds joining them.
different signs, it is negative. When the bending Thrse liorixontal and vc:rtical sllear st~rssescom-
moment within an irnhraced Imgth is larger than that bine and prodwc both dingo~ral tcnsiori and com-
at both nids of this Icngth, the ratio is taken as imity. pression, c;wh at 45" to the shmr strcsscs. i n steel
Figrire 1 is a graph showing t11c valrie of C,, for structr~res, trmsion is not thc problrrri; howev-er, the
any given ratio of MI/M2. diagonal eomprcssion could be high enough to cause
When the bending moment within an rillbraced the wtkb to bwk1,c. StiRmrrs arc used to prevent the
length is larger than that at both ends of this length, web from buckling in ribgions o i high shear s t r ~ s .
the ratio shall be takcn as unity, and C,, becomes 1.0. The ratio of wch thickness to clear depth of web
in the oldrr spccificatioiis \rxs bascd on predications
of file plat^, buckling tlrcory: tire wch being subjected
Loads applied to beams and girders cause bending to shear throughoi~tits daptl~,and to rompressi\,e berid-
moments dong the Icngth of the member. When these i i ~ g,iiesscs o w r a portion of its depth, See Figure 2.
moments are non-uniform along the length of the mem- The plate buckling tlrcory assumes the portion of
ber, both horizontal and vertical sliear stresses are set the web 11etwt~~ii stiil'c~l~rs
to be an isolated plate;
u p because shear is equal to the rate of change of l~owovcr, in thr plate girdcr, the web is part of a
moment. built-rip n~emher.When tllc critical buckling strcss in
The horizontal shear forces worild cause the f l a n ~ e the wcb is rcacbcd, the gilder does not collapse. This
of a platc girder to slide past the web if it were not is because the flangcs carry all of the bendirrg moment,
1 ,C .
,...
,
.
,-.,---
.-
--
-----w- ,...-.
Diogonol compresson Compresswe
f i om sheor forces bending sireis
FIGURE 2
FIGURE 3
the buckled web then serves as a tension diagonal, and needed for bearing (AISC 1.10.5.4).
the transverse stiffeners hecome the vertical compres- 3. For intcmmittent falet welds, clear spacing ( s )
sion struts. This in e%ect makes the plate girder act as between lengths of weld must L 16 t , and L 10''
a truss. See Figure 3. (AISC 1.10.54).
The carrying capacity of the plate girdcr is greater 4. Welds joining stiffeners to web must be SUE-
under this analysis, being cqual to that supported by ci.ent to transfer a total unit shear force of-
the beam action shear (Fig. 2) and that supported by
the diagonal tension field in the web (Fig. 3 ) . AISC f, = d, (AISC 1.10.5.4)
Formulas 8 and 9 will meet this requirement. These
formulas appear further along on this page.
This shear force to be transferred may be reduced
in same proportion that the largest computed shear
ABSC Specifications
stress ( T ) in the adjacent panel is less than that allowed
Intermediate stiffeners are not required when the ratio by AISC Formula S (AISC 1.10.5.4).
(d,/t.) is less than 260 and the maximum web shear 5. If lateral bracing is attached to stiffener, u d d s
stress is less than that pcimitted by AISC Formula 9 connecting stiflrner to colnpression flange must be SUE-
(AISC 1.10.5.3). cirnt to transfer a horizontal force ( F ) = 1%of flange
Figure 4 partially s~.immarizesthe AISC specifica- force (AISC 1.10.5.4).
tions for intermdiate stiffeners. Wlreri intermediate stiffeners are required, their
These requirements apply: maximunr spacing ( a ) depends on three items: a/&,
1. If single stfillers are used, they must be d,/t,., m d shear stress ( 7 ) .
welded to cumprcssion flange (AISC 1.10.5.4). The largest average web shear stress (T,, = V/A,)
2. Intermediate stiffeners may be cut short of in any panel between transverse intcrmdiate s t i f h e r s
tension flange for a distance less than 4 t, when not shall not exceed the following (AISC 1.10.5.2):
FIGURE 4
late Girders for
where:
a = clear distance between transverse stiffeners,
in. These arbitrary values provide a girder which
d, = clear distance between flanges, in. will facilitate handling during fabrication and erection.
t, = thickness of web, in. When a/d, exceeds 3.0, its value is taken as
infinity. Then AISC Formula 8 reduces to AXSC For-
a, = yield strength of girder steel, psi mula 9 and k = 5.34 (AISC 1.10.5.2).
This work can be greatly simplified by using the
when C, < .8
appropriate AISC Table 3 for the speci6c yield point
of steel. See AISC's "Specification for the Design, Fabri-
cation and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings"
and Bethlehem Steel Corp's Steel Design File on "V
Steels-Recommended Allowable Stresses for Building
when C, > .8 Design."
In end panels and panels containing large holes,
the smaller dimension ( a or d,) shall not exceed (AISC
1.1053)-
when a/d, < 1.0
Above, the one C, formula picks up exactly where i t is necessary that the stiffeners have sufficient
the other leaves off. The value of C, may be read cross-sectional area for them to act as compressive
directly from the nomograph, Figure 5, without sepa- struts to resist the vertical component of the tension
rately c~mputingthe value of k. field in the web.
This cross-sectional area, in square inches, of inter-
Both ASIC Formulas 8 and 9 contain a basic factor mediate stifFeners when spaced in accordance with
0 -----------
one w , arge o e
FIGURE 6
-t,(N +
K) = ' . . . . . . . . . . . (10a)
(AISC Formula 14)
See Tabies 3, 1,and 5.
Plate girder webs, subjected to a combination of
hending tensile stress and shear stress shall be checked for interior loads
according to the following interaction formula:
n < 75u,
t,JN +
2K) = ' . . . . . . . . . . .( l o b )
( AlSC Formula 13)
i ,. > p14
=
50
d, I. d, I. d, I. d, I. d, 1,
-11t- oment of inertia of
n-i-
ese Volues tor St
Sides 04 Girder
Width
of bor
(d)
t B( Inertia of Sing
se Vatu'ues tor St
Sides BP Girder
Angle
size
FIGURE 7
if flange restrained against rotation Bearing stiffeners with the above sections of web
are designed as columns (AISC 1.10.5.1).
These requirements apply:
1. Bearing stiffeners shall extend almost to edge
of flange (AISC 1.10.5.1).
2. Bearing stiiFcners shall have close bearing
against flange or flanges to which load is applied
if JEange not restrained against rotation (AISC 1.10.5.1).
3. Clear spacing of internittent fillet w e < 16
t, < 10'' (AISC 1.10.5.4.).
4. Deduct leg of fillet weld or corner snipe for
width of stilfenev (b,) effective in bearing at 90% o;
(AISC 1.5.1.5.1). If parts have different yield strengths,
use the lower value.
Concentrated loads and loads distributed over a
5. The limiting ratio of stiffener width to thick-
partial length of panel shall be divided by either the
ness shall be-
product of the web thickness and the girder depth or
the length of panel in which the load is placed, whieh-
b-
" -- -
ever is the smaller panel dimension. Any other dis-
tributed loading, in lbs/iinear in. of length, shall be
ts - s(AISC 1.9.1)
3300
divided by the web thickness. 6. Use I,, 2 3/4 dw for slenderness ratio (L,/r) of
If the above stress limits are exceeded, bearing coltrmn section to determine allowable compressive
stiffeners shall be placed in pairs at unframed ends stress (AISC 1.10.5.1); r is figured about an axis in
and at points of concenixated loads, Figure 8. the plane of the web.
12 t*
4 25 tw
[or less)
[or less]
[or less) (or less)
[a) Single pair of [b] Single pair of (c) Double pair of (d) Double pair of
st~ffenersat end stiffeners - interioi stiffeners - interior stiffeners at end
FIGURE 8
FIGURE 9
125 ki r
s uniformly distributed
FIGURE 11
L = 50' = 600"
Design Procedure
for the concentrated load,
1. Design the girder web for the shear require-
ments, assuming it held to a depth of 66".
Consider the following average shear stress ( T ~ , ) remaining moment of inertia required of flanges
and maximum panel length ( a ) for various web thick- If = I, - I=
nesses (t,):
= (44,880) - (7487)
= 37,393 in.4
and since
If = 2 Af cr2 c, = 33'' + W'
area of flange required
2. Design the flange to make up the remainder of = 1375 in". 1320 im3 OK
-
the moment requirements. Assume a bending stress of
actual bending stress in girder
about cr = 21,000 psi.
= 44,380 in.4 -
- 22,000 psi
V, = 122.5 kips
FIGURE 12
kd
Shear diagram
3. Design the Wansverse intermediate stiffeners. Since the girder web's ratio is-
Figure 12 is a shear diagram of the girder.
d,/t, = 211
end panel distance between intermediate stiffeners and the ratio of panel width to web thickness is-
(AISC 1.10.5.3)
also check AISC Sec 1.9.1: wherever the ealciilated shear stress exceeds 60% of
b. 3% that allowed according to AISC Formulas 8 and 9.
- --
- The allou-able shcar stress was found to be
t, %
T = 8000 psi and 60% of this would be 4800 psi.
~-
This would correspond to a shear form of
V =-
7 A ,
required moment of inertia
= (4800 psi) (%, X 66)
= 99.0 kips
and would occur at x = 125".
The bending moment at this point is-
I, =
(2 x 31%'' + %,")"" -
12
and the bending stress is-
FIGURE 13
, .
W = 746
11,200
-
= ,066"
but because of 1" thick flange plates, use Xo" -
- 12 t,
12 (%,")
= 3%''
Bearing Stiffeners
awn of this web portion
6. Check to see if bearing stifleners are needed at
the girder ends (AISC 1.10.10.1); Figure 14. := (3%") (
= 1.17 in.'
compressitje stress at web toe of girder fillet
= - R required a r m of bearing stiffeners
t d y -t K) 6.10 - 1.17 = 4.93 in."
(122.5 kips)
-~
-
-
~:h6(lo" +
--
~
sectional ureu required to cawy this stress 8. Check stiffener proiile for resistance to com-
pression (AISC 1.9.1).
- (122.*kips)
-
(20,000 psi)
?'Iris ratio is too hizh, so m e 11 pair of 7" x 7/10" force on tceld (treufilzc weld us a linej
hearing stiffeners.
f = -R-
9. Check this bearing s t i f h e r area as a coliimn; L
Figure 16. ( 122.5
-
.
.. ....-kips
-- )
(264")
slorderncss ratio
& __ - 3h(66")
r ' (4.6")
= 10.6
length of weld
L := 4 d,
= 4 (66")
= 264"
elded Plate Girders (or Buildings / 4.1-1
FIGURE 18
heriring stress in center stiffener 14. Consolidate these findings into the final girder
design, Figure 19.
F
u = - As a matter of interest, rcducing the web thickness
4
to Yn" would have saved about 143 lbs in stml. I-Iow-
-
.- (125 kips) wer, this would have required 13 pairs of stiifeiiers
2(7" - 1") (5,") instead of 9 pairs, Figure 20. The additional cost in
= 23,800 psi < 27,000 psi or .75 u, OK
-
fitting and welding the extra 4 pairs of stiffeners prob-
ably would exceed any savings in steel.
13. C11ei:k the compressive stresses from the uni- Increasing tbc web thiclmcss to %" would only
foririly dis~rihi~tid1o;id of 120 kips on thc comprwsion rednce tlre iiuinber of stilfeners by 2 pair, Figure 21.
edgr of tlw a.eb pint? (AlSC 1.10.10.2). See Figure 18. However, this would iiicre:ise the weight by 287 lbs.
FIGURE 19
66" X 36'' web
16" X I " flange
FIGURE 20
~nni~u
-.
66" X %" web
I i I
FIGURE 21
Applied load
FIGURE 23
A, _ (L-
b ~~~~
11%)
~ log, -~11.
11,
- i L 4-
1 = 200"
Topered beam
Moment of inertia
1
1= c, 134.30" -
Elastic orea
0
FIGURE 30
cornpl-ession must be checked against biickling accord- is 11ividt:d b c t w ~ ~these
n two sections in proportion to
ing to AlSC l.<J.l: "
tlioir depths. For Tccs of equal deptli, Vt = V,, - . 2 VI.
The top ~ n bottom
d Tee sections must be capable
of withstanding this conihiiiecl bending stress, and the
vcrtical slirar.
A flange may be added arornld the edge of the
web openi~rgto gi\.c LIie Tee section snfficient strength
for the bending inomcxt. An aciditioiial plate may bo
addcd to the \vch of the Tee to give it sufficient
strengtli for the wrtical shear ( V ) .
7. COVER PLATES
It mi) bc ;idv;rntageous in some cases to use
parti;il-lengtli cover plates in the beari~igregions of
a beam or girder, to reduce tlie required thickness of
the iiaiige plate extending from end-to-end of the
mrcnher.
FIGURE 29 Related disciissioli will hc ioiind forther along in
this tmt iinder Section 4.3 on 1Vi:ided Plate Girders
If tlitx resnlting bcriding st]-ess in the stem is for 131-idges(sac Topic 12) ;ind iinder St.ction 6.1 on
excessive, it must he rcinfort:ed by an insi(1e flangr Design of Rigid Franics (see Topic 3 ) .
or stiffener. 'The te,niiination of partial-lcngth cover platcs for
Cornim of the liolr slio~ildalways llc round m d Ix~ildings is govcme:d by I S ( : SIC 1.10.4. The fol-
snrootli. A ~~iininir~in cornel- r;idii~s of Y is recom- l o w i ~ ~l~u,-agr;il~lis
g sunnn:~rin~ tlmc reqniremeiits.
meridrd \rIwn i l ~ ehole is not stifl'iwd COVIY pli~tcssliiill crtcnd beyond the
Pit1-tii~l-1~11gtli
lisirally it is assu~ncd Lhi: point of conti-:18cxnre tlicorctic:11 nit-oil' point for ;i distmci~ a ) , di4inetl
of t l ~ arnmncnt in thr top and l~ottennpovtioirs prodiiced Iwlo~r.Tliis e~str~~itl(d pnrtinii ( a ' ) s11;iil he attaclicd
by tlir shear ( I ' , ) and (I?,,) is allout ~nitlst~tion
of the to tlie h<.;ini or girtlev \vitlr siiffii.iw~t fillet wcids to
Irole ( g ) . It is also assnmed t l ~ ctotal vcrtical shcar d e i h p the uwri- pIati.'s pc~rtioiioS tho bending force
FIGURE 30
tote Girders for Buil
in the heam or girdel. at ihe theoretical cut-off point s t r t i o ~(~a ' ) milst ),<' i~icnxsed,or the aciual end of
d r i c h is equal to- t l ~ ccavcr plat<, rnlist ht, ~ ~ s t c ~ to ~ ~adpoint
r d of lower
momclit.
The lcwgtl~ ( r r ' ) l l l ~ : l ~ r l ~ < Yfrom
l the actual end
of t l i ~cowr platc shall l1c:
1. A distnnco eipinl to the* width of the cover
plntc when t l i t ~ tis~ a colrtiiir~orlsfillri weld i:qual to
or larger tlmr 34 oi' tlw pl;itc, tliickitcss across the end
Q = statical moment of cover plate area ahout I thr plate :ind (xmtin~tr,cl\\.<,Ids along hoth edges
neutral axis oi covrl--plated beam section (11 the cover plate iu tlw Itygth ( i t ' ) ,
2. A distancr r q u d to 1 % timrs the width of the
I = nromel~t of inertia of cover-plated beam w v c ~plate h i tiicw is ;I coiiiinnoi~s fillet weld
section
smaller tlian 3h of tlw plirtr. thickness across the end of
the plate and continnd \v<,ldsalong hoth edges of the
The moment, coinputed by equating gisL
to the (,over plate ill the lmgth ( a ' ) .
c:ipaeity of the connecting fillet welds in this distance 3. A disimce eyud to 2 tiines the width of the
( a ' ) fxom the actoal c.nd of the cover plate, must equal cover platc wl~enthere is no weld across the end of
or exceed the moment at the theoretical cut-off point. the plate but continuous wclds along both edges of the
Otbel-wise, the size of the fillet welds in this teiminal cover plate in the lengtll (a' j .
B e n d ~ r ,stress
~ from Resuking bending stress
oppiied beam load
FIGURE 31
4.1-24 / Girder-Related Design
M, = moment ot n n r i end of
I teiminol develooment / M, = moment at theoretical
:f beyond theoietz
I Moment dtagram
I
.. I
Inner end of
terminal development
%Theoretical
M,a y
cut-off point
1 f =
A+,-:
vw. Mi 0 y
End weld - r F = 7 ~Endweld+F= 7-
Inne
terminal developmen
FIGURE 32
elded Blare Girder for Buildings / 4.1-
elded Plate Girders $or rrildimgs / 4.1-27
/ Girder-Related Design
elded Plate Girders for Buiidings / 4.8-2
4.1-30 / Girder-Related Design
Access holes cut in girder web must be reinforced. In regions of high bending moment,
flonges must extend far enough beyond web o p e n i ~ gto effectively transfer forces into
moin web of girder. Semi-automatic welding, with self-shielding cored electrode wire,
is used here in ottaching reinforcements at double the speed of manual welding.
with any advantages of tlrc altered design, such as
increased head room, less fill a t bridge approaches, ete.
Every plate girder must havc several properties: In order to simplify the derivation of the efiicient
1. Sufficient strength, as measured by its section girder, it u-ill he necessa~yto assume the depth of the
moduins ( S) . web plate (d,) is also the distance between the centers
2. Sufficient stiffness, as measurcd by its moment of gravity of the two Range plates as well as the overall
of incrtia ( I ) . depth of thc girdcr. Sec Fignre I.
3. Ability to carry the shcar forces applied to it, In the case of welded plate girders where the
as measured by its web area (.4,). thiclmcss of flange plates is vory small compared to the
4. Ability to withstand web buckling, as indicated girder's depth, this assumption doesn't introduce very
by the empirical relationship of the web depth to web much of an error while greatly simplifying the pro-
thickness- cedure and resulting fom~ulas.
,- The moment of inertia of the girder section is-
I
A't.
required for web area (A,-) to satisfy the shear forces
and also to insure that the ratio K = d,/t, will be
below the proper value.
Table 1 lists the AASHO (Bridge) limiting values
of K == d,/t, for common materials, with or without
transverse stiffeners.
2. DESIGN APPROACH
II
I Mild Steci I Low Ailoy Steel
A441 or Weldable A242
I
i
A373, A36
11 46 000 pri
held / 50,000 psi
yield
No tronrverre
stiffenerr
(1.6.80)
KC60 1
/i
K - 5 2 K 5 53
Longitudinal
stiffener with
ironweire rfiffeneri
Therefore, the total girder area is- Also, the total area of the girder is-
2 S d,' d,"
At=2A,+A,"=---m+X
d,"
K
Now differentiate with respect to the depth (d,)
and set equal to zero: ... I A , ] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(4)
This indicates that the efficient girder has half its
weight in the w& and half in the flanges. Based on
steel weighing 3.4 lhs/linear ft/sq in. of section area,
the efficient girder's weight is-
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .( 3 )
1- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(6)
m i n w e g h t for mclxmurn
value of I<:
W,= 9.80
\- ,.*.,...............,,,, (7)
For example, See Figure 3.
Hcre on the left side, the efficient girder using
stiffeners ( K = 170) \veighs 188 ibs/linear ft. Taking
which is the weight of girder including weight of s t 8 - this same dcsign and incrrasing the web thickness to
eners. 1/60 of its dcpth to cliininate the stiffeners, would
increase its weight to 328 Iibs/lincnr ft, or 1.74 times.
Effect of Changing Dinlensions On the other hand if the emcient depth is first deter-
In an efficient girder the depth of which is deter- mined using no stifimrrs ( K = HI), the weight is
mined by Formula 2- increased to only 243 ibs/linenr ft, or 1.29 times. In
this particular case, the design which eliminated the
stiffeners at the start (right-hand girder) weighs only
74% as much as the dcsign which eliminated the stiff-
eners after the dcpth was determined (center girder).
the weight decreases as the ratio (I<) increases; hence The graph in Figure 4 show-s the direct effcct of
use as large a K ratio as is possibic (see Table 1). Once changing web depth. Changing the combination of
the flange area ( A f ) is determined, the actual profile flange diniensions, but using same depth of web (d,)
Percent of e f i c i e n t depth used (doid,)
must he used.
2. For web thickncss, use
c 1-
d,,
2
+ tf
.I?
T . . to use valrws of t, and d , that will provide
the highcsf allowable valrre of I<. If resulting A , erjnals
or excccds the given r q u i r c d value, procecd to Stcp
4 of Method A; if not; jump to Step 3A of Method H.
6. With this, compute the section's total reqnired a.hich rnttst q n a l or bc l c ~ sthan tlic maximum allow-
moment of inrrtia: able \ d r w of K.
Ha\irrg s<,lccttd d, i t i d t,v, n,tum to Step 4 of
Metlrod 4 and follow t h r o ~ ~ gtoh completion (Step 8 ) .
7. Now select a flange width from the following: Short-Cut iVomographs
--
-
(7500) (12)
(18 ksi)
-
- (600)
(11 ksi)
= 54.5 in.2
size fraction based on available plate. The actual plate is increased to V = 1000 kips. This will illustrate the
girder t:xample using a web depth of 110" weighed work to he done where shear ( V ) would govern the
488 lhs/ft, yet the efkient girder for this same depth design.
should weigh 473 lbs/ft.
Four other combinations of flange Jimensions were Here:
figured, using the same web depth (d, = 108.45"), V
but there was little difference in girder weight. The A" = -i
thinner and wider flanges result in a very slight re-
dnction in weight. -
( 1000)
- (11ksi)
= 90.9 in.'
Consider the same girder in which the shear load Following the suggested outline:
Efficient Plate Girders /
3B. Check:
A, = ,t d,
= (3/q)(1%)
= 93.0 in.' > 90.9 i a 2 OK
Then, to find the weight of this designed plate
Now returning to the basic Method A outline: girder:
4.2- 12 / Girder-Related
2nd Nomograph
If the shear value is increased to V = 1000 kips
142.0 in."
as in Problem 2, this exceeds the allowable value of
WL = 462.8 lbs/lin ft of girder 750 kips mad from the &st nomograph. Therefore,
shear governs the design and the second nomograph
must be used.
Given:
V = 1000 kips
Find the approximate web dimensions and weight
for the same girder, using the nomographs, Figures 6,
7 and 8.
read:
,t = ,725" or use Vi"
Given:
Given:
S = 5000 in."
K =-d, = 170 read:
tw
d, = 126" or use 124"
read:
d = 108"
Given: Given:
S = 5000 in.Y
d = 124"
read: read:
Wt = 470 lbs/ft Wt = P 275 lhs/ft
and: Given:
V = 750 kips allowable V = 1000 kips
T = 11,000 psi
Using an actual depth of 110" as in Figure 1 would read:
increase this estimated weight to 483 lhs/ft as read on
the nomograph. In Problem 1, the weight was com-
Wt = + 210 lbs/Ft
Total = 485 lbs/ft
puted to be 488 lbs/ft; this slight increase is due to
the increase in web thickness from the required ,638" In Problem 2, the weight was computed to be
to the llext fraction, 11/16". 482.8 lbs/ft.
If the valuc of u,, resulting from the above formula
is eqnal to the yield point of the steel in nni-axial
tension (what is commonly called the yield strength,
u r ) , it is assumed this conhination of stresses will just Transverse intermediate stiffcners shall preferably be
produce yielding in the miiterial. Hence, the nse of in pairs. They may be either single or double, and be
this formula will give some indication of the factor of plates or invertrd tees. When stiffcners are used on
safety against yielding. only one side of the web, they shall be welded to the
compression fiange to give it proper support.
The nioment of inertia of the transverse stiffener
shall not be less than-
where:
d '
J = 2 j - . ~ - 2 0 = 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(3)
a.
where:
T = average unit shear stress in the web's cross-
section at the point considered, psi
(b) Comporison: ultimote ond critical loads of 4. LONGITUDINAL STIFFENERS MASH
bending rests
1.6.81 )
FIG. 1 Eiiect of web thickness on ultimate carry-
ing copocity of the girder. The longitudinal stiffener shall lie along a line 1/5 d,
l a t e Girders tor
Longitudinal and
tionsverse stiffeners
do not inteisec,
from thc compression flange. Its moment of inelZia tudinal stiffener mnst he cut into short lengths and
shall not be less than- then inserted betwccsr the transverse stiffeners. This
results in inrreascd welding tirnc and production costs.
Some states havc used longitudi~riilstiffenci-s on
the outside and transvrrsib on the insidc; Figure 2(b).
Tf~ismethod saves on fabricating time and aL~oallows
the use of automatic welding trchniques to join the
These stiffeners do not nwessarily have to bc con- Iongihldinal stiffeners to thc girder web, thereby sub-
tinuous, but may be cut where they intersect transversc stantially incrrasing welding speed.
intermediate stiffeners if they lie on the same sidc of
the web. C OF STIFFENERS
Some engineers have felt this reduction in fatigue connecting fillet weld of the stiffener. See Figure 5.
strength is due to the transverse fillet welds; however, It was discovered that the fatigue failure in the
it is caused by the abrupt change in section due to the stiffener area did not necessarily occur at the point
attachment. It is believed these plates would have ol maximum bending stress of the beans. Failure
failed at about the same value and location if they had stailed at the lower termination of the fillet weld con-
machined out of solid plate without any welding. rlecting ths stiffener to the web. When the bottom of
This same problem cxists in the machining of stepped thr stiflerrer was also welded to the tension flange,
shafts used in large high-speed t u r l k e s and similar failure started at the toe of the fillet weld connecting
equipment. the stiffesner to the beam flange. After the flange had
Figure 4 illustrates the effcct of welding transverse failad, the crack wonld progrrss upward into the web.
stiffeners to tension flanges.* Tests, again a t the Uni- Ilerz, the failures usnally occurred in the maximum
versity of Illinois, were made from tension to zero moment section of thq heilm.
tension in bending ( K = 0 ) and at 2 million cycles. This test indicated fairly good correlation when
Eliminating the weld between the stiffener and the results were considerod in terms of the principal
the tension flange incrsased the fatigue strength of the tensile strcssis (including the effect of shear) rather
beam. In addition, leaving the weld off the lower than simply the bending stress. The 'angle of the fatigue
quarter portion of the web in the tension region gave a failme in the web generally was found to be about
further increase in fatigue strength.
Later tests at the University of Illinois** took into " "Flexural Strength of Steel Uenms", Bull. 377, University of
consideration not only the bending stress in the flange, Illinois, 1948.
but also the resulting principal tensile stress in the ** "Fatigue in Weldcd Beams and Girders" W. H. Munse &
wcb at critical locations, such as the termination of the J. E. S t a h e y e r , Highway Research Board, Bull. 315, 1982, p 45.
min.
K-*.- 0
_
2000,000CYCLE5
INTERMEDIATE
WELDED m
COMPREJSIOU R A N E E
AND TO UPPER
(b) Sigma-n diagram for maximum principol tensile stress at failure section.
flange will present no maintenance problem. Although fillet welds are specified, 'h" possibly, savings from the
this does not cornply with the above AASHO require- introduction of continuous welds and automatic equip-
ment, many girders for higl~waybridges are fitted with ment become qumtionable.
stiffeners in this manner. With thin, deep web plates, a smaller size weld
Plate girder research at Lchigh University* has may tcnd to reduce distortion. In this case, automatic
indicated the stiffener does not have to contact the welding would be of benefit, provided this substitution
tension flange to develop the ultimate capacity of the of continuous welds for intermittent welds does not
girder. They recommended the stiffeners be cut short increase weld length to any major extent.
a,described in the alternate method above (2). The
distance between the lower and tension flange and the 7. FLANGE-TO-WEB WELDS
stiffener is set at 4 times the wcb thickness; see their
recommcndations in Figure 7. These welds hold the flanges to the web of the plate
There is no clear-cut answer as to whether con- girder. They are located in areas of bending stresses
tinuous or intermittent fillet welds should be used to and must transfer longitudinal shear forces between
attach the stilfencr to the web. The latest research at Ranges and web. Some restraining action may develop
Illinois on stifIeners indicated that fatigue failurcs with thick flange plates, but any resulting transverse
occurred at the terminations of fillet welds, regardless residual stress should not reduce the weld's load-caw-
of whethrr they were continuous or intermittent. Natur- ing capacity. This bcing parallel loading, the actual
ally, a continuous weld \ d l have fewer tcnninations, contour or shapf: of the fillet weld is not as critical
hence fewer aaras for potential fatigue cracks. as long as the minimum throat dimension is main-
Where lwge, intormittent fillet welds are specified, tained.
%" for example, roplacement with %" continuous fillet Shop practice today usually calls for submerrged-
welds made by automatic welding equipnrent achieves arc automatic welding equipment to make these welds.
a considerable saving in cost. Where small intermittent For the usual thickness of web plate, the two fillet
welds per~etrate deeply within the web and intersect
*"Strength of Plntc Cirdcrs", Hrmio Thurlimm, AISC Proceed-
ings 1958; "Plate Giriicr Rcsr:rrch", Konrad Resler & Bruno
as in Figure 8(1>), giving complete fusion even though
Thurlirnan, AISC Proceedings,, 1059. simple fillet \welds are called for, as in ( a ) . A few
states recognize this perlctration and are now detailing No ciifkrenec was iirdicat~cdfor thr: fatigue strength of
this weld with cornplctr fusion. 'Tlris proves no problem the beam using cither joint dcsign, with both types
on the rrormal web thicknas. In thc futurr, however, dernopstrntiilg a f:ttiguc strcugth iri the beam of 22,000
if the same detail is showrr on much thickcr web plates, to 24,000 psi (hvirding strcss); Figure 9.
the fabricator will have to use a double-bevel edge
preparation to obtai~rthe intersretion ( c ) , w e n thongh
detail ( d ) is sufkient. From a dcsign sta~xlpoin?,thm: welds may be
It sho~ddnot he necessary to detail groove welds quite small. Their achrd size is usually established by
for this ioiot from a dcsign standpoint. Selection of a the minimum allowable leg size for the thickness of
groove T-joint design should be Ilased on a cost com-
parison with filkt wrlds. The groovid l'-joilit requires
abont ?b the arnonn? of weld metal compared with For Vorious Plate Thicknesses (AWS)
fillet welds (assuming full-strength welds). However,
the grooved joint has the extra cost of PI-eparing thi.
double hevcl.
THICKNESS O F THICKER
PLATE T O BE J O I N E D / M I N I M U M LEG SIZE
O F FILLET WELD*
- y4 i n*hi" 1% in.
over 5/16 in.
made, hy .4. Ncum:mrr, of these \velds nnder fatigue Ovoi 1% in. thru 21,: i n . ),'a in.
hending from 0 to tcnsion, K 0, at 2 111illioncycles.* Over 21/4 in. t h r u 6 in. I '/>in.
Over 6 in. 1 % in.
the t h i r k n c s i of the i h i n n e i plotb
Need not
-
the fiangc plat(%.T;rblc 7 lists tile minimum size of
fillets for various platc tliickuwses as established by
rlM'S Sprdficntions. 1,cg sizc ilicri'ases to take care of
thc fastt,r cooling rate and grisatc.r rcstrairlt that exists
in thicker platcs.
On tliickcr plates. with rrniltiple pass wclcls, it is
desirable to gel as nindr h w t input into the first pass
as possible. This means 1iight:r ucldiiig currents and
siower urlding spwds. L.ou--11ydrogcn olt:ctrodes are
bettor'for manual wcldirrg in this work. 'The lmv-hydro-
gm characteristics of a submerged-arc wclding deposit
gives this welding mrthod ;I si~nilaradvaiitagt:.
~~ -
FIG. 9 Both weld types showed same fatigue "Discussion at the Syinposium on Fatigue of Wuided Struc-
strength. tiircs" The British WtMing Joonial, August, 1900.
/ Girder-Related
TABLE 3-Allowable Shear Forces O n axial normal stress from the bending, applied to the
Fillet Welds For Various Fatigue Loodings fillet weld, would increase the maxin~umshear stress
applied to the tlrroat. For a given applied normal stress
100,000
CYCLES 1 600,000
CYCLES
1
I
2,000,000
CYCLES
(u), the resulting ~naximwnvaluc for the allowable
force ( f ) which may be applied to the fillet weld of a
8800 o
f = -- lb/in. given leg size (a)under parallel loading is expressed
K K by the formula:-
i - -
2 2
but rhoil not exceed f = 8.800 o (€60 or SAW i welds)
f = 10.400 o (E70 or SAW 2 welds1
-- --
Where.
MiNlMUM ( E N or S.4W-1 welds)
K = (sheor (V) opplied to girder1
MAXIMUM
w = leg size of fiile,
1 100,000
CYCLES
1 600,000
CYCLES I 2,000,WO
CYCLES
BUTT WELD
I N TENSION 1 -- - .7 K i - 8 K
(not to exceed 18.000 psi1
BUTT WELD
IN COMPRESSION
inor to exceed p1
Also. ratio oi depth to length of span shall prefcr- in the above t a l h for the more coiilrnolr steels.
ably not be less than :;is; for lowor depth the saction ENSlONAh TOh
shall be incrcxrscd so that the maximum dt:flection will
not 1)e grcatcr than if this ratio llad not b w n cxceeded Tho dimensional tolcrmces ill Figurc 14 have been set
( 1.6.11). lip for welded plate girdcrs by the AWS Bridge Speci-
Also, wrh thiekr~cssshall meet requirements given fications.
"
=i
dapthr up to %'inel. Oerio,ion Frm Flotncrr of Gird" Web in a b q i h
depths wrr 3be+O 72" iml. ' Between Stiffeners a a h g t h Eouol to
dmths over 72" + C- &* Depth oC Girder
THICKNESS ALLOWABLE
FIG. 15 Diaphragms used in modern bridges: (a) angles cut to length and dropped into
place; (b) Shop welded diaphragm, field welded to girder stiffener; (c) angler ottoched
to siiffeners; and (d) channel welded to web ond stiffeners.
elded Plate Girders for Bridges / 4.3-1
will rcducr the bcam's fatigue strength. This would 1 . In geiwral, continnous fillet welds were better
tend to favor a gradual tapered w-idth ithat the end of the than intermittent fillet welds for joining cover plates to
cover plate. the beam Aange.
Third, some caution slhould he txerciscd relative 2. On covar plates extending beyond the width
to terminating the cowr plate in the narrow zone of of the heam flangr and conncctcd with longitudinal
the flange that is in direct line of the beam web. This ,xij" continuous fillet welds, adding a "/,, fillet weld
is a rigid portion with little chance for localizrd yielding across the end of the cover plate produced a slight
to pnwmt the build-up of possible high stress con- increase in fatigue strength (from 8900 psi to 9300 psi
centration. at 2 million cycles). Omitting thc welds for a distance
[:ntrrilz, the selectt.d joint should be rconomically at each corwr of the cover plate increased this valnc
practical to make and answer functional rtrquircments. up to 11,000 psi; see Figure 16
For cxample: Thc intersection of the longiturlil~aland transverse
1. Continuons welds may be needed to provide fillet welds conld present a point of wrakness if not
a positivc seal and prevent moisturc from entering properly made. This "cross-over" usually results in a
underneath the plate and causing connection deterior- very shallow concave weld. By eliminating this weld
ation. for 1" back from cach comer, the fatigue strength is
2. Ilinimum appcai-ai-icc stanrlnrds may eliminate incrcased. This does not apply if the cover plate lies
solno joint designs. within the brain flange, since the weld does not have
Early fatigur tosting at the University of Illinois* to " C ~ ~ I S S O V ~ . "
.
on rolled lwams \\-it11covrr platcs indicatcd that: * Bid1 No. 377, J a n 1'348.
3. For cover plates lying witl-rin tho width of thc What is inore important is thc effect the trans-
bmm flangv, incrraseil fillet i \ d d sizt across tiic end of verse weld and shape of tlrc cover plate's end has on
the covrr p l n i ~pr(x111cd o gradual increase in fatigut. thr s t x s i i l ~ J I C I I C ~ I Iflange
~ adjacent to where the
strength. h ";,;" fillc~tweld iiad n strength of "3100 psi covczr plate is nttaehed. This is the region of lower
at 2 millioii cycles. a :ib" fillet weld 11,000 psi, and a section modol~isand higher bending strcss and is much
3/h" X 1'' fillet weld tip to 12.600 psi. This piilrticular more critic;rl than any regirnl within the cover plate.
size of (wvcr plate \ms not testid with the transverse The drawing, Figure, 18, illristratcs variations of
fillet \I-ild omittrd; scc Figriri. 17. cover plate tcrnrin:~tiorts.*7 ' 1 1 ~data stiinlnarizes recent
Tiir latmt work reportcd at thc University of tests on t h fatigiic strciigth of l~rainswith partial cover
Floi-ids on stcady 10:rding of 18'' WF XI# 1)eoms with plates. m n d i ~ c t i dnt tlrr i!nivcmity of illiirois. Although
5" "s" covcr p1:ites showcd that th(, beam flange llle comnioll inr~tllod of tcrrniliatirig the cover plate
within the. wvrr-plated I-egion was stressed Iouw when dircctly across thr Hmgc wit11 a transverse fillet weld
a ad' fillet weld W;IS pIiiv(id acwss the end of the covcr is satisfiicton, and ;rcceptable hy the AWS Bridge
plat? as coinp;u-cd to that wit11 no tmnsvarse \veld. 'i'hc Specifications, this data worild sccm to indicate that
trarrsvorsc wt~ldnlso prod~rccda more uniform distri- tapering thc end of tire cover platc and eliminating
bution of s t r ~ s sacrnss tllc covcr pliitc as \ v ~ l las the transverse welds across the end slightly increases the
],cam Aairgc, and dlowed tlic platc to pick up its share fatigue strength.
of tlic, 11mm lorcv in a shorter distance However, all
of these factors occlir within the cover-plated ragion of
grcatrr stvtion modulus and lower hcnding stress, so
~
higher s t r e s s conccn~ration
,n beam flange w i t h
smaller transverse
f i l l e t weld
cflangc. of beam
It should be noted that a small 'A' fillet weld was fillet weld across the and and along both edges of the
used across the end of the 'h" thick cover plate. The cover plate, the minimum tenninal devrlopment length
results might have been different if a larger transverse measnred from the actual end of the cover plate to
weld had heen used. Most states require continuous the tlicoretical m d or cut-off point shall be 1%times the
welds on cover plates and across their ends, thereby width of the cover plate.
limiting the selection to termination types u or b. Since B. With f a p w c d cuds having no transverse wcld
the data indicates that tapering has little effect, final across the end but welds along both tapered edges,
selection between o or b would have to h e made on tapered heyorid the terminal rnd to a width not greater
the basis of some other factor such as appearance, or than ?6 the width, but not ICSS than 3", the tennilla1
lower dead weight. development length sllall be 2 times the width of the
In summary, it would appear that the short section cover platit.
of the transverse weld across the end of the cover plate Nonnally the inner end of the tcrminal develop-
directly over tha web of the beam ( I ) is restrained and ment lerigth will lir :it the theori:ticrtl cut-off point; see
( 2 ) wlien tested under severe fatigue loading may Figun: 9.0, ( A ) and ( R ) . However, the cover plate
reduce the fatigue strength of the connection unless may be extended farther so that tlie distance between
it is made large. A large transverse fillet weld, especially the actual knd the theon:tical cut-off point exceeds
in this central section, would more uniformly transfer the requircd t t ~ m i n a ldeveloprrlent length. In tlus case
this force through the surface of the beam Aange into only the r~rjniredtci-minnl development length shown
the end of the cover plate. See Figure 19. in ( A ) and ( 8 ) shall be used for the length of con-
necting weld when determining weld size, rather than
Summary 06 Cover Plate Speciticationr
the actual length hctween the actual and theoretical
(AWS Art. 225)
cut-off point; see (A') and ( R ' ) .
I l i e 4WS Bridge Specifications limit the thickness of Fillet welds bctween terminal de\&p~nents along
cover plates to I'h times the thickness of the Aange to the cover plated length, shdl be continuous and be
which it is attached (225 e 1). designed to transfer the horizontal shear forces:
-
For partial-length cover plates, their end shall
extend beyond the "theoretical e n d (theoretical cut-
off point) which is determined by the allowable stresses
from fatigue formulas ( I ) , ( 3 ) , or ( 5 ) of Section 2.9,
Table 1. (for mch weld, there are 2 welds along the edge of
The ends of thc cover plate shall extend beyond the cover plate)
this "theoretical end" a sufficient distance to allow Fillet welds within the terminal development zone
"terminal development" (ti-ansfer of cover plate bend- (between the inner crid of the terminal development
ing force into the beam aange) by either of the fol- and the actual end of tbe covcr plate) shall be con-
lowing two methods: tinnous and be dcsigncd to trnnsfer the cover plzte
A. With square ends and a continuous transverse portion of the bending force in the beam at the inner
-16 / Girder-Related Deri
teirn,nol development if
beyond cut-off point
I
Momenf d i o g ~ m I
Theoreticol cut-off point
%
I , I
--M Z ~ Y
- I
u = ---
M y
I
(A')
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (0 )
Inner end of termtnol develo~ment
where:
V = vertical shear at section of beam under con-
sideration W Cover R i I (0'1
FIGURE 2
eslstance o f bottom
Fv = Fh tan B flange due to its
vertical component
of tensile force
Simply Supported Girder ontinuous Parabolic Hounched Girder
Staoighf os Curred
Sce Figure 3.
See Figure 2.
Here the external shear is-
Here the external shear is-
M
V = A. rw
M
+- tan B
V = A, rv +-
d
tan 0
d
and the niodified shear is-
and the modified shear is-
M M
=V--tan0
d
= V - - tan 0
d
In this case the vertical component is subtracted In this case the vertical component is subtracted
from the web shear. from the web shear.
FIGURE 3
Resistance of bottom
f cornprerrive force
FIGURE 4
I
------+
4Resistonce of web
due to its shear
FIGURE 5
FIGURE 4
osatinuous Fish
See Figure 5.
Mere the cxternal shear is-
FIGURE 9
(0,979;000)
F, = c*Af
= 20,900 psi, eompressio~~
= (21,150)(25/8 x 36)
= 2,000 kips These stresses in Figure 10. Irft-]land side, must
now be rotated 10" to line 1113 with the sloping ilange
F, = F,, Van B in order that the radial cornpressive stress may be
added. This is shown on the right-hand side of Figure
= (2000) (.l763) 10. '%is may 11e analyzed by one of two methods:
= 353 kips
I. Graphically, using Molrr's circle of stress: (Fig. 11)
F,, a ) Dmw thc gi\,en st]-cssrs (w,', u,', and 7') at the
F =
cos B two points (a') nrid (b')
h ) Constrni:t a circlc thro~ighthese two points
c ) Rotate clockwise ilirongli a n angle o f 20 or 10"
d ) Read the ncw stresses (c,,
u,, and 7 )
1 2030 kips
2. Analytically; woi-k is 1)rrforrncd as follows:
slzar stress in web
Siiice the external shear is-
V = A,,. 7," + F, or
V - F,
Tw z
A"?
0 =-
FIGURE 11
v7=k-n
= (10,450) - (11,500)
= 1050 psi, tension
sin p - ,0886
radial force of l o o m compression @nge againat w e b
cos p = ,9961
7 = m sin /3
= (11,540) (.0886)
= 1020 psi
FIGURE 12
n == m cos /3
= ( 11,540) (.9961)
= 11,500 psi
o ; = k + n
= (10,450) + (11,500)
= 21,950 psi, compression = 846 ibs/linear in.
resultant radial cornpresshjc stress in uocb
FIGURE 14
This produccs the final sircss condition o f :
d-Y U, =
FIGURE 13
- 21,950 psi
ucr,, T~~~
.. -- .. - .
= \ (-21,Q50)2-(-21,050)(-180)+(-180)' +3(1020)Z = 21,150 psi
=-
29,000
- psi
force in lower flange from bending moment
This results in an indicated factor of safety against
y~eldingof-
F, = Uf Af
= (21,150)(2% '/a 36)
= 2000 kips
Analysis of Fish
NOW wing the same load conditions on t l ~ cfish belly
hannch with the same web and flange dimensions:
ridge Plate Girders
r; 2420 psi
f _ . .f,,
~~~~
cos 8
but the distance d o n g this s l q w for I W l~orizoni~il
~
inch is-
i"
--
cos H
6930 psi s o that t11c s11mr f ~ ) r won t h i ~wt,ld iilwrg this sloping
Hang(, is obt;iiried froin i h ~ :ii)ovr:
, fonnrilii for the lrori-
combining strcssrs to f t l d fhi, critical dress zontnl flange, using the rnoiliiird v;rlue of \":
F.S. =- u,
IT, r
Portion of 295' span of bridge on Connecticut Turnpike being settled onto supporting
piers. Note continuous parabolic haunched girder construction.
1. RECENT PROJECTS Curved flange plates are laid out by offsets and
flame cut from plate. By cutting both edges at thc samc
Today, it is accepted practice to design and fabricate time, there is no bowing from any unbalanced shrink-
plate girders with horizontal curves when necessary. age tBect of the flame cutting. The web plates do
Several such bridges or freeway overpasses have been not have to he prcfonned, usually being rasily pulled
built within the past several years. into alignment along the ct.nterline of the flanges.
A series of 4 lines of curved welded plate girders Caution must he ustad in placing attaching plates
with 90' spans are a part of the Pasadena-Golden State for thr diaphragms to the webs and flanges. The proper
Freeway's interchange in the Los Angeles area, Figure angle for these plates may vary along the length of
1. These have a curve radius of 400'. They were fabri- the girder. Shear attachments are added mainly to
cated in Kaiser Steel's plant at Montrhello. accomplish composite action between the concrete
e One of Milwaukee's new expressways has a dcck and steel girder, and thereby increase torsional
section of 4 continuous spans with n total lengtli of 345' rigidity. During erection, a pair of curved girders is
in which tlie two orrtcr girders have a 9' horizontal usually attached togethcr by moans of the dinpluagms
curve and the 2 inner girders are straight. and then hoisted into position as a unit.
Bristol Steel & Iron Works, Bristol, Tennessee,
rt:cently fabricated several curved girders for the South-
west Freeway-Inner Loop in Washington, D. C.
FIG. 2 Bridge plate girders being weld fabricated. With flanges flame-cuf
on a curve, weight of the rolled web is utilized in making i t conform to
desired radius.
FIG. 3 A two-span continuous box girder and curved ramp construction pro-
vided the answer to space iimitotions in reaching elevated parking area at
busy New York terminal complex. Smooth, clean lines, without outside stiffen-
ers, demonstrate oesthetic possibilities inherent in welded design.
slxm dc*sigil,the central span can use the tapered flange
lip, forming thcb slop!: of the roof; the two ndjaccnt
The use of tapercd girders has hecome widespread, spans usc the taperrd liangc rlo\vn to provide a flat
especially in the frarning of roofs ovrr large ;ireas where roof, hnt tiltrd to in. t l ~ swn<. slope as the
it is desirable to minimize ihe number of interior cmrtml swtior~.
colnmns or to clirniriatc them ;iltogelhcr. They permit Th? pro1)lrnl of 1ntt.r;il srrpport for the top ?om-
placing maximum girdrr depth whm: it is needed, prisioii Wnng~s of tapcrrd girders is 110 different than
while rpducing tho dcpih consiclrrably ;it points whcrr with other lirnms and gird:,rs. C~~nrrally the roof deck
it is not necdcd. is s:rfficit?iitly rigid to function as a di:ipl~ragm, ;md it's
T a p r e d girders are fahricatcd either 1) by weld- only neetxary to attach the deck to the top flange.
ing two flange piates to a t;ipcmd \vch plate, or 2 ) by Tl~ci-e'sappnrcntly no advantage in clrsigning with a
cutting a rolled WE' b u m kmgthwisc along its wcb at rodticcd stross :illow:~blc, in aieord:mce with AISG
an angle, tnrning onn half r d for m d 2 arid then Foi-inol:is 4 or 5, in order to pwinit a greater distance
wt:lding the two h;ilm>s back togct1tt.r again along tila between bracing points ;kt thc top ilange.
web. Sea Figure 1.. Whmc iapcred girdrrs are critical, Section 5.11 on
Rigid Fr;nn<>Kriccs g o c ~into more detail rclative to
stresstss (elastic design).
Gtlniber can he built into the tapend girder when Bcca~lscof the rrduccd dcptli at the ends of thi.
required. Wlien thc girder is made from WF beams,
each half is clamped into the propcr canher during
asscmhly. Then the h i t joint dong the web is groove
welded while the girder is held in this shape. Sincr
the weld along the 1)earn web lies along the nentral axis,
no bcnding or distortion will result from welding, and
the girder nil1 retain the shape in wltich it is held
(luring wtlding.
When the girder is made of two h n g e plates and
a tapered web, the proper caniber can ?it: ohpained by
simply ciitting thr wel, to the p q w r wmbrr outline.
The flange plat<,s during nssombly are then pulled
tightly against the web, into the proper camlier. The
four flllot welds joining the flanges to the web are
l>alanced about the ncuiral axis of the girder and as
a result there shodd he no distortion p r o ? h n .
Application of Tapered
FIGURE 2
tap(:red girders, their connection to supporting colum~ls First, the flange arca remains the same; the only
may offer little resistance to horizontal forces. For this weight saving is in the web. See Figure 2.
rcason, sonre knce braces may l x required ur~lessthe Second, the depth of the tapered girder at midspan
roof deck or a positive system of bracing in the plane r n ~ ~he
s t iricrcased over that of the conventional straight
of the roof is stiff enorigh to transmit these forces to beam to he sofficicnt at thc critical section (about "4
adeqr~atclybraced walls. span). This is necessary to dcvelop the required section
At first glance, there appears to bc quite a weight rnodulus along the full length of the tapered girder.
saving in tapered girdcr; how?ver, this is not always as This will slightly offset the initial weight saving in
great as it might seem: the? wcb. See Figure 3.
2. DETERMINING CRlTlCAL
AND SLOPE
[depth between
I-
C G , of flanges)
df
with little loss in accaracy, by letting-
dw = dl = dl,
I I
If the section modulus required to resist the bend-
ing moment is known, the required beam depth ( d )
is solved for:
FIGURE 6
d, = d, - tan 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(6)
FIGURE 8
Fignre 9 shows the effects of placing lnultiple loads
npon a simply-s~rpportrdtapered girder. These effccts
on the hending rnonxnt and the critical depth of the
girder can be explained as follows:
In the case of the single contcntrated load ot
midspan, the critical dcpth section is :it midspan, and
the maximum slope is 8.
* In the casi: of 2 cqual conccntratcd k~adsapplied
at 'h points, the critical depth section is at the p i n t s
of lotid application and the m;~xinnlrnslope is 0. .lssi~rn-
or to find the depth in one step-
ing the slope n w e to pivot itbout this criticnl depth
section, any slope lcss than this value \ r m ~ l dcause ihc
dcpih at the end to incrmisi. at twice the rate at which
the depth at centerline is dctrcasing. Sincc such a shift
To find the slope of the critical-depth curve forined would incrt:;isr the web weight, this maximum slope
by points d, along the girdcr length, this expression for vahle of 0 should be nsed initially.
depth (d,) is digcrentiated with respect to the dis- If morc dt:pth is ncedcd at tllc end because of
tanccs ( x ) : higher vcrtical shear, do this by pivoting about this
critical depth section. This will rcwlt in thc least
3. ---
w increasv in \vet) wcight. It can IIC shown that, nnder this
(I, - %I condition, the rcst~liingdepth at centerlinc will be-
d d
8 = ---x = - - 2 t, u -.
dx A,
w
( L - x)
Influence Lines
Effect of position of force (F) upon moments Ma, MI, M2 and upon kmax
0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
Position jo)of applied force F
ratio of tccb's depth to thickness
S = -M
u
-
--
(1687.5)
( 22,ooq
= 76.7 in."
To use an "eficient" section (Sect. 4.2, Topic 2),
the efficimt depth would be-
And from Table 3-36 in S<.ct. 4.1; since wi& no
stiireners a/& = n (over 3 ) , allowable shcar is 7 =
5000 psi.
:I)
a,
The ratio K = ,- is less than 260
(7.5 kips)
rw = (3/16)(24)
b ) The shear stress (7) does not exceed that of
= 1670 psi < 5000 psi OK
AlSC Formula 9.
This means the values of K and shear sircss (7)
shall fall within the values of the right-hand column of required slope of tapered girder
AISC Tahlc 3-36, in Section 4.1, page 25.
Assume a value of K = 70 at the end of the girder;
herc the shear ( V ) is highest. Assume a value of K =
170 at midspnn; here the shear ( V ) is very low. This
means at 34 span (the critical section under consider-
ation) K would fall halfway between these two values, = ,0852 radians, or 4.88'
or K = 120.
required depth of web
therefore, the eficicnt depth
= d, + -L4 tan 0
= (24.0) + -(- m
4
) (.08538)
= 24.0 + 12.8
= 36.8"
required flung6 area (&cicnt section)
=. 2.4 in.' or usc Yz" x S' flange, the area eck Shear Stress at End
of which is Af = 2.5 i a 2 A, = 3/16 (11.2)
u e b thickness = 2.1 in.'
- (15 kips)
-
(2.1)
= .W' or use a 3/,6" thick plate. Then- = 7140 psi
flcre: Since the reqoircd section modulus of the critical
section at '/a span is-
K = - d,
t,
S = 76.7 in."
- (11.2)
-( 3/16) an 18" M;F 50.11, bcam could be used
= 60, and from Table AISC 3-36 in Section 4.1,
page 25 it is dctelmined tha't no stiffeners are required. properties of this rolled beurn
A, = (.57)(7.5)
Check Section of Midspan
= 4.27 in.'
IC = d, d, = 18.00 - 2(.57)
t,
= 16.86"
- (36.8)
- rn) 8 = 89.0 in."
= 196 < 260 OK shear stress at h
' span
\I
Also, practically no shear here.
M9 = 8-W L2
S, = At d . + ---
tu dW2
6
cr* Ma
-
'e-
ss
( 2250
.- --
- in.-kips)
(134.4 i n 3 )
= 16,750 psi < 22,000 psi OK
dg = d, + L tan 0
Alternate Design
d, = d, - L4 tan 0
FIGURE 1 1
depth of beam
Depth of web ot end of centerline For each division, the moment of inertia (In),
d = 11.2" dw = 36.8" moment (M,),and distance to the end ( x ) are deter-
mined and listed in table form.
FIGURE 13 FIGURE 14
inertia. This method is described under Topics 5 and Here, for each segment:
7 of Section 2.5 on Deflection by Bending.
FIGURE 6
rntan & =-
FIGURE 7
Auulied load
d-
Shear dicgiom
Moment diogrorn
.-
FIGURE 8
FIGURE 9
. RESISTANCE 10 A
bottom Teo scctions doc, to thc rnommt prodi~ccdhy
Since the bmrn flanges carry most of tbr 1)rncliiig load, shear. is ;iss~irnr~lto ba at inid-scction of the opcning
the loss of well area is not much of n prn!~lc.m as far (c.'2). It is furtl~cr :mnmed that thc total vertical
as m o r t i t ~ is
~ tc o n c ~ w ~ cHowever,
~l. sl~ear(V) is carried shcnr ( V ) at this point is divided ccpally bctmcen
by the web, and must he considered. tbcst: two Tre scctions. sincc they arc of rqunl depth.
.4t cuch we!> op2ning, two Tee scciions act as Actually, thc dcsign and st]-cssbchzrvior of an opcn-
members of a framr in resisting vertical shcar forces. weh expandid heam or girder is wry similar to that of
At midspnn b , Figure 9, the shcar ( V ) is a Vicrci~dm>ltruss. Thc primary d('sig11 consider:itions
minimum and may have little rftnct on the beam's ;in. as follows:
strength. Approaching the srrppori in the rcgion of high I . The top and bottom portions of the girder are
shear a , the hcnding strcss produced by this shear suhjectcd to coinpression arid tixnsion bcnding stresses
on tlic shallow Tee st~dionmust be added to the con- from ihr m:iin bcnding moment. u,,= hf/S,,. Thcrr
ventional bending stress f n m the applied beain load. must be ;r continuity of thew sections tl~rougboutthe
The bending moment due to shear is diagrammed girder lcrngtk to transfer tlrcsr stresses. In addition, the
in Figure 10. Usually, thr point of inficction in top and comprssiio~portion most hc cl~cckedfor lateral sup-
FIGURE 10
4.7-4 / Girder-
Point of inflection
4 0, k /t~ompression
t' s -
Bending stress of Resultant (total) Bending stress of Tee section
beom section due bending stress ( 0 ) due to application of vertical
to load on beam sheor a t point of inflection
FIGURE 11
X X
A36 steel
C, = .40
(AISC a,)
Near t Neor support
(high moment) [high sheor)
FIGURE 12
4.7-6 / Girder-Related Design
the point of inflection of the Tee scction. This is con- Buckling Due to Axiof Compression
venient because it is the same section at which we
assume the vertical shcar ( V ) is applicd for the secon- The Tee section, because it is subjected to axial com-
dary txnding stress. They also assume this force ( F ) is presiooli, also nnut bc checked against hnckling accord-
~miformlydistributed across the Tee scction. ing to AISG Sec 1.9.1. See Figure 13, and see Table 1
This simplifies the calculations, since for a given of limiting ratios for steels of various yield strengths.
unit panel only onc section must he considered for
both the applied moment ( M ) and the applied shear
( V ) . This is Section @ at the point of inflection of
the Tee section. Also, only one total bending stress is
required for this sectinn-the maximum secondary
bending stress at the stem added to the average main
bending stress. It does not require calculating at two
different points-the stem at Section @ and the
flange at Section @ FIGURE 13
i
FIGURE 14
eams and Girderr / 4.7-7
FIGURE 15
Referring to Fignre 11; notice the bending stress TABLE I-limiting Ratios of Section
(u,,) from the applied moment is assumed to be maxi- Elements Under Compression
muin at the outer fibers of the flange. The bending
stress (VT) from the applied shear is greatest at thc
stem of the Teo because its section modnlns (S,) is
less than the section inod~~lus at the outer flange ( S f )
For this reason, combinations of bending stresses must
be ~.onsidr.reda t the outer fibers of the flange as \wil
as the stem of the Tee.
In Figure 14, thc total trending strcsses at the outer
fiber of the flarige as well us at the stem of the Tee
section arc plotted along the length of thc beam. This
data is from a typical &sign l>rohlcm. ln this case, the
vertical shear :it the support is \' = 25 kips.
111Fignre 15, tlic example has hren rcworkcd with
cliffererit span lengths. and with diiferent applied
nniform loading so that thr bcnding moment (and thc
bending stress dnc to this moment) rtmains the same. very high slit:ar loads, tllc opcwing in the exp;\nd(d web
Tho sliorter sixins reqnirt: an incrt:ased load, lierice in- would dofcat its pnrpose, and a stantlard solid wch
creased shotir ( V ) . The longer spans require ;ilowcr l m u n 01- girder slio~~ld
he u s d For longer spans, with
load, hcner dncreawd sllear ( V ) . rd;itivdy lower sbrar force to bending moment, this
Notice in Figure 15, tllat for short beams with c ~ ~ r v\vill
c lower. shifting thr point of inaximum stress
higlrcr shcar form relativc to bending moment, this to tho right, or near the niidspm.
curve for tlir total hending stress (moment and s11t:ar) An altcmatc mctliod to finding the bending stress
will rise on the left-hand sidc, a i d tlic point of maximrnn dircctly from the a p p l i d momcnt ( M ) is to convert
strcss will movr to the left. or ncar the, support. Of the moment ( M ) into a concentrated fnrct: ( F ) applied
conrse there is a limit to how short and how high the at the centcr of grxvity of the Tec scction and assume
vertical shrar ( V ) ma)- he, bocausc this type of open it to bc uniformly distribotcd across the section. See
web construction docs weaken thc web for shear. For Figure 18.
FIGURE 16
Totol
bending
stress
FIGURE 17
I
i
0 %a & %6 X %a % %a %
Support % Span Midrpan
Point Along Length of Beom
pea-Web Expanded Beams and Girders /
Assuming that
V, + V2 = V,, the average vertical
2
shear at this point, this becomes-
and
t. e
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (.6 )
FIGURE I8
sloping ~ l g of
c tliis tapervd web srction.
Onc method by which tapered l~camsarid knees
are analyzed is the 'it'cdge hlethod, or-iginally pn~posed
by W. R. Osgood arid iatcr modified 7' y H. C. Olander FIGURE 21
(ASCE Transaction paper 2698, 1954). With this
method, Figure 21, tlic non-parallel sides are extcnded where
out to where they intwscct; this becomes point 0.From
this point as a rrnter, an arc is dr;iwn tlirough the
wedge section reprmenting tlir scvtion ( a ) to be con-
sidered. Tlie section modnlus of this curved section is
determined. Since:
Thc actual forces and rnoments npplied to the ni + f
p =--- or
member are then transferred old to point 0. The? cos 0
horizontal force (V,,) \vill cansc a moment at point 0.
It can l ~ oshown that these forces and moments
acting at point 0 i~allsethe bvnding stresses on t l ~ e
curved section ( a ) of the wedge; sce Figurc 22.
Moment acting on curved section ( a ) :
Since:
= 2 p 0 and
t,v a2
Radial bending stress on this ct~rvtdsection ( a ) : S = - - . ..
6
FIGURE 22
eb Expanded Beams and Girders / 4.7-1 1
buckling
+I
FIGURE 23
Moment applied
to member
Thereforc, the radial bending strcss along cu~.ved section, resulting iii ii~crcwcof the seco~iclarybending
section ( a ) : stress in the Tee st,cticin juT). -4s an alternative to
incrmsing distanw ( e ) , it u-odd he possiblc to stiifen
the outcr edge, of this wedge portion of the web by
adding a flangt: around the edge of the hole in the
well in the particular panel which is overstressed.
It can b r shown that the curvt:d section ( a ) haviug Allowable Compressive Bending
the greatest bending strvss ( u ) occurs at a distance
of: Tlicre ;m, two srrggt-stions for determining tht: allow-
able coinpressivt~bending stress along the sloping edge
of the wrrlgc scction of thr web:
I. Trmt this srv.?ion as a prismatic member and
apply ALSG Scc. 1.5.1.4.5 Formula 4; sce Figure 23.
ATSC Fonnula @ for allowable compressive stress:
This value of ( m ) will be Icss than ( h ) and may
be used in the following Formula 12 if ( e ) docs not
exceed these values-
when:
1 for 0 = 30', e 5 1.58 111
l e Shear Stress
or:
-
Figure 24.
Formrda 14 for nlloud>le shear stress ( 7 ) has b e ~ m
simulifird for various anrrles of cut (~ 0 ,,) : see Table 3.
6 hupport %
,
-
"h To kcrp the resulting shcar stress within this
allow;lble, either ( t , ) or (t.) may have to be increased;
FIGURE 24 see Figurc 25.
Reverse top holf end for end Reverse top holf end far end
1
t
Support
+ie,it-
YA point
-+lk
ez
4 2 e , i C I
% point 1
Support
FIGURE 25
Open-Web Expanded Beoms and Girders /
FIGURE 26
FIGURE 27
--
Shear diogrom
FIGURE 28
eb Expatided Beams and Girders / 4.7-15
8. GENERAL OUTL1NE FOR DESIGN OF in order to keep tlw vertical shear stress in the stem
OPEN-WEB EXPANDED GIRDER of thc Tec swtion within the allowable:
1.30
Sh = ~- = 86.4 i n ? (use this as a guide)
1.5
Try an 18" W F 5 0 # / f t h a m , liaving S , = 89.0 in."
Now, refigure K, using the S,, of the actual selcctect STEP 6. Dctcr-mine the allowable compressive bending
beam: strws on wedge srction of web, using modified AISC
SEC1.5.1.4.5 liormula 0:
FIGURE 32 FIGURE 33
IMl = *, ( 4. + T LtB i n z i UT =-
( W )( 8 )
~ -- .- ~= 20,300 psi
.1(2:16)
a = 22.000 - 14.44 (~
t,~
1
h ) 'c = 22.000 - 3.61 (.:;.I'
hence no axial coinpressive force acting on this Tee v d u r of ( h ) ; howcvcr, this will greatly increase the
section. The allo\vablc stress here is- sea,i~d:uy bending stress ( Q ) of Step 1.0, since it re-
duces the depth ( d + ) of the Tce section. In this case
~indoubtcdly,the WF hcam selected cannot be used
and a larger WF Iimm must h r tried.
If tile miin Bmding stress ( a , , ) is within thi?r.
or, fsosn Table 4 of vdue5 for dllrelent steels- allo\\~ablc,hut thr sectmd:rry lwnding stress ( m ) in
Step 10 excocds the allo\viihle, ( u , ~ may ) be greatly
rednced by decri-asing ( h ) with jnst a slight increase
in ( u , , ) .
Strtwes (u,,)and (u.,.) may bc considered accord-
ing to AlSC interaction formulas @ , @ and @ ,
cr = 22,000
- - 3.81 = 20,200 psi shown grap11ic:tlIy in Figurc 12.
As a matter oi interest: Table 5 shows that de-
STEP I I . At midspan of girdel; check the main bend- crmisiilg ( h ) rrsnits in a largc decrcase in the secondary
ing seess: bending strcss (u.,.)and n slight increase in the main
bending stress ( u , , )
(as a compressiv(: or tensile stress)
If (11) cannot bc rcduccd bccaosc (u,,) is close to
the nllo\val~le, m e two different size holes, (el) and
( e 2 ) .Pn~\.ide;1 larger vnlne of distance ( e , ) for the
compressive bending strcss in the \vcdge section of the
"50"" woh, but a lower valw of ( e l ) for the cantilevered Tee
a, ".
. - U)200
, psi
(24.08) (5.861 ) -- section.
TABLE 5
or
(as a bending stress)
FIGURE 36
FIGURE 34
Girder-Related
FIGURE 37
I n either case ( a ) or ( h ) , there probably will be It m ~ g h tbe po?cihle to adjust the value of ( e ) so
a small hole left in the girder at the ends which must that the panels w l l fit exactly into the length of the
be filled. The simplest method is to add one or a pair girder (L,), See Figure 40.
of web doubling bars or plates at each end to cover
and lap over the holes. See Figurc 38. Here:
L , = n s + e
Web doubler plate Web doubler bar
= e ( 2 n i - I ) f 2nhtan4
FIGURE 38
-
If the same size holes are to be used, that is c,
- e?; and
- the c i d e r is not to be symmetrical about its
centerline, then start a unit panel right at one end of Second, find ihc required vairle of ( e ) from the
the girder. The othcr end may have a partial hole in iollowinlg formula-
the web which will have to be ~vvered.The only ad-
vantage to this method is that just one end will have e = .I>,
..
- 2 n h tan + , ., , , , , ,,..,, ,,,(20)
a bolo in the web to be covered. See Figure 39. 2 1 1 1 1
, - f L, = (n + Y2)s +e
FIGURE 39
FIGURE 40 nsc
L,=ns+e=e(2n + 1)+2nhton+
FIGURE 42
In iapercd open-web expanded girders, the axial wcll as the maximnin hrnding moment. See Figrirt: 43.
forcc in the chord which slopes has a vcrtical com- A transvcrsr stiffener at the point where the sloping
ponent (F, =. F , tan a ) ; here ( F , = M/d). flange changes direction would transfer the vertical
Whenever this chord changes direction, for example component of the flange efficim~tlyinto the wob. The
at the midspan of the girdcr, this vertical component greater the change in slope, the more important this
must be considered. It will be carried as shear in the would bccome.
web members back to the suppol-t, and in this case has If there is a panel opcning at this point, the Tee
a sign opposite to that of the main shear ( V ) . Hence, section must resist this vertical component in bending
its effect is to reduce the shear over most of the girder's (in this cxample, the top Tec section). This is similar
length, but to increase it in the midspun region. to the arlalysis of the secondaiy 1)cnding stress (ul.)
due
The modified shear bccomes- to the shear applied to the Tee section at midopening
whrrre each half behaved as a cantilever beam. See
Figure 44. However, in this ease, the cantilever beams
have fixed ends ( a t the centerline of the girdcr); rr-
This means there is a vcrtical shift of the initial sdting in one-half the bending monient and stress.
shear diagram on each half of the gir-der, so that the (This half length Tee section is treated ns a beam fixed
. . . . .
Girder with Iood
- vertical componenl
(F,] causes shear
I 11 in web
Shear diagram
from applied
load
Diagram of
modified shear
V' = v - F,
FIGURE 43
earns a n d Girders / 4.7-23
Q
FIGURE 44
It v
Steel beam
(a) Slab on both sides of beam (b) Slab o n one side of beam
capacity of the composite beam is umffrcted whether dicate possible combinations of rollcd beam and con-
shores have or have not been used. crete slab.
hear Connector Spacing
AASHO requires the determination of shear connector
spacing, which may vary along the length of the beam.
Now AISC requires just one determination of spacing, In order to get the transfonned area of the concrete
and this value is used throughout the length of the floor, it is necessary to decide how large a width of the
beam, greatly simplifying the worli. This is because concrete acts along with the steel beam to form the
the allowables are such that at ultimate loading of composite section. This is known as the effective width
the composite beam, some of the comlectors will yield (B) of the slab. AISC (1.11.1) requires the foUowing:
before the others. This moverncnt provides a redisbi-
bution of shear transfer so that all connections are shb on both sides of beam, Figure 2(aj
ultimately loaded uniformly, hence uniform spacing B 'h beam span
is allowed. a 5 M distance to adjacent beam
Composile Section Properties a 5 8 times least thickness of slab ( k )
A further help is a series of tables listing properties of
possible combinations of rolled beams with typical slab on one side of beam, Figure 2jb)
concrete slab sections, similar to tables in wide use for B 5 4/12 beam span
available rolled beam sections.
These new tables have been published in the AISC
B 5 '/z distance to adjacent beam
"Manual of Steel Constnzction,'' Sixth Edition, 1963, B 5 6 times ieast thickness of slab (t,)
and in Bethlehem Steel Co.'s "Properties of Composite
Sections for Bridges and Buildings." This effective width of concrete is now trans-
The new tables eliminate the various calculations formed into an equivalent steel section, having the
for composite sections. A simple calculation will in- same thickness as the concrete (t,), but having a
dicate the required section modulus of the composite width equal to I/n that of the concrete. See Figure
section, and a quick reference to the lablcs will in- 3. Here n, the modular ratio, is the ratio of the moduh~s
of elasticity of the stcel to that of the concrete.
From this transformed section, the various proper-
k Effective slab width (B)
--i ties of the section may be determined.
shear attachments are not iised (AISC 1.11.1). after hardening of tlrc concrete.
if no temporary shores are used, the total bending If shcar attacl~mc~itsare used, encasemcxt is not
strass in thc telrsioil flange of tlre ciicnsed stcel hearn needed and it ilocs not inntier in the design whcthi:r
is figorod under two conditions: temporary shores are used or not used. in either casc,
1. The steel hcani acting alone for any dead loads the steel tension Range acting with the concrnte s1;rb
applied prior to hardening of the concrete. to f o m thc coml~osites'~tion shall hc dcsigned at cr =
2. The steel beam acting with the concrete for .66 uJ"to carry all of tile lands (AISC 1.11.2.2). If no
any live loads and additional dead loads applied after temporary shoring is used, the section modnlus of the
hardening of the concrete. cwnpositc section (S,) in rcgard to thc tension Range
The henin shall be so proportioned that. the above of the bcani shall not cxcced thr following:
stress nnder either condition does not cxcecd .66 5,"
( M S G 1.11.2.1j.
If temporary shores are used, the tension steel
flange of thc enc;ised beam acting with thc concrete
slab to folm the composite section shall be designed
I ( M S C Forniula 17) 1
at u = .66 a;,* to carry all dead and livc loads applied
where:
S, = section modulus of composite section (rela-
-
';If steel section is not compact: a = .60 c,. tive to its tcilsion steel flange)
With
Sharing
Withoul
and
Shoring
a,.
Me
= --
s., + Ms. 5 66
- '
0, ( .60 a,
-4 n L k "r 4
Within elostic limit Uitimate iood condition
FIGURE 4
S, = section tnodnlus of steel beam (relative to beam, is equal to the total horizontal forces ( F , ) from
its tension flange) bending acting on either the slab or the beam. See
M, = dead-load moment prior to hardening of con- Figure 5.
crete
MI, = moment .due to live and additional dead Ioad
alter hardening of concrete
where:
Table 1 summarizes these requirements for encased
beams without shear attachments and for composite B = eifective width of slab
beams with shear attachments. t, = thickness of slab
Farces Carried by Connectors
For elastic design, the horizontal unit shear force is
ft .- compressive strengtl~of concrete
A, == cross-soctional area of steel beam
obtained from the well-known fonnula:
A, = cross-st:ctional area of effective concrete slab
V a y
f = ---- cr, = yield strength of steel
I
Figure 6 diagrams the bending inoment that results
However in the new AISC Specification for build- in horizontal forces; compression in the concrete slab
ing applications, the cl(2sign is based on thc shear and tension in tlie steel beam.
connectors allowing the composite beam to reach ulti- Thcse horizontal ultimate forces are then reduced
mate Ioad. In the usual con~positebeam, the ultimate hy a factor of safcty of 3, and concrete is taken at 85%
load is reachcd aftcr the full dapth of the steel beam of its strength. These formulas become:
rn
reaches yicld stress in tcnsion. This forcc is resisted by
the ~mnpressivearea of the concrete slab. See Figure 4. 3 5 f', .-
A,
The total horizontal shear (V,,) at ultimate load v ,, = -
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . * . . . . . .( 2 )
to be transferred from concrete slab to steel beam
(AISC For~nnla18)
between section of maximum moment and ends of the
4 t=-
f:
k-%-I F " y i
(a) Neutral axis lies within steel beam (b) Neutral axis lies within concrete slab
I
Moment dmgm
I
--
I
I
L L L L
+ } F, = f: b t
4-
(compresrioo)
7,- -37
i=I F, = A, o, (tension)
FIGURE 6
I 1 -
check bending stress in hcam
Check the tensile be~ldingst~essin bottom flange
of steel beam. From Table 1-
VB = M, + 5,
S"
-
(1570 +
(14,400)
( 670
= 23,800 psi < .GG uy
+ 0.35
1.35 s,
5 [1,135 + 0.35 ( (11570
4 400)]
)
I (5019)
FIGURE 8
horizontal sheuli~
The horizontal shear to he transferred by connec-
tors will be the smaller of the following two values:
T", II -
.-. ' 85 f', A,
2
- .85 (3000)(6 x54)
-- -.
2
= 642.6 kips
= 794.9 kips
So, w e Vh = 642.6 kips length of FUet weld
L = 2 x 1W'
Use %" x 4" studs. From Table 2, q = 11.5 kips per
= 20"
stud. force on weld
number of studs
number of channels
n = - Vh
q
- (642.6) Use %" diameter bar. From Table 2, q = 17.8 kips
- (4.6)
per t u n .
= 14 channels
number of turns
from centerline to each end of beam, or 28 channels
per beam. . = ! !v
cl
approximate spacing
24G" (half length)
S =
14 (channels) = 36.1 from end to cnd or 37 turns from center-
line to e a d ~end of beam.
and use M of this or 8'k" for spacing first channel from approximate pitch
end of beam.
S = -- - (half length)
240"
To compute the required size of connecting weld: 37 (turirs)
F = 46 kips, each cl~annel = 6.49" or use 67/,,"
To compute the required connecting welds (E70), lcngth of uvld at each turn of spiral
assume weld size is equivalent to a %" hfillet weld
L = -9
(has same throat). Force on the weld is- f
f = 11,200 o (17.8 kips)
-
-
= 11,200 (%) we'd ( 4 2 0 lhs/iin.)
= 4200 lbs/in. = 3.18" or 1%'' on each sue OK
--
Steel beam
(a) Slab on both sides of beam (b) Slab on one side of beam
FIGURE 2
steel in this area to be effective in tension when proper modular ratio, is the ratio of the modulus of elasticity
shear attaclments are continl~edthroughout the area. of the steel to concrete.
This approach slightly reduces the beam's cross- From this transformed section, the various section
sectional area. properties may be determined:
transformed area
In order to get the transformed area of the concrete
deck, it is necessary to decide how large a width of
the concrete acts along with the steel beam to form the
composite section. This i~ known as the effective width
( B ) of the slab (AASHO 1.9.3). Distance to outer fiber
Thus effective width of concrete is now transformed
into an equivalent steel section, having the same thick-
ness as the concrete (t,), but having a width equal to
1 of tenr~onflange
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(7)
" AASIIO (1.95) now allows as an alternnte, a factor safety of
4 in lieu of calculating it with the above formula.
1 a , I i-n,< b - l r t
.
:, W,.$,ii
i
:,B wr?Bi
it, W P ?d
80 W Y i l i
I 6 WFZJ:
:so W F iOI
91, O F 18:
I" WF ,L
:3<, W,?,<a
l 0 W I 110
:<IW T 220
W I i(10
Y1 V F i i z
a:, W,? 18"
30 Xi' i 2 i
YO W i ' i l "
SO W F i<i8
2: U P 101
2: W P Y<
2%wi 7s
Z i W P 68
2, W P ' 8
i8WF C
e
18 W* 56
i B W F 60
16 Wf ,m
I8 W F 48
iii WF I 0
16 W P 36
34 wi :<a
1 1
Scm d o .
--- % I 6,500
9,300
12,600-
7,100
10,200
7,600 r , 2 0 0
I 1,000
13.800 ~.... 15.000
1 1,700
1 6.000
Note: A faitor of ioiety must be opplisd to t h e obove useful co-
pacity, Q, to orrive at t h e working volue, q.
0 0 i--c0 -
..
C O N C R E T E STRENGTH, f',,
r - ...-.. -.
psi.
7-..4000
...
treme tension fibers VD --- vertical shcar caused by dead load acting on
S. = section modulus of steel beam for extreme composite section
tension fibers VL I= vertical shear causcd by live load
where:
s = spacing or pitch of shear connectors in the
direction of beam axis, in.
n = number of shear connectors at one transverse
beam cross-section
q = capacity of one connector, Ibs
Vh = horizontal shcar to be transferred, lbs
where:
K = min. shear ( V )
max. shear ( V )
h a m "Comporiie Cons<nidian i n S k r l and Concrete" by Viert,
= leg s i ~ eof fillet weld, in.
w
Fountain & Singleton. Copyright @ 1958. kGiow-Hill Book Com-
W " Y . Used by peimiriion. f, = allowable force on fillet weld, lbs/lin. in
4.9-6 / Girder-Related Design
working load
F.S.
q .= -
Q
FIGURE 4
L
f,' = 3000 psi (concrete)
spacing of connectors
m
- =4 i n (See Table 3 )
1, = 10.75" or use 10%''
F.S. = 3.81
V,,, = 49.6 kips allowable force on weld
Assume fillet leg size of w = 3/1$" and N =
V,,, = 5.06 kips
600,000 cycles:
calculating for horizontal shear V",
I< = -
Vm,,
-
.-
(+EL06 kips)
(+46.6 kips)
force on weld
Pissumc fillet leg size of w = %" and N = 600,000
cycles:
f - 7070 o
W - K (From Table 7 )
FIGURE 2
3. STEEL PLATE
FIGURE 1
FIGURE 4
FIGURE 5
F l o o ~Systems for Bridges / 4.10-3
at points of high moment. For longer spans, deeper with floor beams extending outward to support the
plate girders are fabricated. For a more efficient design, bridge Boor. In Figure 6 ( b ) , longitudinal stringers are
these girders are deeper at points of high moment. The sapported on the Woor beams, and the floor rests on
outside girders usually have their intermediate stiff- tticse. It has evcn been suggested that a similar design
eners placed on one side only, the inboard side, so that could he made from a large diameter fabricated pipe
they have a more pleasing appearance. section.
Box girders have been used for bridges; usually
two or more are used. They may be joined by several 5. TORSIONAL RESISTANCE
metl~ods.The example in Figure 6 ( a ) uses floor heams
Designers arr coming to realize the importance of
flush with the top of the box girder, on which is placed designing bridge floors, etc.; with more inherent lateral
a concrete floor attachcd with shear connectors. stability and torsional resistance.
Box girder constrnction has sevcral :tdvantagcs. It When a simple inernher is subjected to a torsional
presents a flat surface for otlicr r~tt;tch~ncnts; hmce, moment, shmr stresses occi.ir; one set being at right
the floor b c a m do not havc to be copad whcn they anglrs to the axis of the member and the other set
are welded to the girder. Then, is irss of a c ~ l ~ o ~ i o nltmgthwise. In I'igr~rr. 7, shear forces ( b ) act at right
problem because of thl. flat srirfaces. Also, since tlie angles to the lengthwise member and causc it to twist.
box girder ends may hc s c a l d off, the illside is pro- A fiat scction 01- any opcn section offers vcry little
tected. Perhaps the grmtcst advnntaga is the treman- rosistanec to twist. Thv cross membcrs are subjected
dous incrcase in torsioi~iil rcsistanee offered by tlw to thr slicx forccs ( ; I ) and. likewise, twist. If a diagonal
closed box section. It ;tiso lias good lateral stability. mrmber is placcd in the: strncture, both shear forces
These torsional and l a t ~ r a lst;ihiliiy proper tit.^ nrc br- ( a ) mid ( b ) act O I I it. 'fowcver, the coinponents of
coining recognized advantagis. and morc bridge engi- thesr forws. acting at right angles to the diagonal
neers are making use of tlrim
Some designs havr made use of a single box girder,
FIGURE 8
member, cancel each other out, so there is no twisting These changes in lcngth can be compensated for
action applied to the member. These forccs do combine hy corresponding drformations within the structure
to place tension and compression in line with the mem- itself. This is because changing the stress in the stnic-
ber, thus placing the diagonal member in bending for ture will also cause it to change in length in proportion
which it is very rigid. Welding can be used to very to its modulus of dasticity. However, it is usually more
good advantage in diagonal bracing. economical to u s e expansion joints since the forces
Figure 8 is From a bridge designed by Camilo that are required to deform a structure are very large.
Piccone and ermteted over the Rio Blanco River in Masonry materials such as stone and concrete
Mexico. It is based on an earlier design of Thomas compress elastically but will not stretch. Therefore,
C . Kavanagh. The floor makes use of diagonal mem- they are iilcely to crack when subjected to the stresses
bers which procluce a grid type structure, extremely of temperature contraction.
resistant to twisting and lateral movement. For these reasons and others, most structures are
dosigned with provision for expansion joints at intcr-
vals to take care of the uormal movements of expansion
and contraction and to relieve the thermal forces. Many
Thermal chianges in temperature cause certain physical types of joints in common use have been designed to
changes in the size and shape of all construction do this, varying from open joints, simple planes of
materials and in their completed strudures. The changes wealmess, 'md elastite joints such as are commonly
are in proportion to the dimensions of the structure, used in pavements, to the long interlocking fingered
the coefficients of expansion for the materials, and the castings and sliding bar joints used in bridge work.
number of degrees of temperature change.
The structure contracts with the cold and expands One Example
with the heat, so a typical bridge might be approxi- The all-welded expansion joint shown in Figure 9 is
mately 1" longer per 100 linear feet in the summer similar to those in the deck of a large bridge built in
than in the winter. It will also have daily and short- recent years. This joint is made entirely kom rolled
time changes of a lesser degree in proportion to every structural plates m d angles at a great saving in cost by
change in temperature and it will have additional move- welding.
ments from the elastic deflections of the structure. It is typical of many cases wherein welding has
FIGURE 9
Door Systems for -5
not only simplified and improved bridge deck designs teeth. The slight side taper of %" in the length of the
b ~ i thas also reduced the cost of the installation to tooth adds to the clearance as the teeth are pulled apart.
corlsiderahly less than half the estimated cost of con- The 18" length of i w i h is dctwmined by adding 1"
vrntional type of segmental cast steel fingered joints. ciearancr at extremc expansion movements, plus a
The joint as shown provides for 16" of movement minimum lap of I" whcn the bridge is fully contracted
computed at the rate of 1%'' per 100' for the 1200' to the 16" of required movement.
length of stnicturc. The treth are spaced on 4" centers. This spacing
The joint (Fig. 9 ) is made in two halves, each half is as small as practical in order to distribnte the loads
being symmetrical by rotating 1180" with respect to the from the roadway sm-fitce over as many treth as pos-
other half. Thc joint integral with the curbs, extends sible. It is also desirable in ordcr to avoid having large
the full width of the 24' roadway in one piece. This l~olesbetween the teeth when the joint is open. The
FIGURE 1 1
teeth and is assumed to be applied on a contact area bars in the slab for continuity, and the end of the con-
3" long, centered I.'?" from the end of the teeth. While crete casts into the pocket formed by the surface plate
in this extreme position, the teeth on only one side and the 7" x 4" x %" angle.
of the joint support the entire load. On this basis the The vertical leg of the 7" x 4" angle is flame cut
depth of the web, the thickness of the plates, and other to fit the curve of the roadway crown before welding
proportions are determined to support these load re- to the 1" plate. This helps to hold the joint in proper
quirements. shape. The ribs are all held together at the bottom by
The unusually long cantilevered projection of the welding to the 5" x %" continuous plate bolted to the
teeth is reduced by snppolting the teeth directly on an anxiliary cross beam.
auxiliary end cross beam. The cross beams in turn are The entire joint should be assembled in the shop
supported from the end flwr beams at 10'-3" intervals with the cross brams :uid the field holes drilled to
by means of cantilevered stringer brackets. The floor insure a proper fit in the field.
beams span 35' center-to-center of busses, and the Field erection consists simply of setting the bridge
trusses are supported on expansion rocker or roller shoes the proper distances apart, shimming the end
bridge shoes. cross beams to proper grade, and a final adjustment of
The strength of the tecth in this case is obtained the jacking bolts and the bolts to the cross beams. The
by continuor~slygroove or fillet welding 5" x 'h" x 1'- concrete slab is then cast up to the joint around the
8%" vertical web plate ribs to the underside of each anchors and cured, and the joint is ready for traffic.
tooth, as shown in Figure 11. Thc rear ends of these One complete 24' joint as shown in Figure 9
ribs are anchored for uplift by groove welding to the weighs 6250 lhs. This compares to an estimated weight
back of the 7" x 4" x %" slab closure angle. This angle of 8500 lbs for a conventional cast stecl fingered joint.
is continuously welded to the I" surface plate, and This comparison indicates that the welded detail
serves also as a latesai distribution beam between the accomplishes a saving in metal weight of 26%, in addi-
plate anchors. tion to rpplacing expensive cast steel metal with rolled
Plate anchors composed of 5' x %" x 1'3" web structural material. The relative cost of rolled metal
plates are welded to the rear of the joint opposite the is much less per pound.
web of every fourth taoth. These plates are spaced at
16" centers, and each plate engages two Y4" jacking
bolts to the flange of the floor beam. These bolts serve A very important type of floor construction is the ortho-
both as erection bolts for setting the joint to elevation tropic deck, in which all elements of the structure work
and grade, and as anchor bolts to hold down the rear together. Having principal application in the bridge
of the joint against uplift caused by traffic. The plate field, orthotropic constn~ction will be covered separ-
anchors lap with the main longitudinal reinforcement ately in the following Section 4.11.
1. THE ORTHOTROPlC DESIGN CONCEPT properties: hending resistance about the x-x axis (trans-
verse to the length of the bridge), bending resistance
There is a growing interest in this country in the use about the y-y axis (parallcl to the bridge), and torsional
of orthotropic bridge design and construction, a system rcsisiance about the y-y axis. A corrcentrated load
now commonly used in Europe. placed upon the deck plate is distributed over a wide
With conventional bridge structures, the three main area to several adjacent floor beams. The longitudir~al
elc?ments-longitiidinal main girders, transverse floor stiffeners below this load act as beams on elastic sup-
beam, and lighter longitudinal stringers or stiffeners- ports. With increasing load, the rather fiexible deck
all act indeperldently of each other. Usually an 8" and stiffeners spread the load over a greater area. This
thick concrete floor distributes the applied loads; see action has been confirmed by many tests on modcls as
Figure 1(A). well as actual bridges.
In contrast, a11 elements of the orthotropic structure In the tests of the model of one bridge, the computed
work together; see Figure 1(B). This new system uses test load corresponding to maximum allowable design
a thin steel deck plate across the entire width and stress was 2.06 tons. The computed ultimate load was
length of the bridge, and this serves as the top flange 5.6 tons. During testing, measurements indicated there
plate of the (1)longitudinal main girders, (2) transverse was perfect dastic behavior up to an actual load of
floor beams, and (3) lighter longitudinal stiffcners. The 4.1 tons. When loaded above the dastic limit, there
deck plate also contributes to the torsional resistance was no rapid and unrestrained increase in deflection
of the stiffeners when it forms a closed section. as is customary in the usual bending of beams; rather
I-Iaving a common top fiange member, all three ele- the deflections increased linearly just a little faster
ments act and load up together in the most efficient than the applied load. At a load of 48 tons, a crack
manner. The steel deck plate is topped with a light started to appear in the stiffener region, and at 56
1%"thick asphalt wearing surface for complete elimina- tons this had spread over the entire depth of the
tion of the heavy concrete floor. stiffener. This test hldicated an apparent factor of
The combined orthotropic deck st~uctureacts as a safety of 27 to 1.
single plate or membrane with three separate sectional With optimum use of welding, orthotropic construc-
/ $ " a ~ p h a i tsurface
Conventiono I1 Brldyr
,-.
'Noor beam
FIGURE 1
tion rt-sults in the bridge superstruclur? ns~inillyweigh- ~ ~ s s o r hthe
l e sections (or anion~aticdobvnhand wilding
ing only half as rnrrch as woi~ldrmrlt froin any other and rnodrrn fabricating methods. Sincc riumi~rorssidm-
design system. This weight :a\,ing is such a tremenclorrs tical dwk sections are rrquinrd, they may ix. set up in
advwtagr on lorig span bridges, that ortliotropic de- ;i jig and autorn:~tirnlly suhmrrged-:trc w e l d d with
sig:r is rapidly replacing truss dcssign on a11 European ~nir~imr~in time and cost.
bridgt.s having spans of 100' or more, and shoiild do
thc same in this coiintry. . JOINING LONGITU lNAL STIFFENERS TO
AISC hns piiidishcd ail cxccllcnt design i~xirrunloil ECK PLATE
"Orthotropic S t r d Plate Deck Bridges" by Roman
Wolcliirk (1963). It contains thcory, methods of design, In Er~mpean orthotropic hridgt- design, longitudinal
and sr~ggcstcddetails of orthotropic bridges. stiflcners :ire cominonl!. of trixprzoidal cmss-scction for
This typo of hridge design ivor~ldbe impractic;il torsional rigidity. .4mwican &%signinterest appears to
without the i.xtensive usc of welding. The miles of favor this approach; sre Figure 2. -4ltho11gh riot too
welded joints afford a good opportimity to sub- clear on the slwtrh of the Port hlann bridge, the edge
interrupted
Mannheim-Ludwigshafen
Continuous
1 Wesei Porta
floor beam
rib
Port Monn
-
floor beam - 1 I
L6%'4
Web of 4"
floor beom. 11 Poplar Street
They considered
both interrupted
AiSC Standard (initial] St. Louis and continuous
I (Feb 1960) (proposed) trapezoidal ribs
FIGURE 3
ca FIGURE 4
l'hv &sign Manniil fur Orthotropic Sttel Plate
of the stiffener was cut square without any bevel. It I h c k liridgcs innlti~licsthis torsional rc~sistairce ( R )
was shown in tests by the f~lbricntorthat a single pass by a rcdnction factor ( p ) which lias Ivwr dciermincd
madi. with the aut.om;itic srihrrrerged-arc wclder would hy trsting of varims shapes of stiffcm:rs. %is factor
prodilce a sound weld with tbroat grmter than stsener is afFcctrd by the shape. of thc stiffcncr.
thickness; see Figure 3. Stiffcncrs can readily fomreri to the trqwmidal
shape oil a prcss hr;rke. Recmse of the torrnagc re-
The torsional resistance of any closed tubular (psired, it might hc more eco~iomical to pnrchase a
section, as indicated by Figure 4, is: spt.ciai irrill-rolled srvtion for the stiii'cnms; see Figure
5. T h ~ nthc outer portions of tlw platr w-kith which
become webs of the lmilt-np trapmoid scction are
rollcd thiimcr, m d tlic ccntral portion is left thicker
for tho lowrr fiangc,. This places the inatcrial where
required: f o r t h r(.ducing the bridge uvight and ton-
nage of stccl required. The plate conld bc rollcd to the
where: final trapeztrid section, thiis ciiminating the braking
[A] = area encloscd hy the: trapczoid operntion Imigths of this scction would nest and
tg =
t,
bR=
- thickness of deck plate
thickness of stiffrwcr
width of deck p!:ite within region of stiffcner
preseiit no problem in shipping.
Another rt+hment \vould bc to pnwicie slightly
greater tliickness at web cxtreniities so as to give more
hearing against the deck plate and greater throat to
b, = umlevoloped width of stiffener the connecting weld.
FIGURE 5
Back~ngbar,
Y
Z 9r40ve welds
Two splices every /5'
FIGURE 6
v2 s deck
l S e p e ~on E
FIGURE 8
4.1 1-6 / Girder-Related
Deck R + stiffemer v
serving es the top Deck E stiffener
+
FIGURE 12
I
L -----------------A
Deck @ in thsion ;bottom
Moment diaqram
--
FIGURE 13
of the stiffrner. This hole can he filled later by- welding, to the shrin1r;lgc of the welds; see Figlire 14.
or by tapping it and screwing a pipe plug into it. To find the prnpcrties of this section, seiect refer-
ence axis ( x - x ) along ~ ~ n t l t r ~ ~sill-face
c a t h of deck plate.
. WELDOR QUALIFICATION This is almost through tlrc ciwtcr of gravity of the 2
welds, and tlw resr~ltingdistance to the ncritrxl nsis
In addition to the standard .4\1'S u d d o r qualification ( n ) will also hc the disiancc I~etwern the neutral
test, it would he well for those men assigned to field axis aim1 the ccnter of gravity of wt.lds ( d ) .
weld the stiffeners to &st weld a test joint of this splice
in position. This can be givcn a visnal inspection,
including sawing of the joint at one or more points and
etching to determine if proper fusion was obtained. It (-3.5.412)2
might bo well to consider weldors who have had some = (279.87) -- - (Proin Table A )
( a 7 9j
experience in pipe welding.
I Problem 1 I
An orthotropic deck is to be fabricated in units 104"
wide containing 4 trnPoidal stifleners cach 13" wide
and on 11" centers. The stiffeners are weldcd to the
3 n
/8 deck plate along their edges. If these nnits are 30'
long, cstimate the amount of bending or camber due - -2.19" also = d
Orthotropic Bridge Decks / 4.1 1-
-L--
N e u t r a l oxis
% (%") ('L") = 1 / 2 4
FIGURE 14
TABLE A
/ Problem 2 1 FIGURE 16
k t r t i i i I I I n I t .\lami bridge
in British Cohirnhia coiisists of tr;n,c;.oiclal stillpni:rs 11 m ~ Iw
i d ~ n v t~l ~i a tIlic f(1l111wi11g
is trii~.:
with r o 1 1 1 1 bottoins spac(d OII 2-1" cpntcrs and
n-eldtd to u 'r" to dcck plat<,. Tl~cs(.dtrck se<,tir~ns h 2 t r H
artx shop \wldisd illto p;ii~ris; ~ l ~ o r65'
i t \\-id,. th<s M-idth
of tlrt~hridgr in bi,t\v<x~~i
tlii. maill Iorigiti~di~~;il girders, dl
and 25' Itmg: as sliown in Fignrc 15. 1:stimate tint
2 \il,~' 11
ainoirnt of htwiing or c;nribt~dnc to tht: sIirii,k;igc of lg ~ t r t [ O ; I z s i ~ t ? ~
8
the welds. k t n t r 0 1 riiiity )
irder-Related Design
TABLE B
In this example:
= (323.35) (-38'76)2
- - - (From Table B )
(19.27)
0 = 72.45" or 1.263 radians
.
bentling or camber
A = .: 0 0 5 A d U
~
-1
L = 25' = 30G"
1. PLATE PREPARATION
ing hc;rils usrx~llyfit thc flanges to the web ; ~ n dthen
Flange plates may be ordered as bars rolled to the cornplcte thc fillct wrlc1ii1g.
proper width and thickness. No further prepamtion is Platc gii-dcrs may be fitted a ~ assembled
d by one
rcquired excppt cntting to proper length and beveling of the follo~vingpl-occdures:
the ends for thc butt joint. First, one flange is laid fiat on the floor. A chalk
Some fabricators will flame cut the flange plates Un,: is markcd along tlrc wrrtrrlinc of the flangc and
from wide plates; Fignre 1. Since there is some shrink- srndl right-angle clips tack weldt~iat intervals along
;tqe due to the &%mecntting opwation, the flalrge will the Inngth of the flangc w a r this ceutcrline. See Fignrc
have a swoep or bend if it i? cut along just one side. 2. Next, thc web is plaetd vertically on the flange and
For this reason the flange is rnadc by cutting alorrg temporarily siipportd with :~ngl<isor bars tack welded
both sides, usually with a cutting unit having mnultiple hctwccn the web and the Range. The clips along the
torches which are cut at thc same time. flange align the wcb along the ccnterline of the flangt:.
For girders with a horizontal curve, the flange Thc top flange plate may then ba placed on top of the
plates arc flame cut to the proper cnrve. wel). This rncthod may bi: nsed for straight girders if
thry are not too d e e p
2. FIT-UP A N D ASSE Thc plat(: girdcr r~iay be assembled hy placing
the wcb down on a fixtrirc in the ho~izonralposition:
Fabricators having fnll-automatic, submerged-arc weld- Figure 3. The fiangr platcs art p t in position and some
.?2-2 / Cirder-
FIGURE 3
FIGURE 4
FIGURE 6
FIGURE 8
FIGURE 9
4.12-4 / Girder-Related
apart before the stiffeners can be inserted between girder before welding the flanges to the web. This is
them. easily done since the unwelded flanges are flat (not
The following formula will holp in estimating distorted). With the girder weh in the horizontal posi-
the amount of angular distortion of the flanges: tion, the semi-automatic welders are used to make the
fillet welds between the flange and web as well as the
stiifenen in the same set-up.
The corners of t l ~ cstiffeners are snipped so that
the flange-to-web fillet weld may be continued in back
of the stiffeners. Quite often all of this welding is com-
pleted in a single pnnel area before moving to the next.
The girder is then turned over and the welding com-
/=oa?:Yo_/ FIGURE 10
pleted on the other side.
5. POSITION OF WELDING
TABLE A
The girder may he positioned with the web at an angle
betwoen 30" and 45" with the horizon, pcrnlitting the
welds to be deposited in the flat position. This position
is desirable, since it makes welding easier and slightly
faster. It also pelmits hctter control of bead shape and
the production of larger welds in a single pass when
See Table A for value of 1) necessary.
corresponding to actual leg For example, the Iargcst single-pass fillet weld
of weld (a). -- made in the horizontal position is about .X6''with a
,406
- --
,543
single wire, and %" with tandem arc; whereas in the
--
.... .~ flat position this single-pass weld may be about 3/4"
,688
. .-
.. u-ith either process.
1.000 For a 1/4" or Gr' fillet weld, the position in which
the weld is made, whether horizontal or flat, would not
AASHO bridge specifications (2.10.32) state that make mnch difference.
these stiffeners shall fit sufficiently tight after painting If a %'' or ''%1 fillet weld is required, the fabri-
that they will exclude water. In addition, no attach- cator has several choices.
ments should be welded to the tension flange if it is If the girder may be positioned with the web
stressed ahove 73% of the allowable. vertical, this will allow both welds on the same flange
Some interpret the AASHO specikation to mean to be completed without moving the girder. See Figure
a force fit; this is costly and not necessary. The follow- l l ( a ) . If the fabricator has two welding heads, these
ing procedure will comply with this: two welds may be made simultaneously, thus reducing
1. Use a loose stifEener so it may b e fitted easily. the overall welding time. However, this horizontal
2. Push this tight against the tension flange. position does limit the maximum size of the weld which
3. Weld this to the web of the girder. may be made in a single pass.
4. Weld this to the compression flangc. If the fabricator has a single-wire automatic head,
Some states have not been concerned with this he must make this fillet weld in two passes. If he has
tight fit and have cut the stiffeners short by about a tandem setup, this weld can be made in a single
1";these have been pushed tight against the compres- pass with less welding timr.
sion flange and welded to the web, If just a single By tilting the girder at an angle, either a single
stiffener is used, it is also welded to the compression wire or tandem heads can make this weld in a single
flange. The recent plate girder research at Lehigh pass; however, only one of the welds can be made
University found that the stiifenrrs do not have to be a t one time. See Figure i l ( b ) . I t would b e necessary
against the tension flange in order to develop the full to rotate the girder for each weld with increased
capacity of the girder. The new AlSC specifications handling time.
follow this in allowing transverse inte~mcdiate stiff- A fabricating shop with two automatic welding
eners to be cut sl~ortat the tension flange by a distance heads can make two fillct welds on the girder simul-
equal to 4 times the web thickness. taneously. To do this, the shop must decide between
Fabricators having scmi-automatic welding equip- two method^ of positioning the girder; Figure 12.
ment sometimes insert the transverse stiffeners into the It might be argued that method ( a ) should he used
(a)Two welds-multiple posr (b) O n e weld-single pars
FIGURE 12 Y- -Y
lbl
becausr tlw girder is in~ichmorr rigid about this axis plate on cadi flmgr, this shrinkage on top and bottom
(x-x) m d thrrcforr: would d d r c i less as a result of flimges of the beam will halnncc and ihe beam will not
the first two welds on tlir hottom Aarigc. distort. liowcvm-, if there is a cover plate on just the
However in method ( h ) tile weld is next to the bottom flange, the unbalanced shrinkage will cause
neutral axis (y-y) of the girder. Its distance to this the centcr of tlw beam to how upward; in other words,
axis is rnr~ch less than that in ( a ) , and therefore it it will increase thc camber of the beam.
would have very little hending efi'ect on the girder. The cauihr~ingthat resoits from this unbalanced
Since this is a thick ffange, therc may be concern welding can be estimated by the following formula:
about gcttiilg a large cnongh fillct weld to provide
enough welding licat for thc mass of flange plate.
Tlier:rcfore, it might also he argued that method ( a )
would provide douhle the amount of heat input on the
flange. where:
.4ctmlly then: should he little diffcrence between
these rncthods in the efFect of wcld shrinkage after A -: total cross-sectional area of welds, sq. in.
all of the welds have heen made
FIGURE 14
d = distrrnce from the center of gravity of welds beam should b e intem~ptedat the comer, if it is wider
to the neutral axis of the section, inches than the beam flange, as shown in Figure 15.
L = length of the beam, inches 9. SHOP WELDING VS H E L D WELDING
I = moment of inertia of the section,
It is practical to do as milch welding in the shop as
This may be more or less than the final desired possible and to makc only those weids in the field that
camber, Figure 14. If this camber due to welding is can't be made in the shop. The following two sections
excessive, the beam must be snpported in such a man- on the Field Welding of Buildings (Sect. 4.13) and of
ner that it tends to sag in the opposite direction before Bridges (Sect. 4.14) include some recomrnendaiions on
welding. If the camber due to welding is not enough, shop welding specific connection joints.
then the beam must sag in the same direction before
welding.
A good experienced shop man will support the Cover plate
1-
beam either near its ends or near its midpoint so as
to control the direction and extent to which the beam
bends before it is welded. Don't hook weld
round corner; will not
If the cover plate docs not extend to the full
hove full throat
width of bottom fiange, it must be welded with the
beam upside down, Figure 14(a). Supporting this beam
near its ends will increase the final camber, and sup- '~olled beam
porting the beam near its midpoint will decrease the
final camber. If the cover plate extends beyond the
bottom flange, it must be welded in this position and
just the opposite technique must b e used in supporting
it; Figure 14(b).
The fillet welds holding this cover plate to the FIGURE 15
Hardwood bloiks
FIGURE 2
. ERECTION HEL the. temporary seat angle of the coiornn. A tie bolt is
thert s c r m d on to hold the beam in proper alignment
Several methods of ieinporarily fastening these con- with the colrnnn. Next, the hcam is weldcd directly to
nrctions have heen used. Tack welding alone may br the colrmm, and any tcrnporary lugs then disconnccied
u~lsatisfactoryl~ecauseit does not malie :~llomvancefor and used over again.
plnn~hingthe hnilding before final welding. Saxe rrwtion clips, which arc w ~ l d ~todthe beam
Clamping the beams to the colnmn scat is not mds and the colrrmr~,have h c m ilsed with success;
ahvays safe, althmgh this hiis h w n itscd for "sito s w Figi1ri.s 3 and 4. Thcse rrnits mnsist of a forged
erection" of lighter strncttirrs; see Figure 2. steel clip and scat. The clip is shop wrldcd to the
The steel is ordered cut to length and delivered end of the bcnm, and tlit: scat is shop wrided at the
to the site of erection. Trmporary se;lt angles are p r o p a position on the column During erwtion; the
clamped onto the colutnrr at the proper position, and beam is placcd in position so tllat the clips drop down
a temporary lug clampc~lot~totlrr: top flange of thc into the sent. An adjnstnble clip has h e m devclopcd
btwn. The 11eam is hoisted into position and set npon to take care of possible poor fit-up between the beam
FIGURE 3 FIGURE 4
and t h cohimn.
It is rt~comniriidedthat th:. wor1;ing lo;id on any
onc s u t sho~rld not c m w l 10.000 11,s. i f n gcatcr
erection load is to h~ ciirriid. sucli iis a hoavy plat?
girder or truss, it is r ~ ~ c ~ ~ m r n ~that~ n i ltw-o
e d or mow
swts be used, side by sidc.
The use of a feu. wcction l~oltslras 11cm found
to br a satisfactory incoris of trrirlior;irily fastening
b ~ f o r e\wldirig. fiolting n u y br: donr dire<:tly to main
inc~~il~ei-s. It is I t s rostly to plmclr sinall attaclnnents
for erection holts than to niovc hcavy main mr'ml~crs
into the putich sliop for plriiching. Many tinios; holcs
;irv llatnc ciit iri thc ends of lisams for r:rt:ction bolts.
In Figure 5 ( a ) , a sm:rll ronnt.ction plate is shop
wel<lc:d to the bottom beam llnng~,at ill<, end. A scat
is also shop \vddvd to tlic column fl;rngc. at the p n q w
height. Illiring zrcctiorr, thc !xwrt is plact:d upon the.
scat and two crcctiori holts nw rised to hold them i n
place.
III Figure 5 ( h j , thc I is conriectcd to the
colnrnn \ v & A scat angir is shop w c l d ~ Ito the imiclc
laces of thc column Aangcs and/or to the c * h n n wcb.
-4 flat is shop ~ M e atd the orrd of thc lo\ver bcam
flangr; sec Figurc 5 ( c ) . I h r i n g crcction, thc )warn is
held in place by tu.0 erection holts. All pnnchirig has
licen done on small attaching plates or angles. No
puitc,hing tias hem noccssnry on thc hcavy In,a 'n mctn-
tiers. 4ny of several methods may bc used to tic in the
top Loam Aangc.
I'igurc 5 ( d ) ilidicatrs that \vhm thc 1,rarn flangr
is too wide for ty:isy access to Iiolts iipplicd as at Figlrrr
j ( c ) , t h t ~anglc \velded b e h w w ~the colmnn llanges
may lrc revwsed. Isi t!tis castx, another angle of smne
size is welded to thc underside of the lower hcam FIGURE 6
hrmn cnd into pmprr ulignrnmt with the connection.
I-iowevt!r, \vith tlit. :iccurxy of placing the welding
stilds arid laying oril t l ~ ccorrrsponding slottcd Iiolcs so
;is to allow for sonrc horiz~~ntal ;tdjirstmcmt. tl~crt,should 'I'he a-oss-s~~cti~~i?:iI
arm of tbc wcld may 11e corn-
lic. little diificolty. p i t d by hreaki~rg it (lo\r-rr into st;~r~dard arms; that
is, rcctnnglrs for root opening. triariglt:~ for ilicludr~d
imglo of !~rsvt+l,arid par:il,olas for wold I-einforeenre~it.
i'lrlrnl~ingof a 11dili1rgrisrially stiirts amrrrd un rlevator This c:ilcdutio~i can he grmtly shortened hy making
shdt or srrvicr core. This is rrsoally centrally Iocatcd i ~ s cof starrtlard tal,lc giviiig thc wright oi weld mst:iI
;1nd has grt,atrr lirii~ii~g. The butt wtxlds of the hram for v:irious joints; risc T:~blc6 in Section 7.5. It is
; i d girdcr fl:iiigc,s to t h ~
supportirrg column \\,ill h a w only necessary to divid~:t h ~ wvalues by 3.4 to arrive
sonr~.Iralisvrrsr siiriokirgr. It is ~ ~ ~ ~ c c s sthat
; i r y this ;it the arca of the weld. This \dire is then placed into
shrii1k;ige be mti~n;it(dand t h ~ ,joint o p m r d r ~ pb y one of the above For~n~ilas for shrinkage.
this amount bnfor~,\w,l(iing. Otherwis(>,this shrinkage
will accunir~liitc~:dong the lcrlgth or width of the
buildii~ga n d hiiild up to a sizal~k;mount. Sce Figuw "1. I Problem 1 I
.A good r,stim:~te01' this transwrsc shrinkage is-
To dctrrmin~~ thr shrinkage dFccts in making the welds
indicat~din Figilre 0. The ginlrr with a 1%" flange
is to be \veld(d to :I colrirnn. The joint has a 'h" root
olwning, an included angle of 45", and uses a backing
bar.
From Table 6 in Scction 7.5, the weight of weld
metal is 5.93 lbs/ft. m d has an are;? of-
whcrc:
A, -c cross-scction;il area of weld
Beam or girder
FIGURE 9
.I34 / Girder-Related
FIGURE 10 FIGURE 11
The transverse shrinkage is- would be opened up an cxtra '/a" on rach rnd of the
girder so that the distance Letwecn the faces of the
two n)lnmns is ?%" greater thiin the detail calls for.
After w-c,lding. tllc two joints shonld shrink snificient
to tiring the two columns back to the, dcsircd spacing.
This shrinki~gccoiild he checked after w-elding and this
Using 'A'' fillet wclds on the w& will result in v a h c adjnstcd.
vcry littlc transverse shrinkage. The average width of a
'/4" fillet weld is ?'V, and 10% of this is .012" or about
10% of the shrinkage of the flange h t t welds.
In this example, thr joint of the girder Wangcs Thr box coh~mnsin thc building shown in Figure
FIGURE 12
FIGURE 13 FIGURE 14
10, wcr? fai~ricatrdb y \wlding togt.ihcr four ailglcs. -4 plate was placcd between the top bsam flangcs
After they werc cn.ctcd; 21 short :niglc, scction was and tlir giudnr. Thc top Hangcs of tlir 1)cams w t w hntt
rrmovrd and a iong srciioii oE tlw girtltr- was slippic! groovc wclclc~Iiogr~ther,nsing the plate as a hacking
into position within the colnmr~.Later the anglc swtion strap. The plirtc was then fillct welded to thc heum
was put back. Bangcs. A long cover plate \rm them vdrird h, ilic 1)c~im
Thr ends of the hcams were coped back so they 8angi:s l o tnkc care of the incrcnsed negatiue inonimlt
coirid b(5 slippcd into plaw with their top Aangc rwi- of the. b w m at this support point. 1V1)ticcthat this t y y .
ing on thc top flangr of the girdcrs; Fignre 11. 4 short of w i ~ l d ~connection
l rn;ilir,s the 11t.am contin~ious,
seat angle shop wclded io the girder web supporicd t h m r l ~ yrrclncii~gits rcqnircd size. At the same time, it
t h r lower hcarn fi;~nge.This r(~srr1tcd in a very fast cloos no: tie the top ilangcs of the ),earn to the girder,
crectiot~ proccdurr without the rise of crection bolls. which rniglit pridncc some l~iasialstressrs. All of the
Latcr the hottom beam Bang<. was field w c l d d to the ficld w ~ l d i n gsho\vn lrerc was done in thr flat position,
girder web, wing the seat angle as $1backing strap. groatfy specding lip the crtbction \velding.
FIGURE 15
4.13-8 / Girder-Related Design
FIGURE 16
Welding is iised quite extensively on rigid frames. ;rssemhlrd on the groin~d,E'igort 15. The scctions wcre
Figure 12 shows the sliop fabrication a r ~ dwclding of Inid out on wood blocks and jacked u p to proper posi-
sectior~sof a large rigid fi-amc. For small structures, the tion arid cliccked with n transit. The field joints were
entire frame is fabricated and erected in one piwe. tlicn mcl~icd.T h e crawler crmcs picked tlie elitire
For larger strtictures, the frame may be divided frame np and pl;ictd it in j~osition. Some of the Elcld
into two or more sections and assemhlcd at the job site welding which was in:rcccssihl(~wherr on the ground,
and eroctcd. Figun:s 13 and 14 show the construction such as the back side of tlie web lxitt joint, was com-
of a rigid-frame freight ttmninal area, and the upright pleted in the air.
portions of the framc hcing ~infoadedfrom the railcar
and hoisted into position by thc rail crane. Later tlie 4. WELDING OF JOISTS AND FLOORlNG
central portions of the arch were put into position.
Welding macliincs, also on flat cars, were brought in Welding is used univrrsally in tlrc attschmcnt of open-
and the field joints welded. vr& joist to heams. This becomes a simple matter of
Frames for tile Long Beach Ihrhor Sired were laying the joist on the heam at the proper place and
l;rtcr wclding in thc flat position. A considerable amount
oi light-gai~gt,stecl roof dt&ing is used on top of joists
or beams. This is easily and qnickly attached by means
of wddirig in thr flat position. The use of both open-
web joist a i d sterl decking is shown in Figure 16.
Flotx dccking of bravier gauge has been used as
:I support for any of several iloor materials. Welding is
used in the flat positio~l to fasten this steel deck to
Imams of the steel strrlctorr. Many timcs this deck is
designed to take the horizontal forces on the structure
caused by wind or t:arthquakr.
5 . WELDOR PLATFORMS
FIGURE 19
FIGURE 18
Semi-automatic welding, using self-
shieiding cored electrode, being
employed i n making beam-to-
column connections on Wilshire-
Ardmore Building in 10s Angeles.
EB AT SPLICE
FIG.8 Weld clip along one edge only, so it may be removed eosily with o
hammer. Drive steel wedge below clip until piare edges are in alignment.
(a) Plates forced into alignment and held there by means of strongbocks.
Pressure is opplied by means oC wedge driven between yoke and strongback.
(b) For heavier plates, pressure may be applied by means of bolts tempo-
rarily welded to the plate. Strongback is then pulled tightly against the plote.
bar or strongback is pulled up against the misaligned
plates by driving steel. wedges between the bar and
attached yokes. An alternate method (lower sketch)
involves the welding of bolts to the misaligned plate
;ind then drawing the plate up against the strongback
by tightening u p on the bolts.
4. RUN-OFF +A S OR EXTENSION
FIGURE l l
Steel sulky seat aids weldors on
bridge construction. Float a t left
lacks stability in windy weather,
while sulky a t right enables oper-
ator to sit comfartably and safely.
s 2 4 d
d 2 t* + < 2% tw
Spacing and Sire of SIof
L s 10 t,
w 2 t* + X8" 5 2% t,
s,24w
ST, 2 2 L
r 2 t*
4. PARTIAL-PENETRATION GROOVE
Partial-penetmtion groove welds are allowed in the Tension applied transverse to the weld's axis, or
building field. They have many applications; for ex- shear in any direct~on,has a reduced allowable stress,
ample, field splices of cohimns, br~ilt-upbox sections e q d to that for the throat of a corresponding fillet
for trnss chords, etc. weld.
For the V, J or U grooves made by manual welding, Jnst as fillet wolds have a minimnm size for thick
and all joints made by snhmcrged-arc welding, it is plates because of fast cooling and greater restraint, so
assirn~ctlthe hottom of the joint can he rcached rasily. partial-penetration groove welds have a mininium cffec-
So. thc effective throat of the weld ( t , ) is equal to the tive throat ( t , ) which should be used -
;ictlinI throat of the prepared groove ( t ) . See Figure
13. t, >
=
If a hevcl groove is tvclded manually, it is assumed
that the wcldor may not ( p i t r reach the bottom of the where:
groove. Thcrefore, AWS and AISC deduct 36" from the t, = thickness of thinner plate
p r c p r c d groove. IIere the effective throat ( t , ) will
q ~ a the l throat of the groove ( t ) minus %". See
Figure 1 3 ( a ) .
a. Primary welds transmit the entire load at the
particular point where they are located. If the weld
fails, the member fails. The weld must have the same
property as the member at this point. In brief, the
weld becomes the member at this point.
b. Secondary welds simply hold the parts to-
gether, thus forming the member. In most cases, the
forces on these welds are low.
c. Parallel welds have forces applied parallel to
their axis. In the ,case of fillet welds, the throat is
stressed only in shear. For an cqnal-legged fillet, the
maximum shear stress occurs on the 45" throat.
d. Transverse welds ]lave forces applied trans-
(a) Single bevel joint (b) Single J joint versely or at right angles to their axis. In the casc of
fillet welds, the throat is strcssed both in shear and
FIGURE 13 in tcl~sionor comprrwion. For an wpal-lcggcd fillet
Tension applied parallcl to the weld's nsis, or com- weld, the m;iximum shear stress occurs on the 67'h"
pression in any direction, has the same allowable stress throat, and the masin~umnormal stress ocmrs on the
as the plate. 22%" throat.
Flexible connedlon
No i e i t i o l n t , R = 0
Moment diogrnrn
-
(3
Poitiol reitroint
Moment diogiam
.-
Moment diogiam
FIGURE i
I,<, <~q~l:ll,
01- hl :: I < , : I'Y I>, This \ ~ l I ~ i l~)ro(lli?<!
~ il the
1r;ist rcqnircrnciit for swliim n ~ o d d ~ r being
s, ' 2 of that
1
n w d e d for the origir~alsinipl!; siipported beam. This
is true, b u t tlris i d c d c o d i t i o n d c p n d s on two
rt~quircmcnts:
1. l'lic supports to which tlic corinection joius tlie
bra111 rnrist be iii~)-i(~lditig. i.c, ahsolutcly rigid.
2. Tlie beam must not lie ii~il~icliccd by adj;icent
earn-fa-Column Connections / 5.1-3
5. PLASTIC-DESIGN CONNECTIONS
FIGURE 2
\vhii.Ii is ; i p p l i d to tlii c.mlr~i.ction.T h e liori2o11t:il axis coinpicti,ly rcstl-ai11r4 (0,. -- 0 ) , in othcr words ;i
:is simply s ~ i p l x ~ t d
T o p plat<, #? 11;is t l ~ i siirnt, , tl~ickncss,hiit !;as
;I ii" \vidtIi t l ~ r o ~ r g l ~its o ~Icrrgth.
~t f t has dol~l)lethe
o-oss-sectioi1:11 :~rt.;i. A,, :1 1.88 in.' .4s i , r p r c i d , it is
twici. :is rigid, It sl~r~irld rr~acltyic,ld at ; i l l o ~ ~h2t 1110
I-kip I I is t M = 1000 in.-kip. The
rc3str;iint is :illoilt R := TiS';. Yotic? if tlie 11c;u11h i d bmm
Ii -
s c c t ~ >the
'
c l e s i p r d fill- n rnon~i.nt of ; - 5Y L, i.c. :I ri>sti.;rint of
100% thc ~ ~ I I I I I W ~ ~ O IcIn' Ss w \?oiild !MW inter-
d 11w1mI i w 1) illst shml of t11c R = 505 v a l ~ ~ ~ .
'l'lit~c\votild tlri.11 1w ;I slight m ~ ~ s t r -of i ~the
s bema at
Simply supported beam
' designed for R = 0
ct~i~tc~-Iin(,.
Top platr, %:3 is "d' tliid< ~ I I 7W' I ~ i\,ide, h:ivirig
a cross-swtioi~dXI-ixnof 1,, =: (5.56irr.' This grmtei-
asva p~-odiii.<*s ;i nloi-c rigid c m ~ i ~ r c t i owith n greater
ri.str;iint. I ~ c t Ii I ~ I I (solid) s h o ~ s
slightly more f i i i t tliali tlrir c a l c ~ ~ l a t c dc o r w
(clotted). The m t r a llr\\:ibility probat~ly conies fro111
sonic r n ~ ~ w i i i ct~~i ~tii:, i t Itj\vcr portion of thc cinii~cction
which has ~ ~ 1 short st p ; ~ a l l i , l fillct \velds joining tht:
lower i i m g e of tile lmirn to t l ~ cscxt. A butt wrld
Fixed end heom
pl;icrd d i r i d y :I~I-ossthc ciid of this lowtrr fialigc to
designed for R = 100%
the colnirur. i~ndoobtcdlywoiilci lwing the rigidity of
t!ic coii~ic~ciion c u r w u p alii~ost t ( ~t h t of the caloi-
FIGURE 3 lated curve.
elded-Connection Design
.-
A,: .34IN a
FIGURE 4
.W1
y#:*
.#04
BEnM FOR
.OOb
8
ROT4TION (6$,RADIANS
FIGURE 8
elded-Connection Design
FIGURE 19
The stiffcning of the latter connc:ction is mainly ~ n a l y s i sof this plate by incans of yield line theory
dependent on thc thickness of the stem of the Tee leads to the, ultimate capacity of this plate being-
stiffener, tlie Ranges of the colnmn being too Ear away
to offer much resistance.
The column wcb is ably assisted in preventing
rotation at the connection by the flanges of the split- where:
beam Tee stiffeners.
P, = 3.5 u, t,'
The force carried by the central rigid portion of
thc column in linc with the web is-
ekded-Connection Design
In Fig111-e12, a shopwcldetl seat provides support Tl~is:illows t11e beam to slip easily into place during
fol- tllc dcad load oT the b ~ ; n n .The 1re:rm is lit~ldi l l wcction. O11e typo of S:ise (,lip is adjnstaldc aild allows
place hy inwns of erection holts tlrrm~ght l ~ rlmttoirr ;r movement of :i<e" as w-t:lI as sorniz rotation.
flangc. (,'onsider the use of \ \ ~ l d c dstuds on mtin members
In Figure 1:3, a slrop-\icldrd plate on the columii in plat(: of erection holts; this will eliminate thc pouch-
provides temporary support Tor thc be;irn. Erwtion holts ing of main members. These 1m.e alrmdy been ac-
i:eptcd in the br~ildingand bridge fielcls for me as shear
attachments, and an increasing nrilnber of fabricating
shops have this eqniprnent. Sce Fignres 15, 16 and 17.
FIGURE 13
FIGURE 14
FIGURE 17 FIGURE 18
FIGURE 2
R
...........
itv (N + K T == (AlSC
not over .75 rr, psi
See 1.10.10) ......(lj
NOMOGRAPH NO. 2
Flexible Seat Angles /
I' : 1 - K 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (12)
also:
FIGURE 6 P = '"L (fb) ( % Li)
omneetion Design
n~..
I VERTICAL LEG LENGTH OF SEAT ANGLE (Lr)
FIGURE 8
1
as much 2s: 1.98" before failul-c, which is ahout 20 times Hook oround
W C o l u m n flange
FIGURE 10
I Problem 1 /
Design a ficrible seat angle to support a 12" WF 27#
heam, having an end rcwtiou of R = 30 kips. Use A36
FIGURE 9 steel, ETO welds.
le Seat Angles / 5.2-
I~:
1
(?4)
+- N
+
4.32'' or 4%"
(3.82)
min.
- - .~~
FIGURE 1 1
ihickncss of s e a t unglri
.- ,461 or rise
-~
V2"
-.
FIGURE 12
weld, would select thc 8" x 6" x 1" angle ( b ). He knows From Table 2, using et = 2.4"
that the cross-sectional area of a fillet weld, and there- a ) If L, = ti", R / o = 65.2
fore its wcighi, varies as the square of the leg size. He or leg size of fillet weld,
figures the ratio of the leg sizes for ( a ) and for ( h )
to he 8 to 5. This ratio squared produces 64 to 25, or 30
- 4 ~ or ' use W'
as far as he is concerned 2k times the amount of weld 65.2
metal. b ) If L, = 8", R / o = 107.0
or leg size of fillet weld,
From Table 1, K/b := 30/S = 3.75. Using ef = 2.4"
would give this value if t = I". (Here R/b = 4.22)
30
= ,280 or use
o .= -~,--
101.0
x6"
. ..
. .
(o aitm:li bulm m ma* (optiundi.
Nnnunol b e m snthach is 'LA'. AUownbir londa in Table VIII-A ue
&XI on 9,. x t b c k , r h i r l i pnvbdes for pssible miU u n d s m n b k m
S E C T I O N 5.3
ene e e
X = Ll, sin tp
FIGURE 1
PROBLFW FIND THICKNESJ Of ITIffENED SEA7 FOR THE FOLLObW6 CONDITNNS.
Lh'8.
e * 4.5-
B . 90'
REM t . v6
P ; 58 KIPS (EN0 REACWON)
/NCH (STIFFENER ISNCI(NE;S)
2. S OF STIFFENE
EB
If the bracket is made up of plates, AISC rccnrnmcnds
If tlie beam rests in line with the bracket stiffener, that thc wc4ds conncctiiig the top plate to the wcb of
Type B, Figure 3, the bearing length ( Y ) of tlie be;~m the stiffcnrr should lhave s t r e ~ ~ g tequivalent
h to tile
(AISC See 1.10.10) is- horizol~tal n&ls between thc bracket and the column
support.
The depth of the stiffener is determined by thc
vertical lcngth of w.&l (L,) retpired to connect the
bracket.
Thc lcilgth of the 1)rackct top plate (I,,,)s l i o ~ k hr
i
and this would he tlie miniriium valuc allowed.
sufficient for it to rxtcnd at loast beyond t l ~ chearing
Icmgth of the beam ( N ) .
The stiffened scat bracket is shop welilcd to the
siipporting m(.mbcr in the flat or downhand position.
IJsually the top portion of the bracket is welded on
the underside only, and tllc useb of tlic stiiiemr is
rvt:lded both sides, full Icngth. By placlng the weld
on the underside of the bracket, it docs not interfere
in any way with the beam which it supports.
Sorne rngineers do 11ot like the notch effect of this
fillet weld's root to be at the outer fiber of the con-
nection, and would prcfer to place this fillet wclcl on
top of tlie bracket; this can be done.
FIGURE 3
The eccentricity jc,) of the reaction load is- The folIo\ving method is uscd to detennine the leg size
of the connecting fillet weld ( w ) . For simplicity the
e, = L,,- -
length of the llorizo~italtop weld is assumed to be a
certain prrccntage of the vertical weld lcngth (I,,). The
top weld length is usoally less than the bracket width,
This value of load eccentricity (e,) can be quickly and the vrrtical weld Icngth is assuinttd equal to the
found by using Nomograph No. 1 (Fig. 4 in previous vertical length of the bracket.
Sect. 5.2). Sonictimrs it is figured as 80% of tho bracket's This analysis uses the value of 0.4 I., for the top
outstandirlg leg length (I,,,). weld as it is a more i m n n o ~ ~uscd
i y value, although any
The eccentrically loaded column forniula ( + I ) is reasonable value rniyiit be used, Figure 4.
seldom used in this case because it will result in an
excessively thick bracket web or stiffener. This is be-
catise the formula is based upon stress only and does
not take into consideration some yielding of the bracket
wliich will causc t11c point of application of the load
to shift in toward the support, this n:dncing the
moment arm arid t~endingstress.
AISC Maniml, page 4-39 recomnic~ids for A36
brnckct material that the bracket wcb's thichiess be at
least equal to 1.33 tinics the requii-ed fillet weld size
(E70 welds). Also it should not be lcss than the sup- 'hus it can b o shown &at:
ported beam web thickness for 47, A373 and A36 rwutrul oris of connecting t ~ e l d
beams, m d not less than 1.4 times the beam web thick-
ness for A242 and A441 beams.
For stiffcncd seats in line on oppositc sides of the
colnmn web, the fillet weld size should not esceed % of connerlzng weld
section 111odt~2t1.s
the column web thickness when determining its length S, = 0.6 LT2
(L). (top)
titfened Seat Brackets / 5.3-5
B = R.-- 13 = K
- - -
bending force on wcld 23.04 w 26.88 w
1 I
TABLE I-Fillet
B m c b t Width ~ 7 A373
, Steel K E60 Weldr A36 Sfeel K E70 Welds
ii = 0.4 L, &,
23.04 l',
fi.1-z W = - ~ \
26.88
/ ~ 1 6 . 0 e',
~ +
~- -~ ~ ~~ . - ~
r=Lm
~~ ~
~ ~~~
~~ ~
J ~ 2 ~ + ~ 4 . 0 6 ~ ~28.00
i? = 0.6 Lr
b = 0.7 1,
,.~-~
-~
I w
= .
=
24.96 L'r
R
- JL',
JL'-+
1 1 01 $ 2 ~ .
+ 12.57
-
c2, w
11.37~2~ W = . - R J ~ 2 v +
30.24
=
29.1
JLzv + 12.57 + ex6
i1.37+eP,
FIGURE 7
-
Komogral;hxo,5 :
read the required vertical length of the stiffener as- using
Lv -
- -
13" R 58 kips
= 3.37"
e,
~-xiCq for o = %"; read L, = 10"
Design a bracket to support a 2N', 65# I-beam with fi,r -- 3;o", read L, = 11"
an end reaction of 55 kips. The beam lies in line with
the brackct. Use A36 steel and E70 welds. Use tile qi/;O" fillrt \w111 wit11 a length of 11".
FIGURE 8
Stiffened Seat
ioed* in 'i'&ir
Aiiow;%ld<~ X iirr b i d iiu tile urr o f I!M)XX eintmdes. For I f the reaction values ola beam are not shorn on mnbrad draainm. the mn-
1170X'i ciiwLiinics. multi&y Labulri hndn i>y 1.16, o r enter the U ~ t i l ev i t i i M'?o
of iliv aivae rwrfion. Note Advrntagc, may & t r k e n a f t h e higher nUownhle umlt
dias of F:70XX rl.airodw onlv i f hih bracket md r u p ~ u r t i n grnemkwz am
&STM 3 6 . A242 or A441 m a k i r i .
1 1 1
'02. 235 ! 159. 191. 1223 Xi
~11. i 1s~~~~~~
1 6 0 i o i 1 2%
. 168
"insusb y=pal *jldl m*nr *-lh i i o r x r i r c
! 16. a rnlrihr ,mnio *,,a 86% os
//lb/l 0",1 wnmn rmrx u=no<rr rrc vsra
onnestion Design
Extensive use of modern structural techniques and welding processes speeded erection
of Detroit Bonk & Trust Co. Building. Stiffened seat bracket can be seen a t upper left.
Angle clip to facilitate field splicing of column lengths shows immediately above.
1. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS 2. ANALYSIS OF FIELD
FIGURE 1
FIGURE 2-Framing Angles and Size of Field Welds
For A36 Steel & E70 Weldr
NOMOGRAPH NO. 6
FIELD R
Leg o f Angle ( L i d
,. .~..
~~ ~ ~~~ ,~~~ ~. .~~ ~~~
4'. 4 3 1 30 / 22 1 I9 1 1 6 / I4 1 12
~~... ~ ..
.... .
"".) (2L,I<
~~ ~~~~~
or:
--
I
-
f - ~.Y
2LY2
Id
,
. 2 + 12.96 I,,,?
I -
R
--
I"
_
I A7, A373 %eel; E60 welds]
~
f~y-' +
19.2
-
~p~
L;'
12.96 L;,"IA72
.-
.~-
R
(,)
A36 Steel; E70 Welds
.-
. . 20.1 LV2
~~
,? 12.96 L,,'
.
I
(I?)
In Figure 3, analysis of the shop weld sho\vs- rcsultunt force on outer end of connecting weld
k
FIGURE 4 fk *
twisting (horizontal)
1- f 2 - . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4)
= actual forcc on melds
allowable force
~
~--
)
..
Steel A7
A36 A242, A441
A373
thickness
I
O w , 1%"
To 4"
Over
To , j/,"-
,
%" e r less
Then: Moximvrn leg size of fillet weld t o use in rolculoting veiticol length
k g size
* Web thickness i t u ) over -
Web Framing Angles / 5.4-5
5.4-6 / Welded-Connection Design
FIGURE 6
formulas into one workahlr formula. It is necessary t11 e q t d to or csi,ct~istl~is\ d r ~ cfor~ndjust opposite the
work out eai.11 step l~trtiltlw final restilt is ohtair~od. resulting lrr: sizc of the wi:ld.
The leg size of this shop w&i nray h r dctcrmined Somt: rnginwrs f i ~ this
l limiting shmr v;ilire (.406
quickly by rncans of Kornograph No. 7 (Fig. 5 ) , for stt.c.1, r L. 14,500 psi) is to ins~~i-I,that thc wcb of thr
436 stcrl mil Ii70 wclds. In thc c11;rrt on t l ~ right-hand
r hearrr d w s not bllckli., and that a higlrcr allowable
side, from thc point of iuterstctim of the anglc's h i - vdnr iniglrt 11e IISCYI hcrt., pcr11;ips 3/r of the allowable
zontal lrg length ( I ) and its vrrticnl length (L,) ttwsilc strength. In this rase thr ~n:rxim~imlcg sirc of
draw a l~orizontaliinc to thl, vrrtical x i s F-F. Fmm thr weld would he Ireld to ?/r of thc web thick~rcss.
ttlis point, draw ;I liiic through the reaction ( R ) to the
left-11:ind axis, Read ttlc leg size ( w ) of the shop wcld
along thp left-11;nnd svalc of this axis.
1w =: % t, 1 .......................... .(9)
I f the nomogr;iph is u s d f m n l~xft to right to I S C (Scc 1.17.5) sp.rifics the m a s i m ~ ~ kmg size
i,stahlish ;in arrglr six,. be sill-<.that the leg size of tbt. of fillct \wid rr1:itive to :rrrglc plate thickncss to be as
fillct wcld docs not cxcc~xla v;rloc which vould over- shown in Figtirc 6,
stress the web of t / ~ (hiwm
' in s11~:rr (AISC SCC1.17.5) l';rhlc 3 \\-ill give ~,;ill~cs
of R/w in trrms of leg size
by producing ~ I I Oshort a lorgtl~of connecting weld (I>,). of angle (L,,,) ; x r d lmgtli of :rngle (I,,). Table 3 is for
The follou.irrg limits apply to the fillet weld leg i t I S i t 3 6 stwl. and I T 0 w~.lds.
size ( w ) rclativc to thr thiclmess of the heam web (:IS
usr:d in c;ilctll:tti~rg tlw wrticnl length of connecting
weld ) : TABLE 3-Values of R/w
For Shop Weld of framing Angle T o Beom W e b
A7, A373 Steel and E60 Weld
For A 3 6 Steel & E70
/T -- 10.000 , x i ) ( f , = 9600 w Ihs/in.) R
.-. .
.
Reaction,
-
kips
.................
go Leg sire o i fillet weld
FIGURE 9
FIGURE 7
Tnbie 3 giws tlw I S C allowil~lelo:~ds (kips) on
n ~ f i hframing mglc conncctioris. rlsirig A%, r12.42 and
A141 s t t ~ l s; ~ n di-70 \n.t,lcls. T111, talilc givcs the capacity
;und sizc of (Shop) \'(,Id -4 coi~ncciingthe framing
To design ;i wch framing ;aiglc cnnrlrctioll to angle to the hcnm web. and of (Ficld) Weld I3 co11-
sl~pporta 70" 85,1 1 bcan~,Ira\-ing an rnd rt,action of neoting tlic framing arigle to the h a m slipport.
R = 58 kips. Use A36 steel uiid J+:X)u & k .
Sct: Figlire 8. pzL-q
Field Weld of Framing Angle t o Column To s?lcct a \wIi frmning ariglc roi?ncctioii for n
Nornograpli No. fi s l ~ o \ xthat ~ for a %" fillct wcld 16'' H 263 Ir;rm (0.75" \vrh tlrickiirss and T =: 11") of
( w ); a reaction j R ) of 58 kips and a11 mgle \uth a h3.41 stwl, \\-it11rmd rwciion of R :1 05 kips. Usc I 3 0
1c.g (I,,,) of 3". its lciigtli ( I J , ) si-lonld br 101,L". How- wcl~ls.Allowal~lcs h r x is 20 ksi.
ever, for a %i,i'' fillct weld ( w ) the angk l t ~ ~ g t(I,.)h This h<vnm \r-cii~ldt;lhr ;III anglr xvitb length I,, =:
violrid only li;tvc to be ir~creasedto 12". 10'' ( r 12" I n T;ililt. 1, the (Shop) \Trcld 4 ~ i p a c i t y
\ ' .
FIGURE 8
51.4-8 / Welded-Connection Design
B J07
T1 FRAMED BEAM CONNECTIONS FRAMED BEAM CONNECTIONS
Weid&;.. ( ,
1 ,MI,
- - hriir Llr" i
%
, ", ~ c ~ , . z
- -%,,
7>,, 2-7
16:'
St' i s
71,
!X
L?:
19:
LIB
i!8
1%
116
>,L iar :*?*-51: ?"
ih7 O,?X%,, is
li4 I*?> -r 39
)
!
I :00 4 ~ i r ; ~ x
ill
i!"
81 4
)., :,,
n 0
i., i;i
l,6
+IS
,:
12 I
3
$5 ;
1 x 3 ~ : ~ ~68
i*iXb~
lXlX*46
I
29
!d i irlr%+ dB
ir
>,,
bl b
t,' " 1YiX'I
3 ' . '9
,$ 0 . iR
il ; I*?*% 19
>>, I& i irix;i li
3 ' 5,: ! i > , ! ik t di
ii 6 1Xir; 1)
1" i :r 3 , )1
,"
>,...
a:
?
40 I
, A
i*!Y+
:
i*iX'i,
, 4'
39
?Y
:i 5 3 , !%
34 6 I<,<% !V
?d i A , 1"
! 0
"'
"7
a 7
.: 5
16 4
:a 6
1"
-
li 9
,&,,*,
'%*"-
Web Framing Angles / 5.4-9
== 10.2", or U.SC 11" l.~ic~o;illy, tmnsvcrw fillct welds arc: ;ibout ?$ stron-ei than
p;tr;iild fillet wclds; this can i>e pnn.ril by thmry as d l as
The leg size, of this fillrt weld rnrist hc t ~ p to d the twtiiig. 'This m a n s h,r trmsverst, h;rtis, tlri; 1i.g s i i c wodd bc
thickness, ~ , uporl
~ stanci:lrd
~ ~ ;lllcl,,.~t~,les,
d if it is 3 of tlw platr tliirkn<,ss, iiist ;is in l);ti;i!Ii,l luaiis. Iiowevcr,
~ , r I d i n gcodrs do not ;,s yct i-wognim tliir; :ind for code work,
to matrh the :~liowahirstrength of this web sectioii in ~ ~ for tr.ir,svcrsc io;,~is.jiri,,,id bc. ii,itrIi~ ccliiiil to ilic pl;itc
f i 1 1 rvl,~ds
shear as wcll as tcrrsion. tiiiclaiess.
Web Framing Angles / 5.4-11
FIGURE 17
eided-Construction Design
FIGURE 20
FIGURE 21
Fteld weld
shop weld
FIGURE 22
Web Framing Angles / 5.4-13
Web framing angles ore commonly shop welded to the supported beam. To facilitate
erection, bolts are used in joining the other member until the web framing angle con
be permanently welded to it. The erection bolts can be left in, or removed if there
is any concern that they will offer restraint. Note the use of box section column, in this
case it being hot rolled square structural tubing.
1. DESIGN PLATE TO BE STRESSED AT WELD The plate should be capable of plastically yielding
a distance equivalent to the movement of the end of
A top connecting plate if designed to be stressed at its the top beam flange as it rotates under load if the con-
yield will provide a flexible connection, suitable for a nection were to offer no restraining action (AISC See.
simple beam and easily adapted to carry the additional 1.15.4); see Figure 1. For a simply supported beam,
moment due to wind. uniformly loaded, this maximum movement ( e ) ~vo~ild
Since this flexibility is due to plastic yielding of be:
the plate, the portion of its length which is to yield
should be at least 1.2 times its width.
where:
b
e movement, in inches
p Beam =:
(length of beam)
which might act as stress risers and decrease the plate's
strength. Any widening of the plate for the connecting
FIGURE 1 welds must be done with a smooth transition in width.
( 2 loads@ % points
4 loods @ 1/, points
6 Uniformly distributed load
5
v6
5 loods @ points
3 loads @ % points
.4 1 load at Z
.3
.2
.I
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Length of rimply supported beom (L), feet
(orruming beam to be stressed to u = 20,000 at C )
FIGURE 2
elded-Connection Design
80
I I I I I I I I
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Elongation, % in 2"
-----
FIGURE 4
Top PIaies gar Simple Beams ind / 5.5-3
beam using the standard allowable bending stress. The ethod I. The wind connections, designed to re-
standard bending stress allowed here would be limited sist the assumed moments, are adequate to resist the
to u = .60 u,. (Type 2, simple framing). moments induced by the gravity loading and the wind
Just beyond the groove weld section, the plate is at the increased unit stresses allowable, or
reduced in width so that the same load will produce fhod 2. The wind connections, if welded and
a localized yield stress ( u 7 ) .The length of this reduced if design& to resist the assumed wind moments, are so
section should be at least 1.2 times its width to assure designed that larger moments induced by the gravity
ductile yielding. loading under the actual condition of restraint will be
This plate is attached to the beam flange by means relieved by deformation of the connection material
of a continuous fillet weld across the end and retum- without over-stress in the welds.
ing a sufficient distance on both sides of the plate to AISC Sec. 1.5.6 permits allowable stresses to be
develop the strength of the groove weld at standard increased % above the values provided in Sec 1.5.1
allowables: (steel), and 1.5.3 (welds), when produced by wind or
seismic loading acting alone or in combination with the
A7, A373 Steels; E60 Welds
-- ---- ~-
design dead and live loads, on condition that the re-
quired section computed on this basis is not less than
A36, A441 Sleek; E70 Weld
. . .( 2 ) that required for the design dead and live load and
-....- impact, if any, computed without the % stress increase,
nor less than that required by Sec. 1.7, (repeated Ioad-
ing) if it is applicable. Since we are discussing Type 2
IND BRACING construction (simple framing) the initial basic allow-
able stress is 60 u,, not .66 u?
Wind moments applied to simple beam c~nnections
present an additional problem. Some means to transfer
these wind moments must be provided in a connection
pz-tizq
which is designed to be Rexible. Any additional restraint The top plate (Fig. 6 ) is designed to carry the force
in the connection will increase the end moment result- resulting from the end moment caused by the combin-
ing from the gravity load. AISC Sec 1.2 provides for ation of the gravity and wind moments, and at a V3
two approximate solutions, referred to hereafter as increase in the standard stress allowable (or u = .80
Method 1 and Method 2. u,). This 4; increase may also be applied to. the con-
In tier buildings, designed in general as Type 2 necting welds (AISC See. 1.5.3, & 1.5.6). The fillet welds
construction, that is with beam-to-column connections connecting the lower Range of the beam to the seat
(other than wind connections) flexible, the distribution angle must be sufficient to transfer this same load.
of the wind moments between the several joints of the The top plate must have the ability to yield
frame may be made by a recognized empirical method plastically if overloaded (last paragraph of AISC Sec.
provided that either: 1.2).
FIGURE 5
F = MI (gravity)
rtandord allowabl d,
elded-Connection Design
M, (grovity)+M,(windl
Fillet weld at 1'/3
stondord allowabl
FIGURE 6
when loaded with F
In the alternate design of the top plate shown at cally to relieve larger moments induced by gravity
upper right in Figure 6, the reduced section ( W ) is loading, figuring the connecting welds at standard al-
designed for the force resulting from the end moment lowable~.*This is the same method for figuring the
caused by the combination of the gravity and wind connecting welds of top connecting plates for simply
moments at a 'h increase in the standard allowables. supported beams without wind loads.
It will reach yield at a 25% increase in load ( F ) . The The reduced section will reach yield stress (u,)
wider section at the groove weld (1% W ) will reach at a 25% increase in load ( F ) . The wider section at the
1%5- or .SO u, when the reduced section has reached groove weld (1% W ) will reach standard allowables
this yield value. ( 8 0 u,) at this time.
In case there should be a reversal in wind moment,
I Method 2 1 the top plate must be thick enough to safely withstand
any compressive load without buckling.
The top plate (Fig. 7) is designed to carry the force It is recommended that the top plate's thickness
resulting from the wind moment (M,) using a % in- be held to at least x4of its length ( L ) between welds.
crease in the standard allowables: This will provide a slenderness ratio (L/r) of 83; and
corresponds to about 80% of the allowable compressive
u = (1%)$0 up :
:.80 up strength for a short column (L/r ratio of 1 ) .
-
'This weld altowable by AISC i s not clcar; AISC srmply says
The top plate must be capable of yielding plasti- welds shall not be overstressed when plate is at yield.
At 1 % a when loaded
with [F) ivind moment
FIGURE 7
M, (wind)
Fillet weld at standard
olloviobles when reduce db
Top Plates tor Simple Beams & Wind / 5.5-5
FIGURE 8
= 21.3 kips
Where: The rcduccd section of the top plate is designed
Wt" to carry this force at yield stress (u,):
1x -
-- -- and
12
raditw of gyration -
- (21.3 kips)
(36,000 psi)
-
- .59 in."
or use a 1%'' x W' plate
- (63.8 kips)
This would he 13h" across the end, and 2%" along -
1%(22,000 ps?K
the sides.
= 2.18 in.2
efhod 1 for Additional
-- a 3%"x %' plate
or use
This connection will now he designed for the additional
wind moment of M, = 600 in.-kips, using Method 1. A, = 2.19 in." 22.8 i n . 0-.
K
- (63.8 kips)
- in (5600)
Compression Tensi
top R on top
Wind moment
FIGURE 13
FIGURE 11
f, = 11,200 0
= 11,200 (%)
w FIGURE 12
= 4200 lbs per linear inch
The length of this weld is-
Beam
10,550 psi]
Connection
(28.330)
M, = - 600 in-k
FIGURE 14
FIGURE 15
- (600 in-kips)
- (14.12) (1.5)
= 28,330 psi
The stress in this beam end due to gravity load
Note that the connection will not yield until a is then added to the initial wind moment diagram:
stress of 36,000 psi is reached. (See Figure 16.)
Top Plates for Simple Beams & Wind / 5.5-9
FIGURE 16
- Mc2
8010 pri
M
',= - 517.6 in- = - 762.8 in-k
, Ma
9480 psi
\
Connection 13,970 psi
(24,430 psi)
FIGURE 18
FIGURE 19
2670 ps,
Beam Connection
3660 PSI
4650 psi (36,000 psi)
FIGURE 20 990 psi
4650 psi
Connection Beom
(36,000 psi) 4650 p
FIGURE 21 (36,000 psi)
large a top connecting plate. The smaller plate will d A,, - (14.12) ( 5 0 )
yield sooner and it is possible that the h a 1 gravity
load would cause both end connections to yield. = 28,330 psi
Consider the same pl-obkm as previously but with
the wind moment reduced to M, = 200 in.-kip, applied
to each end of the beam.
The required top plate is designed for this wind
moment:
ub =-
M, the portion of the gravity load to be addert here is-
Sb
--(200
- in.-kips) 12 u,,A, d,
.- - 12 (7670)(.50)(14.12)
. W, = -
(54.6 in.:') L'" (180)'
= 3660 psi See Figure 19.
Top Plates for Simple ind / 5.5-11
FIGURE 22
elded-Connection Design
0, =: ,764 x radians
and:
FIGURE 24 M, = a, A, db
=r (36,000 psi) (1.5 in.2)( 14.12")
= 762 in.-kips
e
Since 0 =-and e =: E Lp
db
Top Plates for Simple Beams & Wind / 5.5-13
= 800 in.-kips
( b ) the end rotation ( 8 , ) if simply supported This would correspond to a bending stress at the
end of the beam of-
= 8800 psi
U b
As before K =- = ,388 so that the stress
U"
Connection a t yield in,)
in the connecting plate would be--
13,200 psi
up =
.388
moment, Me = 720 in-kips
= 34,020 psi
Now the wind load is gradually applied equally to
both ends until the right-hand connection reaches yield.
This would occur when the stress in the connecting
Connection line plate is increased from 31,020 psi to 36,000 psi, or an
increase of 1980 psi. This would correspond to a wind
moment of-
FIGURE 25
13,200 psi
i 3,200 psi
Connection
(34,020 psi)
FIGURE 26
elded-Connection Design
M, = 42 in-kips
Connection
J
(1980 psij
"
FIGURE 27
.- 8800 psi
Beam 7
12,430 psi
L
FIGURE 28
FIGURE 29
- 19,020 psi
And stress in the beam is- Adding this last wind moment diagram to the
diagram in Figure 28 gives thc final diagram, Figure 30.
Adding this wind moment diagram to the initial This same example can he illustrated in a slightly
gravity moment diagram gives I'ignrt: 28. different manner. The right-hand connection and beam
There now is left a wind mornent of 600 42 = end is on the right of Fignre 31; the left-hand connec-
5% in.-kip to be applied to each end, but since the tion and its l~earnond is on the left.
right-hand connection has reached yield stress, the re- As b i h r e , the beam line with gravity load only is
maining moment of 2 x 558 = 1116 in.-kip must he constructed for both ends. This hcnm line represents
added to the left end of the beam. the moment at the end caused by the gravity load, the
actual value of the lnolnerrt depends on the effect of
the connection.
A wind mornent would be represented by a hori-
zontal line throngh the actual value of the moment. It
would not he influenced by the connection iinless it
exceeds the yield of the connection; then the portion
= 20,440 psi of the wind moment carried would be limited by the
yield of the coimection. 4 n y wind moment superim-
posed on the gravity load will shift the beam line verti-
cally up or down depending on the sign of the wind
.= 52,680 psi (compressio~~) to be added to the moment.
32,040 psi in tension already in the left-hand
connecting plate By observation, the right-hand connection can be
J' b = - 13,970 p s ~
oe = - 36,000 psi
G M- = - 762 in-kips 1
- IOOOl
"3
a -- 900.-
i
I
'6.24 x lo3
FIGURE 31
elded-Connection Design
increased another 42.0 in.-kip from wind, then it will little more accurate.
reach yield and no further moment can be applied. This same prohlem was pi-eviously worked with a
Since the applied wind moment was 600 in.-kip on reduced w i d moment of M , = 200 in.-kip applied to
cach end, this will leave a balance of 2 x 800 in.-kip - each end. Figure 32 shows how this can be worked
42 in.-kip = 1156 in.-kip to be carried entirely by the graphically. This is an intrresting prohlcm since the
left-hand connection. lower wind lnorncnt reqnires a smaller top plate, with
To do this, the beam line on the left of Figure 31 ?/3 the cross-sectional area, hence 'h the strength, and
will be lowered vertically + 1158 in.-kip; see the dotted the gravity load ca~isedthe plate to yield plastically
line. This will inkrsect the connection curve (extcnded at both rnds even before any wirid load is applied. This
into the positive moment region) at an end moment is represented by the black dot where the beam line
of Me = 320 in.-kip. (without wind) intersects with the connection curve.
This will correspond to a bending stress in the When the wind moment is added, the right con-
beam end of 6050 psi, and in the connection plate of ncction is alrt:ady at yield and can carry no additio~ral
15,600 psi. In this case, the connection curve h:~dto be moment, therefore the mtirc v.ind moment of 2 x 200
extended downward into the positive moment region in.-kip = 400 in-kip must be carried by the left-hand
in order to intersect the new beam line. This indicates connection. Accordingly the beam line is lowered ver-
a $ moment and reverses the stress in the plate, now tically a distance of 400 in.-kip: see thc dashed line. As
compression, arid the bottom of the beam connection is this is lowered. tbt. resulting moment (M,,) and rota-
now in tension. tion (0,) of the connection (black dot) slide down
The previous examination of this problem indicated parallel to the clnstic portion of tlrc connection line
a bcnding stress in the left end of the beam of cri,= until it intersocts with this new beam line (white dot).
8010 psi; this examination indicates a stress of ul, := In Figure 33 these final conditions representing the
6050 psi. Why should there be a difference? The previ- heam with gravity load and wind load are represented
ous examination stopped after the first end momcnt with black dots. If the wind were now removed, the left
due to gravity load was determined and then for sim- beam line moves npw-ard 200 in.-kip 2 n d the right
plicity from then on considered the connection as per- beam line movt.s dou.11 200 in.-kip, tho new conditions
fcctly rigid, whereas this examination considered the being represented by the white dots. For a complete
elastic properties of the connecting plate all the way reversal of wind, this operation is again repeated and
through the problem. This last approach would be a is represented by the broken lines.
? 9004 + - ruu
-
- 800 2
A-
.- Gravity iood; no w i n d
Me = - 330 in-ktpr
8. = - 3.8 x l o 3 iudionr \@' -
FIGURE 32
Y
FIGURE 33
Alternote detail
1
Column flonge stdfenerr may be
iequiied for joints of high reitioint
FIGURE 1
elded-Connection Design
t
8, 0,
[octuol) (flexible beam)
and the required cross-sectional area of the top This connection line breaks at the yield point, or
plate is- becomes horizontal at:
I M ~= A,, u).d b I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( 5 )
The actual conditions of moment (M,) and rota-
The rotation of the connection, assuming rotation tion ( & ) are found at the intersection of the beam line
about midheight of the beam is- and the connection line; see Figure 4.
mi
8, = -- and
Table 1 shows the moments ( M ) and end rotation
( 8 ) for various load and beam conditions.
The total centerline moment (ZMr ) and total end
moment (ZM,.) of a beam with any combination of the
Table 1 loads equals the sum of the individual values
resulting from each type of load.
When designing a beam for a given end restraint
( R ) , the resulting maximnm moment at centerline for
which the beam is designed (MI,) equals the difference
between the maximum centerline moment ( M y ) when
R = 0 and the actual end moment ( R M,) for the
The slope of this connection line is- given value of R. See Figure 5.
7-
ZM*
Simply Supported i- Beom with desired
R = O R = 100% end restraint (R)
W
@ Simply supported, w t h load
+1.- @
Apply negative moment at ends to
bring up to horizonto1 position
M*( # - W
c 1) 4
@
Final end moment for louded beom
/I = M, L~~ ~~~~
'' 2 E l
Me(#
W 4) Me @ Fixed end, ended beom
Me
0 = .- . L...
" 2 E l
FIGURE 6
End Mornen! M. W L
--
~~.
10
i x e o €id
9.2-2 / Joint
In order to evaluate the weldability of steels, a wclding. The arc is an electrical discharge or spark
limited kno\vledge of the basic arc welding process sustziined in a gap in the electrical circuit. The re-
is advisable. sistance of the air or gas in the gap to the passage of
Welding consists of joining two pieces of metal thc current, transforms the electrical energy into
by establishing a metnllurgical bond between them. heat at extremely high temprmtures. Electrical
Many different welding processes may be used to power consists of amperes and voltage. The amount
produce bonding through the application of pres- of energy available is the product of the amperes
sure and/or through fnsion. Arc welding is a fusion and the voltage flowing through the circuit and is
process. The bond between the mptals is produced meastired in watts and kilowatts. The energy used
by reducing to a molten state the surfaces to be is affected h y such variables as the constituents in
joined and then allowing the metal to solidify. &ctrode coatings, the typc of current (-46 or DC),
When the molten metal solidifies, union is com- the direction of cul-rent flow, and many others.
pleted. In all modern arc welding processes, the arc is
In the arc welding process, the intense heat re- shielded to control the complex arc phenomenon
quired to reduce thr inetal to a liquid state is pro- mid to improve the physical properties of the weld
duced by an electric arc. The arc is formed between deposit. This shielding is accomplished through
the work to be wt~ldedand a metal wire or rod varions techniques: a chemical coating on the elec-
called the elcctrode. The arc, which produces a trode wire, inert gases, granular flux compoi~nds,
and metallic salts placed in thc core of the elec-
Welding Machme AC or DC trode. Arc shielding varies with the type of arc
Power Source and Controls welding process used. In all cases, however, the
Electrode Holder 7 shielding is intended: 1) to protect the molten
metal from the air, oither with gas, vapor or slag;
2) to add alloying and fluxing ingredients; ,and 3 )
to control the melting of the rod for more effective
use of the arc energy.
\Ground Cable
I
Gaseous Shield
temperature of about 6500°F at the tip of the
electrode, is formed by bringing the electrode close
to the metal to he joined. The tremendous heat at
the tip of the electrode melts filler metal and base
metal, thus liquifying them in a common pool
called ;I crater.* As the arens solidify, the metals
are joined into one solid homogeneous piece. By
moving the electrode along the scam or joint to
be welded, the surfaces to be joined are welded
together along their entire length. The arc welding process requires ;I continuous
The electric arc is the most widely used source supply of electric cnrrent suflicient in amperage
of energy for the intense heat required for fusion :md voltage to maintain an wrc. 'l'his currcnt may be
either altcmating (AC) or dircct ( D C ) , but it must
* F o r soinc applications, filler metal is deposited b y a con- be provirlecl through a source which can be con-
sumnblc w e l d i n g electrode; for others, a "nonmnsumable" trolled to satisfy the variables of the welding
elcctrode supplies the heat a n d s separate welding rod the
filler metal. 11roces" :mmnerage and voltage.
Top Piales for Semi- igid Connections / 5.6-5
FIGURE 9
FIG. 10. Moment Capacity of Top Plate Connection. KIP - INCHES
WIDTH OF TOP
CONNECTIN6 &?
0
16
IS
I4 PIVOT POINT IN
N
12
N
10
f THIS EXAMPLE
9
8
7
6
TDO
6 00
AISC S K 1.5. I. 4.1 COO
500
IF COMPACT (SEC 2-61 AND AT so0
NEGATIVE MO&E'IVl CAN USE 400
90% APPUED EffD MOMENT 400
Top Plates for Semi-Rigid Connections / 5.6-7
WL
M, = -= 750
12
M = 410 in-kips
FIGURE 1 1
released; @ fixed Step 2. Thus with the right end held fixed (u,=
simply @ O), the rcsulting moment at the right end ( h ) consisting
supported
of the initial momcnt and the additional moment d71e
0" --4 8 E l - 2.62
- x 10.l to moven~entof the left end ( a ) , is-
FIGURE 12
Connection curve
@
l.- 2.62 x
1 - 1.6 X 70-3
~ i ~end@
h t
held fixed
[Leftm held fixed at R
simply supported
= - 1.6 x 107
Left end @
FIGURE 13 FIGURE 1 5
Step 4. W l l r ~the
~ left end ( a ) is simply supported
(M, = 0 ) , tlic end rotation wonld be 0, = -3.67 s
lo--:'. Releasing the left end ( a ) allows it to rotate to
due to niovemen!
8, = -2.25 x 10 " .
From :
when:
8, = -1.6 x 10 " and 0, = $2.1 s LOW3
FIGURE 18
+2.3 x 10-%n the right eud causes the left moment to moment (XI,.) is applied at the snpported end and the
increase to M a = -43.5 in.-Mps. When the left end ( a ) resulting end rotation (H,.) is fonnd at this same end,
is simply s~~pportctl (M, = 0), the cnd rotation would Figure 20.
be H, = -3.76 x lo-". Releasing the left end ( a ) allows
it to rotate to 0, = -2.40 x 10P3. Here:
Step 7. This movement of 8, from --2.25 x 1O"o
-2.40 x 10-%on the left end causes the right moment
to incrcase to M,,= --428 in.-kips. When the right end
( b ) is simply supported (MI, = 0 ) , the end rotation
would be HI, = +3.80 x 10 -:'. Releasing the right end In this particular example:
( b ) allows it to rotate to: B,, =
. +2.40 x lP3.
Conclusion: The final end conditions resulting
from this sequential handling of the givrn connection
and beam loading a r e
FIGURE 19 Me
FIGURE 20
T o p Prates for Semi-Rigid Connections /
I Fixed end
/
Increase in moment
FIGURE 23 I / on opposite end
rimply supported
/ !
1 /
V _I
-k
FIGURE 24
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Change in 0, 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
x 1p3 go x 10-3 8,
Left end @ Right end@
elded-Connection Design
FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2
5.7-1
Alternate method of
b u t t welding top flange
connecting plate t o
column flange using
FIGURE 3
placed between the conriocting plate and the beam is cut hack about 1" a r ~ dfillet welded to the wcb con-
flange to r ~ r s ~ ~ar ccomplete-pcrit:tr:~tioll
: groove weld to necting platc.
the column. This eliminates b;rck gouging and welding Some fabricating shops have jigs so that colr~mns
an overlicad pass on the other side. can be elcvnted into a vertical position. This allows
Reducing Welding Requirements muclr of t l ~ cshop welding on tho connecting plates to
he made in the downhand position.
It is possiblc to design the seat stiffener to carry all of
the end reaction, eliminating any vcrlical u ~ l d i n gin the Cover Plates
field. This reduccs the ficld \I-ekling to just dowithand When addcd at crids of beams to carry the extra
groove \vekiing of the heam flanges to tho column. negative momcnt; covcr plates must be welded to the
Where good fit-up can be assurtd, the beam fianges column for continuity; Figure 4.
are beveled from the top side and groove welded in Shop wclding tllc cover platas to the beam, with
the field directly to the colurnn Aange. The beam web the lower beam flange and the upper cover piatc left
FIGURE 4
Beam-$0-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-3
2. A N A L Y Z I N G NEED FOR C O L U M N
STIFFENERS
FIGURE 7
5.7-4 / Welded-Connection Design
FIGURE 10
FIGURE 9 FIGURE 11
earn-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-5
FIGURE 12
FIGURE 13
However, it was noted that no weld failures occurred From strain gage readings it was calculated that
until after excessive rotation had taken place. each of the vertical plate stifIencrs in the elastic range
The stiffeners here in Figure 15 provide thc equi- transmitted only ahout y/,, of the forces coming from
valent of beam flanges to the columns, and the columns the beam fangcs and the column web transmitted %
become as stiff against rotation as the beams framing of the forces.
to the column. Placing these stiffener plates closer to the column
The stress distribution on the compression flanges web might have improved the distribution. However,
were uniform on the whole, while in the tension areas since the prime purpose of this type of connection is to
the stresses were somewhat higher in the center. afford a convenient four-way connection, the plate
In Figure 16 the column is shown stiffened by a usually needs to be positioned flush with the edge of the
pair of wide-flange Tee sections. As a result the columns column flange.
are as stiff against rotation as the beams framing into The stress distribution was uniform in both flanges
the columns. at the working load. At 1.5 of the working load, high
Zero +
I d
4 I
20,000 psi w- FIGURE 14
FIGURE 15 FIGURE 16
FIGURE 17 FIGURE 18
elded-Connection Design
FIGURE 19
The stiffcning of the latter connc:ction is mainly ~ n a l y s i sof this plate by incans of yield line theory
dependent on thc thickness of the stem of the Tee leads to the, ultimate capacity of this plate being-
stiffener, tlie Ranges of the colnmn being too Ear away
to offer much resistance.
The column wcb is ably assisted in preventing
rotation at the connection by the flanges of the split- where:
beam Tee stiffeners.
P, = 3.5 u, t,'
The force carried by the central rigid portion of
thc column in linc with the web is-
earn-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-
Setting this total force equal to that of the beam's If the tliickness of the colnmn web (w,,) meets
tension Hange: the ;hove rrqnircmrnt. column stiiicners ;we not neoded
in linc with the coniprcssion fla~~gcs of the 1)ram.
If the ;~ctuelti~ickn(,ssof the column xvob (w,) is
less than this value, tlie \veb must be stiffened in some
manner.
. HORIZONTAL STIFFENERS
FIGURE 20
It is assrimed i11e coucentrated compression force from To prevent buckling of the stiffcner-
the beam flange spreads out into the column web at a
slope of 1 in 2% m~tilit reaches the K line or web toe
of the fillet; see Figure 8.
Equating the resisting force of the column web to
the applicd force of the beam flange, assuming yield
stress- where:
b, = total width of pair of stifleners
eBective as when in direct line. The stiffener thickness Becaust~tlw vertical stiffelicrs (~lsuallyTees) are placed
(t,) fourd from the above formula s l i o ~ ~ lthan
d he at the outer d g c s ol the column ilnngc. they are as-
mi~ltipliedby 1.70 to giw thc actual required value. sulncd to Be half as d f r ~ t i v eas tl~ouglip1:iccd noar the
colurnli wch. It is :rssumcd the corlcc~~tr:it<d beam flangc
7. VERTICAL STIFFENERS force s p u d s out into ihc \ ~ r t i c a lstiffcnsr in the same
manner as thc column w<lh.
Equating tlic ri,sistiug Some of tlw column web and
a pair of vertic:ll Tee stiffmtc to the applied force of
the beam flange at j-ield strms-
+2 + 5 Kc)
w, (tb $ 5 K,) ui x % tr (ti,
u, - A* u, or
1 PraHem 1 1
As an example of applying the preceding analysis
of the tension region of a connection, we will analyze
a connection which, wliel~tested to failure, performed
FIGURE 22 well; see Figure 23.
w W A O i t column
FIGURE 23
Beam-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-1 1
but the initial design called for t, = ,606'' and the con-
nection tested O.K.
Since: Tests have shown that when thc beam flange extends
the full width of the connecting plate, Figure 24, about
h 3~ of the flange force is carried by tho central portion
A = -
(I of the plate. Each of the two outer edges carry about
- (2.72) x, of this force.
- (4.69) Figure 25 comes from test data of Lehigh Uni-
--
- .58 versity. Notice in the East-West beams, thc flange of
which extends almost the full width of the colun~n
p = -P
9
- (7.27)
- (4.69)
= 1.55
and:
FIGURE 25 ~
flange, 44% of the force is transferred through the web flanges and the web transmitted %ths."
of the connection even though it is only about half as Of course, the same would not bc true in the Korth-
thick as the stiffener plates. This corresponds well with South beams becaose they do not extend the full width
the idea that the flange of the column in this region is of the flange of the Tee stiffener. As a resitit, most of
similar to a two-span beam on three supports with a this force rniist be transfrrucd into the web or stem of
uniform load; in this case the center reaction is % of the Tee stiffener since any portion of this force. reaching
the total load, and the two outer supports each carry the outer edges of the column flange must be trans-
3$, of the load. ferred as hcnding out along the flange of the Tee
The report "Welded Interior Beam-To-Column section.
Connections", AISC 1959, mentiolis that "from strain
Weld Size: Stiffener Stem t o Column W e b
gagc readings it was calculated that the vertical plate
stiffeners in the elastic range each transmitted only On the basis of these tests at Lehigh University, on
about 3/1,ths of the forces coming from the beam coniiectioris where the beam flange extends the full
FIGURE 26
earn-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-13
(4 (bl (4
The resulting maximum unit bending force at the FIGURE 27
top portion of the weld on the stem is-
Since tests on full-width flanges showed that the
M % M D 3 two outer edges ol the connection carry about of
(D" - g")
f b = - =
S, the flange force, we will assume that each outer weld
must carry 'h of the flange force. See Figure 28.
The leg size of this weld would be found by divid-
These welds will be pulled with an axial force of
ing this value by the allowable for the particular weld
K F. We may assume the same distribution of force
metal.
through the coniiecting plate at a slope of 1 to 2% into
the connecting welds. This will provide an effective
+
1 h 7 , A373 Steel; E60 Weldr
f = 9600 o
A36, A441 Steel; E70 Welds
length of weld of tb 5 t, to carry this force.
The unit force on this weld is-
FIGURE 28
5.7-14 / Welded-Connection Design
welds could Le checked by using the elktire length of 5. As a guide, the stiffener should satisfy this
the welds. Ilowever, this would represent little addi- condition:
tional force on t i m e wolds.
Proportioning t h e Tee Stiffener
Tho following will be helpful in selecting a Tee stiffener
section for this type of connection, where the bcam or an approximation on the conservative side:
flange equals the full width of the stiirener flange:
FIGURE 30
4. Tho depth of the stiffener (d,), as measured
through the stem portion, must be sufkient for it to The same items as before are used to proportion
extend from the face of the column web to the outer thr Tee stiffener, except in items 1 and 5 where the full
edge of the column flange. vzilue of thc: heam flange's section area is used instead
of 3/4 of tbis value. These formulas bccome-
earn-to-Column Continuous Connectians / 52-25
allowable force
Here:
M =. 1050 in.-kips
V = 20 kips
If this cant~lpverbeam had an end moment of M
-- 1050 in.-kips instead ol the previous 1100 in.-kips:
L, = -
v bending stress in beam
2 f,"
- (20 kips)
.--
2(11,200)(~,) .9 (1100 in.-kips)
-
- -.. .-. - - -- .
= 4.75" (41.8 in.a)
= 23,700 psi < .66 a, < 24,000 psi OK
-
Hence use Xe" 5" long on both sidcs < 4.65". OK
-.
bending force on top connecting plate
Since the size of this weld used in detcrmining its
length was held to 24 of the wcb thickness, it is un-
necessary to check the resulting shear stress in the web
at this connection. Ho.rvever, to illustrate this, it will be .9 (1100
- -- --in-kips)
.
.
checked here: 13.86'
7web =
v
-
= 71.5 kips
AT"
section area of top connecting plate
(20 kips)
= 5)(.2S7)
= 14,000 psi < .40 u7 < 14,500 psi OK
-
- (71.5 kips)
-
(24,000 psi)
f, = 11,200 ( % )
= 4200 lbs/linear inch
- (71.5 kips)
FIGURE 34 - -- .
(4200 ibs/in.)
Here:
or use 5?'zr' of weld across the end, and return 6"
along each side, fnr a total weld length of 17M".
Tho lower flange of the beam is groove butt welded
dircctly to the colnrnn flange; and, since the wcb fram-
The wdding of the flanges and fnll depth of the ing anglc carries thc shear reaction, n o fnrther work is
web enables the l ~ e a mto dcvclop its fn11 plastic moment, reqnired on this lower portion of the connection. The
in bcnding, or -
allowing the "conrp;lct" beam to be stressed 10% higher
.66 u,. This also allows the end
of thc beam, and its wcldcd connection, to be designed
seat angle simply serves to provide temporary snpport
for the beam during erection and a hacking for the
flange groove weld.
for '30% nf the end moment dne to gravity loading. The fillet eld on the web of the beam is figured
(AISC Scc 1.5.1.4.1 and Scc 2.6) 6
as in method 1 .
or use a 5" x''4'3 plate, the section area of which is-
f, = 11,200 (3h)
= 4200 lbs/linear inch
FIGURE 35
or use 5" of weld across the plate end and return 7"
along each side, to give a total weld length of 19'' >
18.6" OK
-
V = 20 kips DESIGN O F BOTTOM SEAT
In this particular connection, the shear reaction is
taken as bearing through the lower ilange of the beam.
There is no welding directly on the web. For this
reason it cannot be assumed that the web can be
stressed (in bending) to yield through its full depth.
Since full plastic moment cannot be assumed, the bend-
ing stress allowable is hcld to u = .& Iu = 22.000
u, or
psi for A36 steel. (ATSC See 1.5.1.4.1)
or:
- (20 kips) -
1.0
-
~ ~~
weld on the stifrener, :lssunie the leg size to not exceed 2(11,200) (3/8)
YJ t --. .. ( ) 1 lh". This krcps the stiffener at the = 9.3" or use 9%''
connection from being ovrrstr(:ssed in shear. (AISC
Sec 1.17.5) Therefore, allowing for 'h" fit-up gap, use a 10" x 8l/2"
Thus, the niinimum lengtl~oi fillet weld on cach x 'W top plate for the seat.
side of the stiffener is-
(20 kips)
=2 7 T m o w
Hence, use:
- 20 kips
-
2(11,200) ( :$;6)
In this case the connection is made through the 011this basis use Tee section cut from an 8" WF
Tee stiffeners of the column. Since the beam flange is 48j: beam; see Figure 39.
nearly as wide as thc stifIen~rflange, the crntrd stem
portion of the stiffener is designed for % of the moment
t, = ,683''
and each outer edge of the stifiielrer flange for 'h of the -7r - -Ii
moment.
The welding of the upper and lower portions of
the stem to the column web is sufficient to stress the
beam web up to yield (in bending) through its full
depth. Thus, the beam may develop its full plastic
moment. This allow,^ the "compact" beam to be stressed
at u = .66 o;,and also to he designed for only 90% of
the end moment. (AISC Sec 1.5.1.4.1 and Sec 2.6)
FIGURE 39
5.*w,K, 2x b,, tb
5
x(6.733) (.387)
2
-
5
2 -
.39
For simplicity,
use a conservative value:
=
2 D i
;4 (t,,
: 2 (9.18) +4
+ 5K,)
(387 -+ 5 x I%,)
STIFFENER = 61.2"
Use Ih of the moment ( M ) unit shear force an zocld
FIGURE 40
FIGURE 41
Tensile Transfer
FIGURE 43
Tensile Transfer ing the colinnn nlust be transierrcd into the column
flanges as a shear transfer. Assinne 211 > M2.
FIGURE 46
FIGURE 45
fabricated column
d = tb+5K,
Since:
A, area i~f colnrnn web over which force is dis-
'column web
tributed = d t,
FIGURE 48 A, = area of one stiffener (there is a pair)
FIGURE 51
M = u S M = c S
= (22,000 psi) (413.5 in.3) (22,000 psi) ( 150.7 i x 3 )
= 9097 in.-kips =
: 3315 in.-kips
d -- 24.72" - 1.135" d = 21.01" - .74"
= 23.59" = 20.50"
elded-Connection Design
FIGURE 52
F = 386 kips
FIGURE 53
earn-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-27
FIGURE 54
= ,344" or %"
B if shop weld,
but 3%" plate would need "z"
B-
In the shop, fillet welds would he used, because
they can be made on both sides of the stilTener.
For field welding, use 45" single bevel groove weld
because it wonk1 be difficult to weld underside ovcr-
head.
I I
FIGURE 55
= 246 kips
= ,605" or 5/arr$ if shop weld
(2" plate needs min. of %'' \)
For field weld, use 45" single hevel groove
weld.
= .6Yr or %''
check combinmi stress in stiffener; cuse @
1 Problem 4 )
To cllrck tlrt. wi4d size joining the flange and web of
the bnilt-up w e l d d column i i r Figures 57 arid 58.
@ weld on column bettoem floors
= .1c"
FIGURE 56
but bccausc of 3%" plate, .
use
-& V
'
= G6GO psi
= 3860 psi
FIGURE 57
Moment diagram
elded-Connection Design
t -- 10.460
-A-
13,800
= ,622"
= ,662"
t = t,. -C %"
FIGURE 59
are tr;ilisIiwrd into tlw colu~nnwel) within the con- Analysis of Required Web Thickness
nection rcgioo as shmr. The unit shear force applied to thc web of the con-
It c:m be assurni,d that xilost of tbib vertical shear nection is-
force
-~ , \ of thr beain weh is tra~~sferred
( V .,
\
diucctlv into
the flange of the supportiilg cohim~iarid does not enter - - - Vp
= .V- = - F, -
-
Mi Vq
the web of tile corin(,ctioi~. d dc dud, d,
The Iiorizontal shear force (V,) of the upper
columr~ will he translrrred through the web of the The resulliilg unit shear stress in the web of the
connection illto tlie luw.er column if caused by wind; comcction is-
or out across the beam to the adjacent column if ca~rsed
by gravity load. T = - -v 1 ME
wi - w ( d d.
Using plastic design concepts, the applied moment
(MI) will become tlic plastic moment. For this valuc,
thc allowable shear stress ( 7 ) will be based on the
yield streiigtli of the steel. The value for the shear
FIGURE 60
FIGURE 62
stress at yield ( T , . ) may be found 11). usi~igthe Mises Or assuming that a conservative shape factor,
yield criterion:
f ;
h'f
-2 Z = 1.12
=-
0;. = J uX2- ur uy + q24 Q rxy 1\1, s
In this application of pure shmir, u, and o; = 0, M , = 1.12 M,, and My = o; S
and setting the critical value (rr,,.) q u a 1 to yield (cry), Formula 2 may bc reduced to-
we obtain:
Web
doubler
plate
Tlw plastic mornmt ( h i l ) is obtainnd hy multiply-
ing tiir plastic swtion rno~lriliis( % ) of thc bmm by the
yield slrt?ngtli (v,.) of the stt~>l.
l'ha plastic si:ctio~i mo11olri.s for all rolled sections
is availal~li~in s e w d strr.1 malii~;~ls.
The plastic sectiori rn(~dii111sof a n~eided plate
girder (Fig. 62) is obtained Slam the following formula:
FIGURE 63
W
Z = b t (d - t) -1-
4
(d - 2ty . . . . .(3) 'I% most co~ninmsoliitio~r is to usr: n pair of
diagonal stiffe~wrs. Thcir cross-swtional area would
earn-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-33
FIGURE 64
The horizontal shrar force resisted by the web is- 11. COPE HOLES
also
FIGURE 65
Plastic dwig~n is not risd rirrder fatigw loading ing bars were rrscd a i d the holes were not later filled
conditions, so therc shonld he less concern here about with n.cld metal.
thc need for cope holcs and tl~eirrcsnlting cffcct on tlie 111 plastic design_ cx>pe holrs w e not rerlniri~d to
connectiori's stnmgth. Cope holes \voulcl prol)olily not prn\,idc the weld quality rr:qniueti, althongh t h y would
result in any npj,rr,ii;ible loss in plastic strcngth. The make it easirr for tlic wc4ding opcrntor. And, if they
additiond inomcmt brouglrt abont liy t r h v i n g tlic \veh arc osccl, they \von't Slaw a dctrimental effect on the
to be stressd to yicld strcngth uftcr the outer filxrs strength of tlrr. connection if lelt ul~filid.
once reach yic*ldis ahont 105, and tlie cope liole repre- Thc cope hole hclps more for ;iccc.ssibility of the
sents 2% \ - e n srnall portion of tliis wch scction. Ifcnce, groove \veld on the lowcr flange if weldrd in position.
the rcd~rction in strmgth ca~r.scd by the cope liole In most cases tliis would be an amr of negatiw inomcnt
should lic only n small fraction of the 10%. and this \r-rsld would he un&,r compression, so this
Along the sariie liric of thought, any minor lack should not be as critical as the timion weld on the
of weld pc~rictration dne to this lack of accessibility upper flangc.
with no copt, hole \\-onld not be as critical. IF the rnmihrr c:~ir~ldhe tm-lied o w ~ for
r shop weld-
111 going throrigli tlw original test rcports of wcldcd ing, both fl:nigt~coi~ldbe h r w l t d from tlie outside end
coirncctioiis for plastic ilcsign. thwc ;ire rinany boam-to- copc holes nwild not he nredcd: sre Fignrr 67.
column connections or knccs in wlrich no cope holes
were used. In the AISC report, "\17eldcd Interior Reann-
To-Colnnin Connections" cope liolcs were nscd and a
detail of these sliowi; s w Figure 66. Notice that back-
FIGURE 68
FIGURE 69
Figure 68 ( a ) shows the Iwam resting on a plate Becausi: of this grtmt Ic~igtli.the wcight reduction is
shop wckled t o t h e top of t h e column. In most cases only 8.79.
fillet welds made in tho iIo\vnliarld or Hat position will On contiii~~oiis g i r d w ;in11 tieams, however, there
be sufficient, since there is usrially very little moment is a r t d ndvantagr in using covcr platcs since t h e
which must be tmmisfcrrrd from tlic heam into t h e iiicr<wt,dswtion p ~ - o O r ~ cnerds id to oxtciid only a very
column. s h i r t distance in from cmcli m d of the. 11rai~1,Figure
Figriro 68 ( b ) sliows a similar connection m a d e in 70 ( ( 1 ) . In tlir c~niirpli-s11own. tlw t o t d 11,ngtIi of cover
t h e hcarn ;ind t11c girilcr which sripports it. pl;ite is j~tst 1h.:i'4. of t l i i . 1~11gth o i t h ? 1w;irn ( I ) . Ilore
Figiircs 69 ( a ) and (1-1) s l ~ o wthis mctliod c x t r n d d wcigl~trcd~i(~tion i ~ apl~lying
i covcr platrs to tlic contin-
to multi-story constriiction. In hoth cascs, stiffming uous 1xvni is 29.8'3,.
plates art, sliop m c l ~ l dill betwwrl tiit. Rarlgcs of the A~lditioli;il n ~ ~ ~ i greduction
lit is ;icl~icvrdin going
beam, in liilo with the voliirnn fiangcs. so that the com- Eroiii tlw simply siijqmrtcd Ixxm to t h e coiitiiritor~s
pressivt~ lo:id m;iy be t r a n s f c r r d diret.tly from one Ironm \vitli fistd m d s . 1 5 h 1 considwirig t l ~ i siii the
colrlrnn flange to the other. ~ w m p k1 1 l o v of i ~ from g 1 simply s~qqxxtr.d
1min1 to the, w i ~ t i r i ~ ~ itwmn ~ n s with covrzr p1att.s. the
PLATES FOR CONTINUOUS FRA o\'i,r-all wt,iglit r ~ d r i c t i o ii i~i tiit, I)mm 'rwcr~nics35.8';.
Cover pliites nrl. sonwtimcs i ~ s e din vonnrr.tio~r with Constants to Help Colculote Finof Moments
rolltd helims in or&r to illwc;ise t h c strcrigtlr ( S ) or Chi11-is h:iv<~IXYW t l t ~ v ~ ~ 1 i q 11y ~ c ~ whicli
tl tht, dc,sigiit>~-
stif%~iess( I ) p n ~ p c r t i c sof thc he;rm. c:m I-i.ndily fiiid crnistiiirts to I I W ill <k,tci-minirigsti{fnt,ss
Uiiless niiiiin~r~m wcigl~tis ;I rcnl factor; t l ~ cusr of fwtors, m r r y - o w r ~ X C ~ I I I -:i~id
S ~ f i s ~ l - m i dr r i m i t ~ ~ ~
for
ts
covcr p1:itc.s on simply siipporttd 11c~nnismight not 11c bc;iiiis in \vliiclr tli(,rc ;XI-c;il1riipt v1i;lngi~s in mi)mcnt
justified in l i ~ d d i n gvo~istri~ction since the savings in oS ini.rtia i111i.to ni,lrlcd v i ~ v ~ l hr i t i ~
strcl inight riot o f h t the a d ~ l i t i o i ~ acost
l of fabricntirig Soiiwrs incl~tdc:
a n d wclding the vovrr pl;it<. to tho hcam. 'I'his is be- ( 1 ) tirill. 176. R. A. Caiigliy a i d 11. S. (:i~l~il;i:
caust tilt, c o w r plate initst c x k n d quite a dist;incc to l o \ w E i ~ g i n w r i n gExperimmt St:,., Imva S t ~ l t rC o l l q o ,
hot11 si11i.s of t h e beam centerline. Notice in the r r a m - Aint.s, Iowi. :36 cli;iits S i n l m n ~ swith c o \ ~ 1,l:itcs ~- at
ple showr for uniform loacii~ig,Figure 70 ( a ) . that t h e e ~ d Also. riyriiilcd as Stri~cturnlStxidy 1102.150. The
covcr plat? must extend 70.7% of the beam's length ( c ) . Lincoln Elcctric Co.
etded-Connection Design
idi
Moment diagram
Moment diagram
(fl
(c)
FIGURE 70
I Example
= 56 in."
earn-to-Column Continuous Connections / 5.7-37
I I
FIGURE 71
FIGURE 73
NTINUOUS CON
FIGURE 75
FIGURE 76
B e a m - T o - C o l u m n C o n t i n u o u s Connections / 5.7-39
Typical column joint to develop continuity in both directions. The column is cut off at this point. The main
girder (left to right) has 100% continuity, no joint; column stiffeners on girder webs are shop welded.
The cross beams are provided continuity by the use of o welded top plote extending right across the
upper girder flange. The column for the floor above is positioned on top of this connecting plate, tempo-
rarily held by angles shop-welded to the column web, and then permanently field welded along the
flanges to the connecting plote.
elded-Conneciiion Design
FIGURE 1
5.8-2 / Welded-Connection
FIGURE 2
FIGURE 3
FIGURE 6
Here:
- (2400 in.-kips)
(103.0 in.")
= 23,300 psi compression
uniaxial stress
= 36,600 psi
This would indicate the top flange of the girder is
on the verge of yielding, and the tensile flange of the
FIGURE 7 beam should be isolated from the biaxial compressive
elded-Connection Design
(62.7 in.3)
= 21,500 psi
(Only need S = 56.2 in.3, but this is the lightest 14"
WF section.)
M2 = + M, L
48
(60k)(24W')
=+ 48
= + 300 in.-kips
FIGURE 9
=2
0-2
M
Design the girder as having fixed ends. Use 14" S
WF 43# beam having S = 62.7 in." - (300 in.-kips)
(62.7 in."-
= 4780 psi
Ma=+- W L
16
= + (SOk) (240")
16
= + 900 in.-kips
6 Moment diagrom
M3
us = -
S
- (900
- -- in.-kips)
..
(62.7 i n 3 )
= 14,350 psi
Beam-(a-Girder Continuaus Connections / 5.
FIGURE I 1
! / ~ o connecting
p plate
itself up through the connecting fillet welds into the
top plate, and then out throngh the groove butt weld
into the supporting member. Although there is a trans-
verse Gllet weld across the end of the top plate, much
of the flange force must spread out along the edge in
order to enter the fillet welds along the side of the plate.
These connections stood up very well under testing
and showed they could develop the full plastic moment
of the beam.
FIGURE 12
eom-to-Girder Continuous Connections /
1. INTRODUCTION
FIGURE 1
diagonal a i d vertical members. This allows loads to be same price as other hot-rc>lled sections. This type of
placed anywhere along the cop and bottom chords be- section has many advantages. It has good resistance
cause of their high bending strength. (With the con- to bending, and has high moment of inertia and section
ventional truss design, loads must be placed only at modulus in both directions. It offers good streugth in
points where diagonal or vertical members connect compression because of high radius of gyration in both
to the chord mcmbers.) Almost all of the \velds are on directions. It is very easy to join by welding to other
the flanges of the top and bottom chords, and since similar swtions because of its flat sides. For lighter
these are fiat surfaces, there is no difkvlt fitting of the loads, fillet welds are sufficient. These sections offer
members to make these connections, Figure 4. good torsional resistance; this in tun1 provides greater
5. Where longer lengths of connecting fillet welds lateral stability under compression, Figure 7.
are required, a simple flat plate may be butt welded
directly to the stem of the horizontal T chord, without
any joint preparation. This weld is then chipped or
ground flush in the area where web members will
connect, Figwe 5.
1 , .
FIGURE 10
elded-Connection Design
FIGURE 1 1
out the length of the member and it will remain straight. Here:
However, this moment ( M , ) is carried by the e = y = .94"
connecting welds in addition to thcir axial load (P).
d = 4"
This moment is usually ncglected in the design of the
welded connection, because of the difficulty in deter- w = g6"
mining the length of weld ( L ) when it is considered. P = 53.4 kips
Further, there usually is not much clifferenee in the
actual length of the required weld whether it is con- since:
sidered or not.
F
(a) if the moment ( M e ) is neglected:
This would be distributed 4" across the end, re- bending stress
turning 6.9' on the sides, or use 7" long on each side.
This would give a total length of 18" of %B'' weld.
( b ) If the moment ( M e ) is considered: Since the distance to the outer tensile fiber ( c ) and
the distance of the st-ction's center of gravity from the
(See Figure 11.) base line ( y ) are equal, and since the eccentricity of
Design of Trusser / 5.
Moment d i o g ~ m
of section (obtained
m steel handbook)
FIGURE 12
loading ( e ) is nearly tqual to these, it is assumed for In this particular case, the additional moment due
simplicity that c = e r y. Therefore, the total (maxi- to the eccentrically applied axial load reduces the
mum) stress is- mt:mber's allowable load carrying capacity by 40%.
This far exceeds any reduction in the strength of the
welded connection due to this moment. Thus, the con-
nection will be on the conservative side.
Conclusions:
( a ) If the attaching plate is very flexible and
or the maximum axial load ( P ) for a given allowable offcrs no restraining action at the end of the member,
stress (G-)is- the full moment ( M = P e ) must b e added to the
member and no moment added to the connection. In
other words, the connection is designed for the transfer
of thc axial force only.
( b ) If the a t t a c h g plate is rigid cnougl~so there
is no end rotation of the member, this moment is not
added to the member, but must be added to the con-
nection.
For the ST 4" 19.2# member used in the previous
Evcn in this example, if the moment were also
example, Figure 10, this additional moment due to
figured to he added to the connection, at thc reduced
eccentricity of loading would reduce the member's al-
load of P = 32 kips, it would not require as much weid
lowable axial tensile force to:
as in the previous case:
FIGURE 13
since: ( b ) calctdatcd allowable load:
f
p = .
i($)'+ (ld
1
L)l +
1
(diJ
FIGURE 14
Design of Trusses / 5.9-9
FIGURE 15
FIGURE 16
FIGURE 17
,t = ,270''
- 2.67 in2
T
( A, = 0.99 in2 J
Web
3/8/1V
FIGURE 18
P, = 5 A,
= (20,000) (.99)
= 19.8 kips - (19.8 kips)
-
(%
. 0') (5%)
This force in the web area (P, = 19.8 kips) must = 13,330 psi > 13,000 psi (A373 steel)
be transferred down into the flange by shear (V,), and
out into the conncction. This is close cnough. However, if it were higher, it
Theoretically, if the section is not to be stressed would indicate that one of the following conditions
above its allowable, this shear transfer (V,) must take exists:
place within a length bounded by the connecting welds. a. The shear transfer takes place over a greater
If this is true, then this 19.8-kip force in the web, distance and, beyond the welds, must travel this short
transferred as shear through a length of 5%" where the distance in the flange as additional tension until the
flange joins the web, causes a shear stress in the section weld is reached. It thus slightly overstresses the section
(a-a) of: (b-b) in tension.
8"W 31 .#
t, =
F = 125 kcpr
+ W' doubler plater
FIGURE 19
esign of Trusses / 5.9-9
FIGURE 20
b. The shear transfer does take place within this The k g size of these parallel welds would be based
5%" length, and slightly ovcrstresses this section (a-a) upon the force on the weld:
in shear.
In most cases the welded c o n n t d o n will provide
sufficient length (a-a) for the proper transfer of thme
forces from one portion of the member to another.
I Problem 1 ]
= - actual force
To detail an attachment to the tension member shown allowable force
in Figure 19.
If wc assume the total axial tensile force ( F =
125 kips) is divided among the two flanges and web of
the beam by the ratio of their areas to the total area, = ,194'' or use Y4" (A373 steel; E60 weld)
then the force in the flange which must be transferred
out is- ( b ) If the doubler plates are 7" wide and are
welded directly to the inside of the flanges of the WF
section, the flange force (F* = 47.5 kips) will transfer
directly through the parallel welds. See Figure 21.
If the leg size of these parallel fillet welds is o =
%", the length of these welds would be-
= 47.5 kips
( a ) If the doubler plates are 6" wide, this flange
force (F, = 47.5 kips) must first transfer into the beam - .
.
(17.5 kips)
web along the length ( L ) as shear, V = 47.5 kips. - 2(Y600) ('h)
This length ( L ) must be- = 4.95" or use 5"
FIGURE 21
5.9-10 / Welded-Connection Design
FIGURE 23
Diagonal compression
on web o f connection
due to shear forces from
unbolonced moment
FIGURE 24
Design of Trusses / 5.9-11
FIGURE 25
- Stiffeners
FIGURE 26
other component (here F ) . Of cor~rsethe applied ud~ereK = the distancr from the outer face of the
force (17) will bc reduced also_ and under thcse condi- flange to thc web toe of the fillet. This
tions some other portion of this member must transfer value for all rolled scctions may bo found
it. In this case the web of member A will transfer thi? in any steel handbook.
halancc of the force ( F ) .
tt = thickness of the flange of the cor~necting
Determining Need for Stiffeners member which supplies the compressive
No~mallystiffeners woold b e 21dded to a mcmber in fo1-cc.
which largc concentrated transvrrse forces are applied.
IIowrver, for smaller mcmbers with lower forces, Although thcre usas no axial compression applied
thesc stiffeners are sometimes left off in truss ronncc- to the member in this test, on subsequent work involv-
tions. It is difficult to know under what conditions this ing actual beam-to-colr~mnconnections, axial compres-
might have to bc stifiened. sion was sin~ultanronslyapplied. See Figure 28.
In n:cent research at 1,rhigh liniversity or1 "Welded It was found that an axial compressive stress of
lntcrior Ream-to-Column Connections", short scctiolis ahout l.fi5 times the working stress (14,500 psi), or
were tested imder trarrsversc comprrssion as uell as u -- 24,000 psi, had little effect on the strength of the
tension, with 2nd without stiffoners. See Figure 37. connection. At the end of each test with the final loads
It was foond that the compressive force applied left on the beams, this axial compressive strcss was
over a narrow section ( t r ) of inemher's flange spread increased to twice the working stress or u = 29000
out over a wide section of the wc11 by the time the net psi with no indicalion of trouble in the conncction.
web thickness was reached. A conservative valw for From this, they concluded that the minimum web
this distar~ceis given as: thickness of thc c o h ~ ~ nfor
n which stiffeners are not
(te + 5K) required is found from the following:
elded-Connection Design
$9 Bar represents
connecting flange
Toe of
of web
2- t*-bb
t, + 5K
w -
FIGURE 29
See Figure 29. where: For the wide-flange columns and beams used in
m = wTC + 2(K - tc)
practical connections, it has been found that cl varies
within the range of 3.5 to 5. A conservative figure
would bc-
where:
resistance of supporting flange (t,) The vertical component of the web force of member
P = (.SO) us tb (.15 bb) + (.180) 7 uY h2 @ transfers directly into the web of member @
within the distance of d
pull of tension flange (tb) sin d,
PI = b, t , ITy
Within the region b-c, these compressive stresses
.'. (.go) U, t,, (.I5 bb) -+ (.SO) 7 IT^ tC2 in the web of member @ overlap and would be added.
= bb tb us sin a
bb tb (sin a - .12)
. . . . . . . . . . . . .(4) + 5.)-
+ (&)w
F , sin d,
FIGURE 31
Design of Trusses / 5.9-15
FIGURE 32
I where: (T:,=--
force - F, sin d,
area d
sin 4
the member 6
Within the re ion (b-c), these compressive stresses in
overlap and would be added:
(--,ti-+
sm r6
5K ) w + h, t, +a;.-- (7)
I
where:
side.
F, = h, t, o;
4. VERTICAL STIFFENERS F, = d WD u,
FIGURE 33
FIGURE 35
Q
of member A enters here. Since fillet welds cannot
be placed on t e inside, this would incan a rather large
fillet weld on the outside. It may be more economical
ponent to entpr the lowcr flange of @ . This forcc:
( F ) , now in the stiffener, gradually transfers into the
to bevel the plate and use a groove weld. In this
web of @ as shear, from section a-a to section b-h.
example, the vertical compressive force is transferred -
from the plate down into the vertical member @; This unit shear force is equivalent to v = p7
-- The weld
thus a silnple fillet weld along the top edge of thc plate bctween stiffeners and web of memb$@ would
to the upper flange would bc sufficient. bc designed to transfer this shwr force ( V ) , F i y r e 35.
This discussion and resulting formulas will allow
the connection to be d~atailedwithout computing the
actual stresses. It is based on providing a connection as
strong as the members.
Since member @ will normally not be stressed
to its full allowable ~n~npression, a more efiicient con-
nection would probably result if the actual stresses
were computed, using these guides on distribution.
Instead of providing full-strength welds, their size
would then bc determined from thesc computed forces.
These ideas will now be applied to various parts of
a truss connection.
upper flange of @ . No shear force is transferred concentrated force into the web is to he taken, then
ber 6
throu h the weld between stiffener and web of mem-
. Only enough weld is required near mid-
section of stiffener to keep it from buckling, Figure 36.
the conservative method may be used. Thus, it is as-
sumed that the flange force must first be transferred as
shear into the web of the same member before it is
transferred through the connecting weld into member
@) . This weld may have to be made larger because
of this additional force, Figure 38.
If this flange force ( F ) is high, a web doubler
plate might have to be used so that these forees can
be effectively distributed into the web of @ without
overstressing it.
( Problem 2A I
Consider the connection of Figure 39, using A373 steel
and E60 welds.
In this case a portion of the vertical component
of @ is transferred directly into @ . It will be
assumed that the vertical component d the left flange
and the vertical force in the right flange of
be transferred around through the web of
of two vertical stiffeners. See Figure 40.
( a ) Cheek the size of the connecting welds on
the flanges of @ .
FIGURE 37
unit force on f m g e fillet welds
The force ( F ) from the flange of @ enters the
stiffener, and is transferred through to the opposite
end. The vertical component (F,) is taken by the - (138 kips)
second stiffener as (F,), and the horizontal component 2(10)
(F,,) is taken by the upper flange of @ , Figure 37. = 6.9 kips/linear inch
In these last two eases, it is assumed that no portion
of the force ( F ) in the stiffener is transferred into the leg size of flange fillet welds
web of @ ) . The welding of the stiffener would be
similar to the previons case, that is Figure 37.
- (74 kips)
Z(17.5)
= 2.11 kips/linear inch
leg size of web fillet welds
FIGURE 38
2.11
OR = -
If there are no flange stiffeners on member A 9.6
and no advantage of the precceding distribution of the = .22"
Design cf Trusses / 5.9-19
FIGURE 39
FIGURE 40
However, the minimum fillet weld to be attached unit force on stiffener-to-web fillet we&
to the 1.063"-thick flange would be -
w, = %u". (AISC
Set 1.17.4) f = 97--
kips
4(12.6)
= 1.92 kips/linear inch
( c ) Determine required sectional area of vertical
stiffeners. leg size of fiUet welds
- (97 kips)
-. (AISC Sec 1.5.1.5.2) ( e ) Check the vertical shear stress along a-a.
(29.7 ksi)
=: 3.27 i a 2 , or use two %" x-5" stiffeners T =
v
- See Figure 41
A,
Their A, = 3.75 in.2 > 3.27 -
OK - (97 kips)
(.660) (12.62)
( d ) Check the size of connecting welds to trans- = 11,650 psi < 13,000 psi < .40 ur OK
fer this force (F,) as shear into the web of B . (AISC See 1.5.1.2)-
5.9-20 / Welded-Connection
b
( g There is one more item to check; consider
point x in the figure below. It is necessary that the
vertical component of the right flange of @ be trans-
ferred into the left flange of @ , and yet its hori-
zontal componmt be transferred into the lower flange
of @
FIGURE 41
(151 kips)
=y m2q
= 11,430 psi < 13,000 psi < .40 u, OK
(AISC Sec 1.5.1.2)-
FIGURE 42
Design of Trusses / 5.
FIGURE 45
be taken a t this point and somehow carricd up into the If the shcar transfer ( V ) hetwcen thcse two stiff-
lower flange of @ . enws exceeds the allowable of the web of @ , a
Likewise, in order for the f a n e of @ to take doublcr plate may h c added to the web; or a plate
the horizontal component (F.) at
that the vertical component (FY)
($ , it is neccsrrry
also be takcn at this
1~myhe set out on each side to box in this area.
Ka"
FIGURE 47
FIGURE 50
FIGURE 51
.-
1.118
+ 5 x 1%~ or use a pair of 35" x 12%" x 36" stiffeners.
- 7.03 in.'
2
so use two pairs of 3/4" x 5" stiffeners.
~..-~~- -
5.9-24 / Welded-Connection Design
FIGURE 52
- 168'
shear
Check the details of this connection, using A373 steel resulting maximum normal stress (See Figure 53.)
and E60 welds.
( a ) Consider the moment and vertical shear on
section a-a.
M = F d = (16SV - 14L)(1(Y') = 1540 in-kips
= 10,980 psi
V = 154 kips
The resulting bending stress of u = 8,000 psi
at the outer fiber is for a horizontal edge. If this edge
slopes ($), the resulting fiber stress along this edge
may be found from the following:
bending
(See Figure 54.)
Design of Trusses / 5.9-25
= 5730 psi
n = 8000 psi
FIGURE 53 FIGURE 54
u = = 10,700
2;--- psi (tension) f, = 1.76k/in \\ fr
,865'
( b ) Consider the transfix of the vortical compon- M = (168" - 14")(7.03") = 1082-in.-kips
ent (I.',) of the truss members @ and @ duough
gusset plate @ and into the web of column @ V = 154 kips
within the connection length of 43" a s shear. From section morlwlz~sof ucld connection
this vertical component (F,), deduct the portion to be
On this basis, the stress in each of these flange must be taken by @ alone. The cross-sectional area
plates is: of @ is A = 1 5 . B in2.
LT = --(78 kips)
..-.
For the same stresy in 0
-, this would require
( 2 " )(%") (4%') the same cross-sectional area, or 15.88 in." and a net
width of
= 13,100 psi OK
-
The force from an adjacent pair of these plates is
transferred into @ as double shear.
There is sufficient width; see Figure 52.
FIGURE 57
Design of Trusses / 5.9-27
radius of gyration
Applbd Loads r = ,289 t t= (.289)(%) = ,181"
I
3.87"
-4 k- FIGURE 59
Weld group
horizontal force
vertical sllear
gusset plate. The only force transferred through this
connecting weid to the vertical memhcr (14" WF
136#) connecting weld to the vertical member (14"
TVF 136+) is the 248-kip vertical force acting 3l/2"
away from thc crnter of gravity of the welded con-
nection.
A, = 1.83 in2
FIGURE 60
I Problem 5 1
Determine the weld sizes on this connection. A373
steel, I160 welds.
( a ) Find the reqnired size of fillet weld hchvren
member @ and connecting platcs @ The total
length of connrcting weld is-
L = 1(W) + 2(6.08") = 36.0"
force of weld
F
- = (95 kips) = 2,641'
f upsjiri
L (36")
( b ) Find tha reqnired s k e of fillet weld between
flanges of @ and platcs @. The total length of
connecting wrld is-
= (2.64 k/in.)
(9.6 kjin.)
-
- 07-"
J or use x6" L = 1(3'/2") + 2(12") == 38.0"
force i n wck
Trusses were essential to the all welded froming of the steel and gloss Phillis Wheotley
Elementary School in New Orleans. The school was erected off the ground on two
rows of concrete piers, plus exposed steel supporting columns under end trusses of the
contilevered classroom wings. This provides both open and sheltered play area beneath
the structure.
The roof supporting space frame that tops the Upjohn Co.'s Kolomozoo office building
is of welded angle construction. A system of subassembly jigs focilitated the holding
of alignment during fabricotion of the giant frome sections. Nearly all joints are
welded downhand.
5.9-32 / Welded-Connection Design
2. GUSSET PLATES
FIGURE 4
FIGURE 5
1 Tensile member
FIGURE 6
this is wi.ld~xlto hoth of thesc mt~mbel-s.Evmy effort is test shows this connection to have the highest strength,
i r d e to obtain tlic hest tcnsile connection; Figure 6. actually slightly higher than the tube itself, which in
This is not quite as important as it first sounds a separate test pulled a t an average of 260 kips. Eotice
sirm most of the vertical co~nponentin the tension all three of the above tests failed in the tube wall
member is tr:msfrrred directly into tho compression adjacent to the connecting weld.
memho. through thp \velds of this overlapping portion
( b ) witlro~rtw e r passing throngh the wcld connecting 4. APPLICABLE BRITISH SPECIFICATIONS
t h tension
~ ~ irmnhcr to ihr main horizontal member ( a ) .
Thc portion of the x ~ l d( a ) in the overlapped area The following is taken from Addition No. 1 (Nov 1953)
connecting the tcnsion m(,mhcr to the main member to H.S. 449 (l.948), British Standards Institution:
is snhjcctd to two Sorces: tension from the tensile, Sealed tubes or sealed box sections, for exposed
rnernbw, and r:ompression fmrn the cornpression mem- structures shall not be thilmer than ,160"; for non-
her sincc it pushes agitilist this overlapped portion of exposed structures this limit is .128", and not less than-
thc tensile member. One forcc offsets the othrr, so that D = outside diameter of pipe
vt:ry little of any vcrtical force mrlst he casried by this t = . l o VE-
portion of the weld at (a). jwt the horizontal force t = thickrms of pipe
into thc top rnoml~er.
Fignrvs 7 :tnd 8 descrihc a trst condncted at the The angle betwwn intersecting pipe shall not be
Vniwrsity of Chlifon~ia,"~ic~scarchon Tubular Con- less tharr 30"; otherwise the strength of the connection
rirctions in St]-uctnrd LVork" ]. C;. Uouwkamp, WRC shall be demonstrated.
ji.71, .hog. 1961. This test shows the effect that over- A cmnplete ptw:tration goove weld may be used
lapping the intwsocting web members has on the regardless of the ratio of the diameters of the inter-
strength of the joint. secting pipes.
It is seen that a more negative rccentrieity of the If the ratio of the diameter of the pipes is less than
connection ( c ) resnlts in more overlapping of the web 'h, fillet welds may ho used.
~ncmbers and greater stifl'ness of the main member. If this ratio is '/A or greater, a combination of fillct
With this grcat ovcriapping of thc u e b members, the welds for a portion of the joint and groove welds for
tr:tnsfr.r of the vertird component 01 the diagonal web the remainder may br. nssd.
mmnhrr into thc vertical iwh momber will occur before Pipes eonrrected end to and shall be groove u-alded.
it miters thc main horizontal chord inember. The above In a fillct u ~ l or
d a combination of fillet and groove
eided-Connection Design
also
M, = (154")(6%")
= (20,000) (7.165) = 982 in.-kips
= 145.3 kips > 126 kips OK
--
assumed oalue of e
e=12t
= 12 ( % )
= 4%"
5.10-6 / Welded-Connection Design
FIGURE 10
maximum unit force jrudial) applied to This represents a worse condition than actually exists.
1" ring section of pipe @
t?
s =-
6
--
- (36)'
6
= .0Z3 in."
= 1.98 kips
M,,, ( a t force f ) = k f r
= (.318)(1.98(6)
= 3.78 in.-kips
( r = -
M
S
- ( 3.78)
FIGURE 11 --
(.023)
= 164,000 psi Excessive.
Althonglt there is just a single radial force ( f )
acting on tlw p i p shell, assume there is an equal force Heca~iseof t h < w excessive bending stresses within
on the oppositr side of the shell, resisting this force. the pipe shell resdting from the moment applied by
Connections for Tubular Construction / 5.10-7
= ,210 in."
-
60" oroove weld on %" liner
also j p n s pipe member. Weld
FIGURE 13
lies d o n g neutral o x i i of
plpe, so this becomes built-up
section to resist bending
%"
3/l"-thi~kstiffening
lhner around p,pe
FIGURE 12
elded-Connection Design
FIGURE 14
= 2.77 in.:'
where: w = width of
s =: m
~
t'
stiffening ring
6
:== l.29" rqnircd, and since i.29" - 3h'' = An alt(m~atrmt,thod woi~ld11e to rise %'' fillet weld
.915", sldd a 1" x 10" plat? &-rapped aromd tlle pipe all the way aroimd the m d of the pipe @ :
@ at t h top
~ and bottom of the coirncction.
plate
4 I, 9600 w = 4 t, 1. r
FIGURE 15
Connections $or Tubular Construction / 5.10-9
60
The inner radius ( r , ) of thc~sinallcr p i x .\ and
the outer radius ( r , ) of thc largcu pipe H .me med
to makr the template. This is done gr;ipliicnlly or
;~rr;~lyti~~;rlly, as explained a in\:lx~ragrapfrsfurther.
Tlrc tcniplatc is mad? of soiue type of iiravy p;ipcr.
It is nirapp(d arorlnd i h t pipe to he cut, at the propcr
location. The c?ntc,r of tlris tcnrl)l:rtc rdg? is transfcrrcd
onto the pipe with chdk. Thr: rhalkcd curvi. on the
pipeis tlien marked with a st:rics of c:~ntcrpmch marks.
Tht: pipe is thrn flainr-cut along this cl~rve,krrping
the torch tip trorni;rl or at right mglcs to the surface of
the pipe. This \vill prtid~ice the p r o p ~ rcurve for the
joi~rtas far as tho inside of tlrc pip(. is <,or~cerncd.
It is then necessary to brvt,l the edgo of this pipe
back from the outsidr, jnst torrclring tliis inside cut to
pro\.ide the raquirrd inclrldd angle, for the groove
weld. A good expcrie~rcrdflamc-cutting operator will
5.10-10 / Wetded-Connection Design
0 @ 0 @ 0 @ 0 @ 4 3 ~ ~ ~ @ @ @
FIGURE c TEMPLA76 DEVELOPMENT OF PIPE A
FIGURE 16
FIGURE 17
the pipr.
I f Formula 3 is h) be ~ c d tile
, followiirg norno-
graph, Figr~reIS, will give vollies of [ A ] . Valurs of
/ 13 1 may I J ~fo1111din Tables 1 and 2.
I'ri~cticdly all s t r ~ ~ c t p~i ~
p ,r cdo ~ ~ ~ ~ e c tu-ill
i o n 11avc
s
no offs~t,:I = 0; :ind this ljrcomcs-
<r . , - - , - 2 I Problem 2 I
I
r7
.-.-
r2- 2' m
ll = - . ~ ~~ ~ ~- Foa thts tuhnlar coiinwtion w p n w n t e d in Figure 16,
8 tan 4( 1 - cos a )
-;-I the sn~;rllt.rpipc A , inside ri?clius r, =-: Y,
thc 1;trgw pipe R . rmlsirk r;idi~is r2
l oifset of a = 2".
a~rgtcof is'',and ~ . i t l:in
iiitersrets
3", at an
5.10-12 / Welded-Connection Design
Connections for Tubular Construction / 5.10-13
I Problem 4 1
In this example, the nomogaph (Fig. 18) will be
used to find the ordinates ( h ) for a template to he used
in cutting the smaller pipe of a two-pipe ~xmnection.
8
The smaller pipe A has an inside radius of rn = 2",
the larger pipe B has an outside radius of r2 = 3",
and the angle of their intcrscction is $ = 60'.
A sheet of paper is laid out. A straight line X-X sin 60' = .8660
is drawn across the paper, parallel to the long edge and tan 60' = 1.7321
%" or 3" from this edge. Starting from the left edge of
the paper, measure off a distance on this line equal to Formula ( 3 )
the outer circumference of the smaller pipe A and
mark this on the line. This can be done in two ways;
the circumference of the pipe may be figured by know-
ing the outside diameter of the pipe, or this paper may
be wrapped around the outside of the pipe and marked
where this edge of the paper overlaps.
The easiest way to divide this line (which repre-
sents the circumference) into equal segments is to fold
The results are shown below in table form. As o
the left edge of the paper back toward the right until
matter of interest, the values computed by Formula
it lies directly on top of this mark, then fold this flat
(2) are listed on the extreme right and indicate the
upon itself. This divides the circumference into two
reasonable accuracy of the nomograph.
equal parts. Now fold this edge hack toward the left
until it lies directly over this fold, and fold down. Do
the same for the similar portion on the bottom. This
now divides the circumference into four equal parts.
Open the paper and divide each of these quarter
sections into three equal parts and number each of
these vertical lines from 1 to 12. If 16 positions are to
be used, divide each of these quarter sections into four
equal parts and number from 1 to 16.
Lay off the comesponding ordinates ( h ) on these
lines. Draw a curve through these points and cut along
this curve; the lower portion of the paper is the tem-
plate.
5.10-14 / Welded-Connection Design
FIGURE 19
L
FIGURE 20
Space frame roof on the combined worehovse ond mochine shop in Bethlehem Steel
Co.'s reseorch complex offers on interesting silhouette (ot top). Roof frome is formed
by eleven 96'-span welded pipe trusses braced aport b y inclined pipe struts ond
orched structural members. The result is a very rigid structure, olthough temporary
stiffening with steel chonnels wor required during erection.
Conneceionr for Tubular Construction / 5.1
FIGURE 1
elded-Connection Design
FIGURE 2
I t might he thought that the simple square type member, and in some cases it will he less.
of knee connection would naturally he as rigid as the Figure 2 shours moment-rotation curves of various
connc.:cting members, since it is a continuation of the knee connections.* The vcrtical axis is the applied
same section. In many cases, this is true. However, moment; the horizontal axis is the rcstsolting rotation
stress causes strain, and the accumulation of strain of the connection. The vertical height of the curve
over a distance results in a movement of some kind: represents the maximwn or ultimate strength of the
deuection, angular movement, etc. This means that the connection. The slope of the straight portion of the
sharp comer of this joint increases the stress in this curve represents the stiffness of the connection, with
region by several times. This stress concentration resdts the more nearly vertical con7es being the stiffer. The
in a higher strain and, therefore, grcater movement in right-hand extremity of the curve represents the rota-
this local region. -
With the square type of knee in which just Uange *Figure 2 adapted from "Connections for Wolded Continuous
stiffeners are addcd, it is difficult to cxcccd the stiffness Portal Frames", Sccdle, Tripractsoglon, and Johnston; AWS
Journal; Part I July 1951, Part 11 August 1951, and Part I11
of the member. In most cases it will just equal the November 1952.
igid-Frame Knees (Elastic) / 5.1 1-3
llililillliilliiiillllilllilii
v v
Point of inflection;
zero moment
Moment diagE
FIGURE 3
Portion of knee in
testlng machine, subject
to compressive force (F)
to duplicate actual
points of reflection; load conditions in frame
, no moment opplied
v
v F
3. SHEAR IN CONNECTION shear into the connection web within the distance equal
to the depth of the connecting member, the resulting
An axial force (tensile or compressive) can transfer shear stress within this counection web is-
sideways out of one elemcnt of a ~nemberas shear.
For example, the tensile force from the beam flange
1-
-
will transfer down through the connection web as shear . . . . , . , , . . . . . . , . . . . (1)
into the supporting column; Figure 4.
If this shear stress exceeds the allowable for the
e F b
A web, it must be rcdnced by increasing the web thickness
within the connection area. Or, a pair of diagonal stiff-
eners must be added to transfer some of this flange
form as a diagonal component.
One method of detailing this connection is to cal-
... culatc the imrtion of the flangr force which may be
I I
transferred as shear within the web by stressing it to
the allowable. Then, diagonal stiffeners are detailed
to transfer whatever flange force remains.
Anotlicr method is to assume that the shortening
of the diagonal stiffener under the compression com-
ponent is equal to the diagonal shortening of the web
due to tire shear strrss. From this, the resulting shear
stress ( r w )in the web and thc compressive stress ( U S )
in the diagonal stiffener may be found for any given
FIGURE 4
set of conditions.
Derivation of Stress Values
where the flange force in the beam is-
The final diagonal dimension ( d l ) of the web, due to
shear action on the web, will be-
d 2 = d" +
dC2- 2 db d, cos (90' - y )
and the flange force in the column is-
but
cos (90" - y) = cos 90" cos ( y )
+
sin 90" sin ( y )
Assuming this flange force ( F ) is transferred as -
- sin y
. .
---
Initial conditions of y = T/G= E Finol conditions of
stiffener and web Final conditions of web stiffener
FIGURE 5
Rigid-Frame Knees (Elastic) / 5.1 1-5
For small strains (t,) and angles ( y ) - and the compressive stress in the diagonal 3tiEener is-
sin ( 7 ) = tan ( y )
-
u. = 2.5 T sin 0 cos 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .( 2 )
- 6
d, = 4d,%- 2 dh d" -
d2
E,
7
hut
of the compressive force carried by the diagonal
stiffener.
db == dC tan 0 &--sin 0 --
cos 0
- d, 1 -2 T
sin 0 cos 0
cos 0 ER Subytih~ting( 2 ) into ( 3 ) gives-
F
Since the movemeot-
A : .= E d,
I 7 = t, d,. + 2.5 A, sin 0 cosY 0
.
-t
+ rsAs cos 0
4, cos 0
0,= - . . . , , . . . .(5)
-- t,- d" .iA, cos 0
2.5 sin 0 cos 0
Squaring both sides:
T Some knees are more complex than those described
1 - 2 =- sin 0 cos 0 =
here and analysis most consider factors that are covered
more adequately in Section 2.12, Buckling of Plates.
or
I Since for steel:
7
--
E,
sin 0 cos 0 =
E, -
E = 30,000,000 psi
12,000,000 psi
.'. E = 2.5 E.
To check stiffener requiremcnts on the square knee
connection shown in Fignrc 6, for the loads indicated.
A36 steel and E i 0 welds are used.
elded-Connection Design
required ~ e c t i o marea
l of stiffeners
- -(26.4)
-
( 22.0)
= 1.2 in.' (pair)
Also required:
b,/t, = 17
Hence, nse a pair of ?*it'x 3" diagonal stiffcners.
- -- .
FIGURE 6
Here:
ethod 2 Plastic Design (See Sect. 5.12)
- 117.6 kips
,451". so stiffening is required.
ethod 1
= 26.4 kips
Rigid-Frame Knees (Elastic) / 5.1 1-7
ethod 3 Start with a pair of 'A'' x 3" diagonal in direction of the compressive Range force is accom-
stiffeners and, assuming both diagonals contract the plished by means of a diagonal stifleuer; Figure i ( b )
same amount urrdrr load, check stresses in web and In the curved haunch, this change in direction of
stiffener. the axial force is uniform along the curved edge of the
flange and resnlts from radial con~pressiveforces in thc
shear stress in web web; Fignre 7 ( a ) .
F The force in the inner flangc of the knee is greater
7 = --
than the force in the outer fiangc because: it has a
t, d, + 2.5 A, sin 0 cos2 0
smaller radius of curvature. Iisually this inner flange is
the compression flange; therefore, this is the region to
be checked for stiffening requiremonts using the follow-
ing formula for radial compressive forces in the web.
Diagonal resisting
A F,
Rodiol cornpresslve
F< = a A,
FIGURE 7
5.1 1-8 / Welded-Connection Design
YX bi2
- ---
- \ - I 8 If this value is exceeded, stiffeners would be used
between the inner compressive curved flange and web.
- G--tf hr2
- .
ri 8 bl = width of flange
tf = thickness of flange
ri = radios of curvature of inner flange
ut = transverse tensile stress in flange
a = axial compressive stress in flange
Radiai compressive
force exerted
by web ,
FIGURE 9
/ \ Tionweire tensile
II J stress due to bending
.,..lf
of
Rigid-Frame Knees (Elastic) / 5.1 1-9
FIGURE 10
Inner face
curvature of Ronge
'"""'
Sirerr on
inner flange
(b/
1
FIGURE 11
elded-Connection Design
I
F
f, = - Ibs/linear in. CHECK
( 2 welds)
Most theories concerning the strength of knees differ
only in the placing of the neutral axis, and in locating
the resul~ing section for determining the section
modulus.
F RADlUS OF CURVATURE ON
STRESS IN INNER CORNER
Here:
Here:
b = a cos d,
FIGURE 14
fa
fa = -------
cos d,
W. R. Osgood* and aodified by H. C. Olander.**
-
* "Theory of Flexure for Beams with Nonparallel Extreme Fibers''
by W. R. Osgood, ASME Vol. 61, 1939.
**"Stresses in the Comers of Rigid Frames" by H. 0. Olander, a,,= - fb
ASCE Transactions Paper 2698, 1953. b x I"
Method of Using a Straight Cross-Section 1
- - fa
- x --
Dimension of Straight Section cos d, a cos d,
The dimensions of a straight sec%ion (A-B) of the
haunch may be found from the following:
FIGURE 15
FIGURE 16
5.1 1-12 / Welded-Connection Design
P'
FIGURE 17
Here: \,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(15)
d- + r[l-cos ( 2 a ) ]
P=sinT2 a ) sm ( 2 a )
. . . ..(16)
Wedge Method of Determining Section
The wedge method may be used on any beam section
whose flanges are not parallel.
A curved section (A-R) is constructed where the = d - r[l-cos ( 2 cc ) ]
. . . . .(17)
tan ( 2 a ) sin ( 2 a )
stresses are to be checked. This is normal to both
gauges and has a radius ( p ) the center of which lies
on the straight flange. See Figure 17. -1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (18)
.
The transverse force ( P i ) , axial force (P,'), and
moment (M') acting at the apex ( C ) of the wedge are
found. See Figure 18. (d,l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(19)
FIGURE 18
Rigid-Frame Knees (Elastic) / 5.1 1-13
transuerse force applied to wedge at point C the curved haunch section, as described in following
paragraphs.
(P{ = pi cos a - Pa sin cc 1 .. . ... . . .( 2 0 ) Mameot (M') Applied t o Wedge M e m b e r
axial force applied to wedge a t point C The horizontal bending stresses (u,,) resulting from the
applied rnommt ( M ' ) , Figure 19(a), may be replaced
. (21) with its two components: radial bmtiing stress (a,)
and tangential shcar stress ( T ) , Figure 1Y(b). In Figure
moment about point C lY(c) arc shown the resulting stresses.
It is seen in taking moments about the apex ( C )
I",- M' = 3- P t m + Pa- . .. . . . . . (22) of the wedge that all of the radial bending stresses
pass throngh this point and cannot contribute to any
moment. The tangential shear stresses along the curved
These applied forces result in various stresses on section ( A - B ) acting normal to, and at a distance ( p )
(a) Resisting horizontal (b) Components of (c) Resisting radial bending stress (a,)
bending stress bending stress normal to curved section (A-8);
also tangenfiol shear stress (7)
FIGURE 19
(a) Resisting horizontal (b) Components of these (c) Resisting rodial bending
bending stress and two stresses stress (u,)normal to curved
vertical shear stress section (A-B)
FIGURE 20
5.11-14 / Welded-Connection Design
u ~ i produce
l an eqnal and oppo~itemoment. The value moment applied to section A-B
of this tangentla1 shear force ( V ) acting on this cr~rved
section (A-B) may he found from the following:
FIGURE 22
FIGURE 23
Ided-Connection
average stress in lower curved flange at (1-1) transverse bending stress in flange
Uf =-
P M ct 0-t = p urnax
A 1-'- = (.70) (19,600)
(150 kips) (100" x 100 kips)
-- --(!Z3.1%")
-- = 13,760 psi
- (41.6%) + - (15,153 in.")
= 18,870 psi (compression) These stresses are a little high, so radial stiffeners
will be added between the lower curved flange and
force i n flange the web.
F, = ur At
STEP 2: Check Nounch Section tor Bending Stress
= (18,870) (10) Using O l a n d e r i wedge method and curved section
= 188.7 kip? (A-B) (See Figure 24.)
- (1887 Ibs/in. )
(W')
= 3774 psi
-
and we find-
= .96
Hence:
p = .70
Point of inflection
, in column [M = 0)
FIGURE 24
d r
n (I-cos2a)
tan 2 a sin 2-
= 161.79 + 15.84
= 177.63"
d, = p 2 a
= (177.63) (.31417 radians)
= 55.81''
elded-Connection Design
m = u - n
= 25" - 138.04"
- - 113.04"
FIGURE 26
Total
shear stresses in section (A-B)
v = -M '
P
- ( 14,456)
- (177.63)
= 81.35 kips
7
- V[Atyr
= --V Q - +
Awywl
1 tw I tw
- (81.35) (7.5 x 28.975
- .-
+
14.3 x 14.3) -
(19,686) (35)
= 1800 psi
moment applied to section (A-B)
M = M' - Ptr p
Find forces applied at apex ( C ) of wedge section
(ABC) : = (114,456) - (132.5) (177.6)
- -9082 in.-kips
transverse force at C
Ptf = Pt cos a - P, sin a nonnal stress on inner flange
= (150) (.98769) - (100) (.15643)
= 132.5 kips
axial force at C
- - (123.5)
-+ (-9082) (26.46)
(44.53) ( 19,686)
Pa' = P, cos + Pt sin a
a -
- - 15,000 psi
= (100)(.98769) + (150)(.15643)
normal stress on outer flung?
= 123.5 kips
moment about C
-
.- - (123.5) - (-9082) (29.35)
(44.53) (19,686) --
-+
= - 10,300 psi
v = 3(
U =
-
FIGURE 27
FiGURE 28
Plate A y M = A-y I, z Mey I
FIGURE 29
STEP 4: Summary
Fignre 19 summarizes the stresscs at several sections of
stress n o m ~ n lto axis of czmed flange the haunch for botlr the \vetlge mt:tliod and the conven-
LT tional method using straight sections.
u' = Tho \vedga inetliod gives results that check close
cos' 2 a
with experirriental results, although it does require
- 13,800
-. more time. The conventional rnctliod nsing straight
(.95106)?
sections in which the stress oil the inward c~invedflange
= 15,260 psi, compression
~
no
load
this heam has scrvcd its us(~fnlness,it still will not fail
hecnusc the txvo krwcs an- still intact and the frame
now 1 ) ~ ~ ) mae thrt-r-hinged
s arch, the other two hinges
bcing the original pinrrcd rnds.
Further loadirig of the frame may he continued,
as in ( d ) , with the kners loading u p ~rntilthey become
plastic hingcs, as in ( e ) . Orlly when this point is
rc;ichrd would the whole frarnc fail. This condition is
rt.fcrrd to as mcchaiiism; that is, the structure would
dcforni a p p ~ ~ ~ $ a l :with
l y only the slightest increase
in load.
Mr * !st plastic
hrnga formed
a t center
This entire hin~c,adion takrs place in u small
portion of the uoai1ol)L: clnngution of the membcr. In
0 r-+-l
the lo\\-er portion of Figure 3 is a stress-strain curve
showing the amouut of movement which may be used
becomes arch
hinge in the plastic range. This may seem large, but it is a
very small portion of the u h d e cnrvt., as shown in the
upper portion of tha figure, which is carried out to 25%
d o n g t lon.
'
The working load is nzultiplicd by a factor of
safety (1.85) to give thr? ultimate load. The dcsign of
plaastic the structurc is bused on this ultimate load. In order
hinge
to establish a proper factor of safety to use in connection
with thr ultimate, load, as found in the plastic method
of design, it worrld bc w d l to consider the loading of
a simply supported beam with a concentrated load
hinge applied at its midpoint. This is shown in Figure 4. The
moment diagrams for this beam are shown for the three
FIGURE 2 loads: the inomcnt M causing a bending stress of 22,000
psi; thc moment My causing 36,000 psi or yield point;
and the moment M, causing a plastic hinge.
plastic moment which causes the beam at point ( D ) Here, for A36 stcel:
to act as a plastic hinge. For a rectangular cross-section, Allowable hending stress = 22,000 psi
the plastic moment (M,,) is 1.5 times the moment at Yield stress = 36,000 psi = 67% above @
yield point (M,). For the standard rolled W F sections, Plastic hinge occurs 12% above @
this plastic moment (M,,) is usually taken as 1.12 times
the moment at yicld point (M,). The multiplier varies
for other sectional configurations.
Redistribution of moments causes other plastic
hinges to form. In Figure 2, a rigid frame with pinned
ends is loaded with 21 concentrated load at midspan.
The frame w-ith no load is shown in ( a ) . The frame is
loaded in ( b ) so that its maximum bending stress is
22,000 psi, the albwnble. Notict: from the bending
diagram that the moment at n~idspanis grratcr than
thc momcnts at the ends or knees of the frame. The
three marks at midspan show the moment M where
u = 22,000 psi, or allou-able; My where u = 36,000 psi,
or yield point; and M,, at plastic hinge. Notice at the 2 ,k---Plastic Ranye--
*)
- - 3
left knee how much more the moment can be increased 2 1.30
I
t
ZC
I
.G I
i
I , 1 I I
before a plastic hinge is formed.
In ( c ) the load has h e m increased until a plastic
t
2;
:I
o.,.,o-a P
i b rio-2 0
, - zo./oQ
hinge has becn formed at midspan. The knees of the Strain E /"/in
= GOO in."
Momant Diagram
FIGURE 4 So, use 36" W F 18% beam with S = 621 in."
m Example
This is foiind to be 343 in." wliich is 55% of that re- 1. More accurately indicates the true carrying
quired for the single beam. This hfam could be made capacity of the structure.
of a 30" W F beam having a weight of 124 lhs/ft. 2. Reqnires less steel than conventional simple
( c ) The plastic design, rigid framc is shown in beam constri~rtion and, in most cases, results in a
Figure 7. With this method, the possible plastic hinges saving over tlie use of conventional elastic design of
are found which could caust: a mcchanis~nor the con- rigid frames.
dition whcrrby the strocti~rebeyond a certain stress 3. Requires lvss design time tlian does elastic
point wonld deform appreciably with only the slightest design of rigid framing.
increase in load. These points of plastic hinge, in this 4. Result of years of research and testing of full-
example, are at the midpoint and the two ttiids, and scale structures.
are assigned the \.due of M,,. An expression is needed 5. Has the backing of the American Institute of
from which this value hl, can be found. Steel Construction.
Plastic dasign PL 2. D E S I G N R E Q U I R E M E N T S OF T H E M E M B E R
/-M= 7
= 1017.5 ft-kips
EXAMPLE :
P = 1000 lC
Py = 4000'
READ jk = 35
elded-Connection Design
case?
Notes: See Tcbler 2-33. 3-33. 2-36 ond 1-36 for volvei o i B, G, K ond J
TABLE 2-33 (AISC Table 4-33) TABLE 3-33 (AISC Table 5-33)
FOX sa XSI S r E c i r l r " rirLo miai srrxr
elded Connections for Plastic Design / 5.12-7
TABLE 2-36 (AISC Table 4-36) TABLE 3-36 (AISC Table 5-36)
M,
.M . .$I. ill. M.
-
l ,
-
X
.'11, i.0:iB
1 019
(3 1 070
44 1 ""I:
6.3 1 106
91 16 1 122
92 4: l i4li
Y:, in 1 138
94 43 i 176
95 50 1 is:>
96 61 i ('13
Y i 62 1 132
9" Sii 1 211
'9 54 1 271
100 66 1 290
106 6, 1 418
107 62 1 416
108 Ci I (56
ice 61 l '7"
ti0 Ui i 601
118 71 i 64,
$17 72 1 6,;s
ii6 73 1 591
ii9 71 i.716
izii 75 1.742
-
76 1.mw
77 1 "94
78 1 S21
79 1 848
FIGURE 13
elded Connections for Plastic Design / 5.12-1 1
4. STRAIGHT CORNER C
FIGURE 15
The forces in the flanges of' both rnornbcrs at the con- resulting shear stress in connection web
nection resulting from the moment (hl,) are trans-
ferred into the contirction .iwh as shc:tr ( V ) .
Some of the vertical shear in thc hoam (V,) :md
the horizontal shear in the column (V,) will also be The values for the shear stress at yield ( 7 , ) may
transferred into the cotincction web. IIowr\er, in most be found by using the Mises criterion for yielding-
cases these values are small compared to those result-
ing from the applied moment. Also, in a simple comer
uCr= J u? - u, my + uY2+ 3 rri2
connection, these are of opposite sign and tend to re- In this application of pure shear, u, and u, = 0
duce the actual shear valiio in the connection. and setting the critic;rl value (u,,) equal to yield ( u , ) ,
111this analysis, only the shear resulting from the we obtain-
applied rnomcnt is considered in the web of the con-
nection.
Diagonal
compression
Hence,
Fc =v
connecilon
&= -1 e[
cos
M
dl, u,. -
--L -&II.. .
w d
.(12)
plate
where
11_Ji FIGURE 17
e = angle of diagonal stiffener with horizon,
FIGURE 18
elded-Connection Design
A. 7
.
: area of a pair of diagonal stifhers,
A, = b, t,
---l-T
21" W 6 2 2 F = 432 X 12
14.18
=441k 1
I
stiffeners 4" X '!4/ia" 1
I
20.99"
\I
L -- - - - --Y
FIGURE 21
- 204 kips
36 ksi
= 5.65 in.%eeded in the stiffener
or use a pair of %" x 4" stiffeners, As = 6.0 > 5.65 OK = ,707" or use 3/4"
Now solve this portion of the problem by using Or use two plates, 3/4" x 4", for the diagonal stiff-
Formula 3: eners. Check their width-to-thickness ratio:
5.12-16 / Welded-Connection Design
5. HAUNCHED CONNECTIONS
I
FIGURE 23
W e l d e d Connections for Plastic Design / 5.12-17
Plastic design of this 8-acre rubber plant simplified mathematical analysis of the
structure ond moment distribution. Two results: a uniform factor of safety and a
saving of 140 tons of structural steel.
5.12-18 / Welded-Connection Design
FIGURE 24
Lower flange
of beam
FIGURE 25
Welded Connections for Plastic Design / 5.12-19
Thickness of Top Flange and W e b of Haunch flangc'sthiicknms. Silrcl, this is the tc~rrsionflange, it will
be same or thiinrer than the lower (co~npression)flange.
The thickness of the top flange nrrd the web of the It can he siionii that the pl;~sticswtion mo~iolos [ Z )
haunch slmild be> at least equal to the tl~icknessof the of an 1. section is:
rolled beam to which it connects.
tension
since
Transverse Stiffcners
T, = T, sin p
Fmm this, the requind depth (d,,) of the 1l:imich The cornniwtary of the AISC specifications scts the
may brt io~inrlfor any vehie of pl:tstic s < , c h nniodulus following lirnils for latvral I~racing.
(Z). The taper of' tli<, hau~jcli may br snch that the
Thc 1i;iiinch s~,ctiorimiist h? :rhlc to dcvt~lopthe resrilhig hei~dingstrcss 21t plnstic Ionding, wheu corn-
plastic inor~iciltat any lmint ;rloiig its imgth: p ~ i t ( db y using thc plastic inodiil~is ( % ) , is approxi-
mately a t yield ( q ) at Ilotll cnds @ & @. If this is the
, z u J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (22) caw, then Ii~nitihr ur~l~r;rccd (Li,):
l~~rigth
Resisting shear
forces in web of
section ABCD
dh
CD = -
tan (a + yj
FIGURE 27
Welded Connections Cor Plostic Design / 5.12-21
I
F& = A', q
FIGURE 28
\vhero:
At : area of top (temion) flange of haunch
A, =- total area of a pail- of diagonal stiffeners
Diagonal Stiffeners
+ At u, cos y -
n.,, dt,
cOS y - A, a; cos a =0
(31 W h e n outer (tensile) flanges form right ongfe
or
If the beam and colrirnn are at right mgles to each
cos y w,, ill, cos y
A - 4
- t ( G ;) - (n-tiirli <x -+;. )z;;- other, y = 0. See Figme 29.
, = Pi = P2
and O
a z 15"
A, r: A,, = .4e2
elded-Connection Design
th 2 t
- cos p
Based on load from ttwsion flange-
FIGURE 29 A, fi~,
- 0.82 \v,,d,
Rased on load from vomprcssion flange-
A, 2 JT A, (cos p - sin p )
also b,
- ,17
t. =
Then the preceding two formulas reduce to the
following: t, 2 ti, sin p b,
= -
17
based on tensile forces in outer flanges
tt, b', 2 3/s tbhb
and shear reststance of web
I A, 2 O A , - 0 . 8 2 w,, d , , ] . . . . . . . . . . .(31) Zl, = b t [dl, - t ) +-
4
WI,
(d,, - 2 t)"
M
2
rr,
based on comprcssivc forces in inner flange Check laferal stability of compression flange
also
Welded Connections for Plastic Design / 5.12-23
NNECTIONS
FIGURE 34
where
C = r $
4 = radian measure
.l
.. . this lirrlit, the
3 4 5 6 7 tliidness of thc m w d iuucr ilauge n u s t he iucrc:xsed
n = a/d hy-
FIGURE 33
inner flange, limit the radius of curvature t o - * ASCli Commmt:iry on Plmtic Design in Steel, p. 116
Welded Connections for Plastic esign / 5.12-25
FIGURE 35
u
Diagonal Stiffeners
(1) Based on compressive forces a t @ ( 2 ) Based on tensile forces a t @
An approximate
.. value of the comprcsive force
appliod to the diagonal stiEener as a rcsult of the The compressive force in tile diagonal stiflener
compressive forces in the ciirvcd inner Ransc may be is forrild taking tlIc llouizontal cornpo~ientsof these
made by treating the curved hauncli as a tapercd telisilc aarlSe forces, and settirig them equal to zero.
haunch. Sec Figure 35. Sen Figure 36.
cos - ws ds --co$ y
tan( + y-) A,fl
uy
u,cos a: =0
Resisting sheor
forces in web of
section ABCD
FIGURE 36
5.12-26 / W e l d e d - C o n n e c t i o n Design
FIGURE 37
Radial compressive
force exerted
Transverse tensile
stress due to bending
of flange
where:
> cos y
COS a
A, - W, di,
II . . . (43)
Trcating a 1" slice of this flange supported by the or unit load ( p ) on section:
web of the haunch as a cantilever beam and uniformly r , th
loaded with this unit radial force (f,), Figure 39: p = 7--
Welded Connections for Plastic Design / 5.12-27
FIGURE 39
Summary of Curved Haunch Requirements
Ii bending stress at @ u2 =- S
M >, < cr,, then
Therefor(. limit the ratio of flange width to thick-
elded-Connection Design
C 5 6 b , wliere:
C = r + shear resisted by connection web
where:
without decreasing the flange thickness.
V, = horizontal h e a r force in the column above
the connection, lbs
FIGURE 41
elded Connections for Plastic Design / 5.12-29
FIGURE 42
M, and M2 = moinrmts in bt::~ms (1) and ( 2 ) , Stiffencis are qriitc ofiw required on members in line
in.-lbs.
d, - depth of coliiuin, in.
dl and d? = dcpth of beams ( I . ) and ( 2 )
with the coniixessiorr ilii~qeswhich act against them,
to ixeveni crippling of the web where the concentrated
coinpressivc force is al~plied.
Wliera a heam sripportsa column, or a column
w = tliickness CIE connection w b , i n slipports a beam, on just one fiange, the stiffeners on
its web net:d only estmd inst bcyoncl its neutral axis.
If it is assumcd that:
1. tlrc column li(:igiit (11) has a point of inflectioi~
at mid-hlbight,
2. the d q ~ t hof the larger beam ( d 2 ) is %r, of the
column bight ( I I ) , or less,
3, tlic yield strength of the stcel is u, = 33,000
psi, and
4, the unbalancrd morncnt ( h l ) is expressed in
fooi-kips,
tiris for~nulawill rcdwe to t11:: folloiving:
where:
= A, ..
FIGURE 43 * t1,+5Kc
5.12-30 / Welded-Connection Design
FIGURE 45
also
where :
FIGURE 46
A, = llb X ti,
w,. = reqiiircd tltickness of connection wch (See S<,ction 5.7 on Continrious Coiinections for
hrtlicr exp1:ui:rtion.)
The niimngi-apli, Figrirt: 47, inn) bc riscd to find
the dist:riice ( t , , -4- 5 K,) ovcr whicli the corrw~itr:~ted
( S r r Swtion 5.7 on ( h t i i l u o r ~ sCoi~ncciions for foi-c:e f n m tlic beait~fiairg~sp~-c.:tdsnut into tllc c o l ~ ~ m n
fut-tlrrr cxpl;~tintion) web, In tllc case of ;I hilt-ui, colntnn, use the flangc
If vertical plate stiiieners are used, Figure -46: they iliickncss (t,.) and find the distance (t, + 5 t,) from
s l i d r l he proportioned to carry tlic excess of beam thc ~iomogrnpli.
flaiigc force ovcr that wllich the column web is able 'I'his value of (t,, - 1 5 K,) or (t,, - 5 t,.) can then
to can-y. It is assti~liedthe beam iiange estends alniost be used in fitiding [he required wc11 tliickncss (w,)
thc fnli width of the co111mn Ranges, and that the stif- from the nomogr;ipli, Figure 46.
Welded Connections for Plastic es%n / 5.12-31
FIGURE 4GThickness of Connection Web To Resist Thrust of Compression Flange.
z.7
L?6
2,5
If COLUMN FLANGE THICKNEJS
EXCEEDS THIS VALUE OF (tc )-
STIFFENERS ARE NOT REQUIRED
OPPOSITE TENSION BEAM FL4NGE
IF WEB THICKNESS OF COLUMN ( w c )
EXCEEDS THIS REQUIRED YALUE( +)-
STIFFENERS ARE NOT REQUIRED
OPPOSITE COMPRESSION BEAM FLANGE
7 I
wr
<
..
.'
.
.,
,
- ~ ~
0 it-kips x 12)
f i ( 2 1~.
- (21.13)(i3.81j(36 ksi).
= ,416"
onclusions (Fig. 50)
( a ) This req~lil-cdn e b thickness would be satisfied if
the beam were ;illowed to lun through the column.
This would give :i web thickness of ,430". OK
( b ) If tlw column were to run continuons through
the beam, as illustrated above, then a l/4" doubler plate
would be required in this conncction area to make up
the difference in thickness.
- ( c ) Another choice v.ould be to use a pair of
diagonal stiffeners having thc following cross-sectional
arw
FIGURE 49
beam dimcrwioru
d, = 21.13"
bb - 8.27"
Wb = ,430''
Or use a pair of 3" by 36'' stifhers, the area of
tb = ,685" which checks out as-
column clirnensioru A, = %" ( 2 x 3" ,339") +
d, = 13.81" = 2.38 in." 1.03 iu." OK
-
w, = ,339" .41so, thc required thickness is-
b, = 8.031"
Kc =: 1X6"
(c) A pair of 3" x 3/8" diagonal stiffeners (e) A pair of Tee vertical stiffeners
(d) A pair of 4" x Y2" horizontal cut from 21" WF 1 1 2 g or 5/8" plote
flange plate stiffeners Tee section also provides the
necessary additional web material fol
this connection.
FIGURE 50
elded Connections for Plastic Design / 5.12-35
Since w, = .339", some additional stiffening is required. and this checks against the following requirement-
There are two solutions.
Summary
FIGURE 4
1
,0002 ,0004 .0006 ,0008 ,0010 ,0012 .0014 ,0016 .C
Unit angular rotation (4); rodions/in.
Figure 4 shows moment-rotation curves of various havc high rotational capacity in addition to exceeding
comer connections.* The vertical axis is the applied the moment capacity of the member. In Vierendeel
moment; the horizontal axis is the resulting rotation of trusses, it is more important that the connection have
the connection. The vertical height of the curve repre- a stiffness equal to or exceeding that of the member,
sents the maximum or ultimate strength moment of the and a high moment capacity in order to safely carry
connection. The slope of the straight portion of the accidental overloads. Here the extra rotational capacity
cuwe represents the stiffness of the connection, with would not be as important because it is an elastic design
the more nearly vertical curves representing the stiffer rather than a plastic design.
connections. The right-hand extremity of the curve rep-
resents the rotational capacity of the connection. In Figure 4 notice that the square-comer conoec-
In plastic design, it is necessary that the connection tion is the most flexible. It falls slightly short of the
- beam itself, but does have the greatest rotational capac-
*Figure 1 adapted from "Connections for Welded Continuous ity. The comer with the bracket has greater stiffness
Portal Frames", Beedle, Topractsoglou and Johnston; AWS Jour-
nal; Part I July 1951, Part I1 August 1951, and Part 111 and higher moment capacity, hut less rotational capac-
November 1952. ity. Tapered haunch knees, not shown here, were found
5.13-4 / Welded-Connection Design
FIGURE 4
to behave similarly. The curved knees are the most The unbalanced moment about a connection will
rigid, have the highest moment capacity, and have a cause shear forces around the periphery of the conneo
rotational capacity somewhere in between the simple tion web. Fignre 6. The vertical shear force and the
square corner and the haunched knee. As the radius of horizontal shear force will result in a diagonal compres-
curvature of this inner flange is increased, the stiffness sive force applied to the mmection web. Unless the
and moment capacity increase slightly, with slightly web has sufficient thickness or iri re~nforced,it may
lower rotational capacity. buckle. According to plastic design (and this may be
used in elastic d e s i p ) , the required thickness of the
UARE CONNECTIONS joint web must b e -
FIGURE 6
Connections for V i e r e n d e e l Trusses / 5.13-5
Web
doubler
plate
Diagonal
stiffener
If the thickness of the connection web should be of Figure 9. Because of the slight yielding of the flange's
less than this required value, AISC in their work on outer edge, there is a non-uniform distribution of flange
Plastic Design (which may also be used in Elastic De- stress ( u ) . This stress is maximum in line with the web.
sign) recommends adding either ( a ) a doubler plate In addition there is a transverse tensile bending
to the web to get this required thickness, see Figure 8, stress ( u , ) in the curved flange. If this value is too
or ( b ) a pair of diagonal stiffeners to carry this diagonal high, stiffeners should be welded between this flange
compression, the area of these stiffeners to be sufficient and the web. These keep the flange from bending and
for just the additional requirements. pulling away from the web. These stiffeners usually
It seems reasonable that ( c ) a pair of longitudinal need not extend all the way between flanges, but may
stiffeners extending through the connection area would be a series of short triangular plates connecting with
be sufficient to resist this web shear. These stiffeners the curved flange.
would be flat plates standing vertically h&ween flanges In the following formulas, the values of factors o:
of the chord member and welded to the flanges near and p come from the graph, Figure lo.*
their outer edges.
longitudinal tensile stress in flange
5. CURVED-KNEE CONNECTIONS
........."".. "'
" "
(3)
Tensile stress (urn,.,) in the inner flange of a curved
knee tends to pull the flange away from the web, and
to bend the curved flange as shown at the lower right transuerse tensile bending stress in fhnge
.........................
M
radial force
.............................( 5 )
The radial force (f,) acts transverse to the m e t
welds connecting the flange and the web.
*From "Design of Rigid Frame Knees", by F. Bleicb, AISC.
FIGURE 9
elded Connections for Vierendeel Trusses / 5.1
Values
Valuer
FIGURE 10
ARY OF REQUIREMENTS
due to deflection of horizontal and vertical members is
Here is a summary of the general requirements for taken into consideration when the truss is designed.
these Vierendeel truss connections: However, yielding within the connection itself is not
1. The bottom chord is in tension and the connec- considered in the design and this could alter the mo-
tions here must provide continuity of the member for ment distribution of the truss, therefore it is important
this tensile force; the top chord is in compression and tlrat the connection have equal or greater s@ness than
the connections here must provide continuity of the the members connecting to it.
member for this compressive force. For these reasons, 5. The web of the connection must be stiffened
the inside flanges of the horizontal chords should be against buckling due to the high shear stress resulting
made continuous throughout the connection. from the unbalanced moment of the two horizontal
2. There may be some axial tension or compression members connecting at the joint. This difference in
in the vertical member, but this is usually of a smaller moment is equal to the moment applied by the vertical
magnitnde. member also connected there. This web must either
3. Large moments are applied by the horizontal have sufficient thickness or be reinforced with a doubler
and vertical legs to each connection. plate or some type of stiffeners.
4. A pair of connections, one above the other, tend 6. Flange stiffeners should be used whenever there
to he restrained from rotation by the vertical member is an abrupt change in direction or curvature of the
which connects them. The rotation of these connections flange.
to rotate, and the11 fixed again. This relcase causes a corrective moments which must b e added to the
new distribution of the moment about this point, and statically determinate moments of the "cut" frame in
somc of this change is carried over into the next order to bring the frame back to its original shape
joint. This proccdmc is followed for each joint in the and condition before it was "cut".
entire frame, and then the whole process is repeated This is outlined as follows:
over all the joints as often as required rmtil these cor- 1. Determine properties of the elastic area: area,
rections become very small. center of gravity or elastic center, and moments of
This method is outlined as follows: inertia about the two axcs (x-x and y-y).
I. Fix the joints from rotation and find the mo- 2. Cut the frame to make it statically determinatc.
ments, trcating the member as a simple structure. Use moment diagram from applied loads as a load
2. Remove thr joint restraints one at a time, and ( M / E I ) on thc clastic arca of the analogous column.
balance moments about the joint. This unbalanced 3. Determine axial "stress" and the two bending
moment is then distributed about the joint. "stresses" of the analogous column. These become cor-
3. Some of this distributed moment is then canied rective moments which must bc added to the statically
over into the other end of the member. deternminatc moment of Step 2 to give the final mo-
4. This is repeated until the unbalanced moments ments of the statically indeterminate frame.
become very small. The final moments are then used 4. From these moments, find the redundant forces
to design the structure. at the cut portion of the frame.
and thc v1:rstic :Ira at this fixed end would he zero. ill<,t\vo pitintd ends isrid thcst. lir :ri the, extreme ends
The, ('1astic area, with its dinwnsions riow known of 1111, svction ;~lroutaxis x-x.
I,mgth : L Apply Load to Elastic dreo
111,ight =: 11 T l ~ cstatimlly intlct~~miirrate frarrrr, I'igl~re 2 ( a ) , lnlrst
h a w sonic portiorr cut, r~srially;it orrc of the stipports,
so t11;1ti t tiwornr:s st;itifi~lIydt,tr:rrnin;rtc, Figrrl-c 2(1)).
ITiliicr this eoirditiori, the. f,r,~iding momcnt diagram
is now t r c ~ ~ t c Iikc
d any other cross-stxction, and its c ; i r ~ s ~by~ t I npi11ii.d 1o:irls is coristruct~~d,i;igur<,
propertics d~~termirird. 2 j c ) . 'I'his is tlwn tr(.nttd ;rs ;I 1o:rd (hl,jCT) applied
to tht ixl;~stiearm of ilrc :rnaIogous column, Figur(.
h this cx;r~nrileof iid I
i i i ~ ~ ~encis: 3(a).
J I I S;is
~ an ccc~mlric;rllyloaded iollnnn has an axial
Area load mri tilting mom~iils(kt, = I-' y, and M, = P x),
Elastic Center
The elastic center is fo~indas though it were the center
of gravity of the elastic area.
axis x-x
Taking moments aliout the base line, it is seen
that the. i,l;~sticaxis s-x of the c1:rstic area must pass
through the frame basc since, in the nrialogoos column, [ o ) Statically indeterminate frame
oment of inertia
M -
(a) Analogous column loaded with (b) Actual column with eccentric lood (P)
E l
FIGURE 3
so the analogons column has an axial load and tilting Just as the eccentrically loaded column has stresses
moments. Consider the moment diagram dividcd by at any point equal to the axial compressive stress plus
EI as the load about the two axes (x-x and y-y) the two bending stresses-
through thc elastic center:
u = ua (axial) t IT, (bending,.,) i o;. (bending,.,)
axial loud on anologous column
- P a b h
--
-
2 E I,,
moment about axis y-y on unalogous column
P a b
-
-
12 E I, L
( b - a ) (4b + 4a - 3L)
Design of Rigid Frames /
FIG. 4 No corrective moment to be added here. FIG. 6 No corrective moment to be added here.
when c, = 0
M, = 0 (See Figure 5.)
. .. . . .. . . . . . . . . ( 3 )
Since I,., = oo
M, = 0 (See Figure 6.)
Thc final moincnt on thc frame will be as given
in Figure 7.
FIGURE 7
6.1-6 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
- 48' ________PI
FIGURE 8
I - I Y
48' -------q
FIGURE 9
Member
Calumnr
Find the moments ( M ) and the other rt!dunttant forces Rafters +5.0 +260 433
(I3 and V ) of the following frame, having fixed ends,
Total + 147.5 2856
by mcans of the Column Analogy hlethod; Figure 8.
This frame must he transformed into the analogous
column, and the properties of this eq~iivalcntelastic
area determined; Figure 9.
= $ 2.2' measured from reference
axis (x'-x' )
--
Moment of inertis
of rafter about its
- lo' own center of gravity
FIGURE 10
distance from elastic center (x-x) to outer fiber distance from elastic ccntrr (y-y) to outer fiber
I,~, -
thc cmtwlinc of the frame:
2(7.5)(24)'
( 2 cohlmns)
+ 2(26)(1Z2) + 2(1248)
( 2 rafters)
hy the real momt,nt of irwrtia ( I ) , is trratcd 3s a load
upon thc nnalogous coh~rrrrior elastic nrca. (We don't
divide by E here bcc;ruse E is constant; for stecl, E =
30 x 10") This may be done in several ways, princi-
= 18.624 i n 4 pally:
FIGURE 11
6.1-8 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
A. Cut thc right fixed end support at @. The My.,= (-450,000)(-9.7) + (--390,000) (--.53)
portion of the rafter to the left of the applied load
becomes a statically determinate cantilever beam.
= + 4,571,700
B. Release the ends of the rafters at @ and 0.
This becomes a statically determinate simply sup-
My., = ( -- 450,000) ( -- 24) - (-390,000) (-20)
-
- -840,000 - - 67,570 ft-lbs
The moment diagram divided by the moment of inertia These loads, in turn, result in 3 types of resisting
of the statically doterminant frame is considered to he "stresses":
the load on the elastic area of the analogous column.
( E is constant.) O" =
P
a cx =
M..
LX
c7
or = -----
M,., c,
1Y.Y
FIGURE 15
I- +
(+18,600,000)
.. .. (0)
c = - 2.2' 18,624
- P + ?.E~~(2 +. My.,r, - 24,
= + 1550 ft-lbs
cx
- A 1,~~ L
.-
-
---840,000
-
67 + ( +4,571,700) (-2.2)
2,531P-.-
final moment
Mh = - 1550 ft-lbs
(.
+ -4-18,800,000)
.- . (-
-24)
--
18,624 correction moment at @
- 40,480 ft-lbs
- c, = - 2.2'
-
-
- -
P 4..
Ms.,c, 1~
h , I , , c,
.
final moment original moment - corrtvtion moment - A : I,~, I,%y
+ 19,460' '
FIGURE 16
final momcnt H. =
.
.MI
M6 = + 19,640 ft-lbs h
7570 ft-lhs
-.
The- final moments of the statically indeterminate
~~ 4.191 - -
frame are di;rgramn~ed in Fignre 16. = 1806 lbs
Horizontal Redundant Force
To find the horizontal rednndant force ( H ) at the Vertical Rmciion
base of the column, first find the point of inflection (zero To find the vertical reaction ( V ) at the base of the
moment) in thc column. Then find the horizontal force column, take the inomcnts about the base of the oppo-
required at this point to equal the end moment at the site column and set them equal to zero. (See Figure 18.)
base of the column.
FIGURE 18
correction moment at @
-*+-
- -.P M,.,c,
Ix.x +
M ,., c,
7,;
- +1,170,000
- (+4.576,650)
- L - (-2.2)
c, = - 17.2' .- '
67 2531
- -P + M,~,
--2 c + -M,~, c,
(-4,680,000) ( -24)
- A L X 17-s + - .. ~-
18,624
- +1,170,000
--
m + (+4,576,650)
2531
( --17.2)
~~~~-~~~
= + 19,520 ft-lbs
(-4
---!... 680 000)
+ --' (-24)
;, - - final moment
18,621
-
- - 7600 ft-lbs MI. = - 19,520 ft-lbs
FIGURE 19
6.1-12 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
Alternate Method
It is possible to work this problem in a slightly differ-
( ---4,680,000)(-12)
+- - 18,624 ent manner. As heforc-
1. Determine the properties of the elastic area.
= + 25,540 ft-lbs 2. Cut the frame to make it statically determinate,
as before.
final moment 3. Dividing the moment diagram of this cut frame
Ma = + 45,000 - 25,540 by the moment of inertia of the corresponcling mem-
bers of the frame, treat it as the load on the elastic
= + 19,4% ft-lbs area. ( E is constant.)
4. Find the resulting three parts of this load on
corrcction moment at @ the elastic area; that is,
c, = + 7.8' a. Load, P
---+: P M,~, c, +
. M,.,
- c, b. Moment, M,.,
- A LX 17.y c. Moment, My.,
Then find the three corrective actioi~s-fixed end
moment (MI,), liorizontal force ( A ) , and vertical force
(V)-which must bc applied at the base of the frame
to bring it back to the original shape and condition of
the statically indeterminate frame. Find these from the
following formulas:
final moment
Mg = + 30,000 - 31,560
= - 1560 ft-lbs
correction moment at @
c, = - 2.2'
- P + M;" CY
- + My-,, ~2 c, = 24' Figure 20 shows their application to solution of
- A x-I 17.1
the immediate problems.
The resulting moments ahout the frame for each
of these mrrective actioxs are dctermincd and placed
for cnnvenicnce in tahlr form. This facilitates totaling
then1 to produce the final moments at any point of the
= i7450 ft-lbs statically indeterminate framc. See Figure 21.
/
"+----
X -
compression
H=
1806
M,=ticl=[-1806)[-17.2)=+31,062'ti M = -
i ..A~
M, = Vc,:
FIGURE 20
6.1-14 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
0 0 0 @ 0 0
M, -60.000 -60.000 0 0 0 0
..~ ~~~ ~ ---- ~
P
Mrr = - +12,537 1-12.537 +12,537 +12.537 +12,537 i12.537
A
. -- .. ~- --
.+ + i +31.062
~ ,' g f i
H +31.062 3,974 - 5.057 /
-14,008 3,974
.
a y -~
- -~ ...
M3 = + 19,465'* V x 123,969
-
+23,969-11.~4-~--~
.+---. ..
-23.9691 23,969
M, = - 7458' 8
FIGURE 21
-
is applicable to any type of beam, Figure 22. Constants to Help Cwlculwte Finwf Moments
The cover-plated beam is representative of any Charts have been developed by which the designer
beam in which there is an abrupt change of scction . . . can readily find constants to use in determining stiff-
and of mome,nt of inertia. The other two common con- ness factors, carry-over factors, and fixed-end moments
ditions in which there is an abrupt change of scction for beams.
are 1) where plate of heavier thickness is used for Sources include:
the flanges for a short distance nt the ends of the I. Bull. 176, R. .4.Caughy and R. S. Cebula; Iowa
beam, and 2 ) where short lengths of smaller beams are Engineering Experiment Station, Iowa State College,
used below the regular beams to reinforce them a t and
.4mes, Iowa. 36 charts for beams with cover platcs at
near the points of support.
ends.
Prismatic
- -
- Cover plated beam
Topered beam
Hounched beom
/ \ @=+
FIGURE 22
Design of Rigid Frames / 6.1-15
FIGURE 23
Elostic area
moment ( M A ) at the other rnd 8
For any applied moment ( M A ) at A , the resulting
is determined.
The carry-over factor is the ratio of thcse two moments:
MAIJ
C* = - --
MA
The length of the clastic area is equal to the length
of the veal beam, and the ~ i d t hat any point of the In both of these two c;lscs, Stifl'ness Factor and
elastic awa is equal to tht: l / E I of the r r d beam at the Carry-Over Factor, the fixed-end beam is rr.leased at
corresponding point. Since \vex arc: draling with steel, one end @ :md rotatrd througli a unit angle chango
the modulus of elasticity ( I ? ) is constant and will drop ( 4 ) . The restilting end moments ( M A ) at @ and
out of tlrc calculations. As the depth and moment of (M,,,*) at @ are found.
inertia of the real beam increases, the i.lastic area
decreases.
Thc following dcs~gn procedure may then he
followc d.
Load of the
"nil mgle ihonge = 1
- x
at @ ot @
"* = --F + M,-, ca
- --
F + *F c Z
A 3-7 A 17.7
tood F placed at @
M, ,
= F ca
Ot @
Design of Rigid Frames /
L = a + b
w = u n i t uniform laud (Ibr/in.!
Distance to CG of this o o d
Moment d i a g m
M, = =
2
(L - x )
Load d i a g m m jM,/l,)
Now the load of a unit angle change ( 4 ) ) is a
on elortic a i m
plied to the elastic area at the other outer edge
8
and thc resulting end moment (M,*) at n is found.
Notice that the end mommt (Mu,) at A is equal
to (M~L,,) at @ which is already found.
MY.? = 1 ci3
FIGURE 26
at @
Mn -- 1
--
A
*. -
1 cn2
-
L - Y
"uxiuP' load (P)
From thcse three values ( M A ) ,(MAB)and (M"),
the iollowing may he found:
stiffness juctor at
K, = M,
8
P = P, + PI,
stiffness factor at @
K, = M,
curry-over fucto~, @ to @
fixed end moments
This load ( P ) and (M,..,,) on the elastic arca causes
"stresses" similar to those on an eccentrically loaded
column. These "stresses" become the correction mo-
ments, or in this case the end moments of the fixed-
end beam.
M,., = 1 c* FIGURE 27
Design of Rigid Frames / 8.1-19
Stiffness Foctoir
Carryover Foctois
M, at A 6I L iiiiiiiiii
2 3a1 M,,o~B
Stiffness Factors
Carry-Over Factors
but will have a slight curve (see Fig. 28, center, solid area of elastic area
line). This curve approaches a straight line as the
Ax - a log 1,
beam becomes less tapered. -
Although a slight error will be introduced, it will I" - IA I*
greatly simplify the analysis if we assume this moment Az - b log -10
-
of inertia distribution to be a straight (dotted) linc. Ic - In In
However, this slight error may be reduced by break-
ing the beam into two parts (see Fig. 28, bottom) and moment of elnstic area *, about axis A-A
assumii~ga stsaight line variation of the moment of a -
inertia between the thrce points @, @, and
This is represented by the dashed line in Figure 28,
0. M*.//&A = ( D - ) ( - -
FIGURE 28
distance from C.G. of elastic area A, to axis A-A moment of inertia of elastic urea A, about axis A-A
MaJ
momcnt of inertia of clustic area A, ubout axis y-y women (A{) applied to elastic area about its elastic
crnlcr
Using the parallel axis theorem:
I =I -I- A, c,"
/A.A /x.x
.. Tax/ = IAJ - A, Q~
/x-x /A-A
where:
total moment of inertia of elastic area
IF.7= 1AX/ 4- IAS/
/w /w
Elastic oiea
FIGURE 29
stifness factor at @
Ka = MA
stiffness factor at @ Then procecd first to find formula elements made
Kc = M, up of these properties:
A, _ (L-
b ~~~~
11%)
~ log, -~11.
11,
- i L 4-
1 = 200"
Topered beam
Moment of inertia
1
1= c, 134.30" -
Elastic orea
0
FIGURE 30
Design of Rigid Frames / 6.1-25
I../
11,
--
,>
(( I < " I n ) )<( ( I .
-
- (
2
1 - 3 113)
6.1-26 / Miscelloneous Structure Design
(IH - I A ) ( 2 12
at @
P Mr., %
M,, = -
A
4- 17.F
+ [a(2 L - 3 a ) - c A ( L -- 2 a ) ]
stifncss factor at @
KA = MA = -
25.67
Design o# Rigid Frames /
FIGURE 31
stiffness factor at
Kc = Mo = 74.59
--
@
a Problem 3
angular areas share the same altitude and since the moinmt of inertia
division in lmgth ( s ) is the same, they will have t l ~ e
samo area. Therefon:, the cmtcr of gravity of the
two triangles lies along their common altitude. (This
graphical method is applicable to any beam with a
non-uniform change in moment of ineltia along its
length).
-x = 73h'"
1 = 775.46 8 I
I ' !
I
Y
I = 1824.71
I 1 = 142062
Elastic center 1 = 1071.54
1 = 882.33 Moment of inertia
FIGURE 32
Design of Rigid Frames / 6.1-2
KA = MA = 17.12
.~~~~
~.
..
other propertics of M , / I , rliagrun~
These ;we s h o r n in the table above. stiffness fucior nt @
STEP 2: Determine the Fixed End Moments KO = M O =~26.35~.
11.000
io.000
9.000
or KBA KAE
in terms
terms
EI,
L 7.000
6.000
5.000
4.000
ID 1.4 1.8 2.2
Chad 1 . Stiffnerr factors ot either end o f ryrnmetr~colbeom Chart 2. Stiffnerr foctorr ot small end o f unrymmehicol beom.
Ken
in terms
Chorf 3. Stifinell foitot3 large end of vnrymmclricol bcom. Chart 4. Coiry-over failors for rymmetiicol beam from either end to the
other.
Design of Rigid Frames /
Chart 5. Carry-over faclorr for unrymmctiical beam from m a l l end to large Chort 6 . Carry-over foctarr for u n y m r t r i c o l b r o m from i h g e end to rmall
end. end.
Mm
in terms
of PL
Chort 7. Fired-end moments of left end of rymmebical beam far concentrated Chart 8. Fixed-end rnomenfr left endof rymmetricoi beom for concentrated
lood o t . l point. l o a d o f .2 point.
6.1-32 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
Mns
in terms
of PL
Choit 9. Fired-end moment$atleftendof rymmetiicol beom forconcentrated Chart 10. Fixed-end moment, a t left end of rymmetiicol beom for conceo-
load ot . 3 point. troted b o d a t 4 point.
MAB
in terms
of PL
Choit 11. Fixed-end moments ot lefl end o f ,yrnmetrical beom for concen- Chart 12. Fixed end moments a1 left end of symmetricol beam for roncen-
t r d e d b o d at .5 point. trmted loed ot .6 point.
Design of Rigid Frames / 6.1-33
MA,
in terms
of PL
Chort 1 3 . Fixed-end moment* at left end of rymmetricol b e a m for ioncen Churl 14. Fixed-end moment? 0 1 lei1 end of rymmrtri<ol b e a m for conien-
trated lond at .7 point. troted lood a t 8 poinf.
Me,
in terms
of PL
Chort 1 5 . Fixed-end moments a t left end of synmctriiol b c v m for c o n m - Chart 1 6 . Fired-end moments at lorge end of unsymmetrical beom for con-
l i o l c d lood o f .9 poini. centrated iood a t .I point.
Me,
in terms
Of PL
Chorf 17. F i x e d ~ i n dmomc8its at 1orgc end o f unrymmi~ir8iui for mn- Chart 1 8 . Fixed-<end moments o f i o l g e end o f uniymm,,lricul baom for con-
ienciufrd load 01 .2 point. centiol?d load "! .3 point.
6.1-34 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
M
,.
in terms
of PL
Chart 19. F;red.end moments a t large end of un~ymmefricalbeom for con- Chorf 20. Fixed-end moments ot large end of unlymmetricol beam for con-
centrated l o a d o f .4 point. centrated l o a d ot 5 point.
Me,
in terms
of PL
Chart 21. Fixed-end momentr ot lorge end of vnrymmetriial beom for con- Chart 22. Fixed-end.momenfs a t lorge end of vnrymmetiiiili beom for ion.
centrated load at .6 paint. centrated i o o d o f .7 point.
Me,
in terms
of PL
Chart 23. Fixed-end moments at l a r g e end of unrymmetri~olbeom for ion- Chart 24. Fixed.end moments at large end of unrymmetricoi bcom for con.
centrated l o a d a t .8 paint. centrated l o a d a t 9 point.
Design of Rigid Frames /
MA, Mm
in terms in terms
of PL of PL
Chart 25. Fixed.end momentr a, ~ m ~end i l of vniymmetriioi beom for con- Chart 26. Fired-eod moments a t rmall end of uo5ymrnclricoi beam for ion-
centrated l o a d 0 1 .I point. centrated l o a d a1 .2 point.
M
.,
in terms
of PL
Chort 29. Fixed-end moment3 at m o l l end of vnrymmetiicol beam for con- Chart 30. Fixed-end moments o t rmail end of unrymmetriial beam for con-
~ e n t r o t e dload o f .5 point. centrated lood o f .6 point.
iscelloneour Structure Design
Chort 31. Fixed-end moments of small end of vnrytnmetrical beom for can- Chorl 32. Fixed-end moments o t small end of un~yrnmetiicalbeom for con-
centraled l o a d af 7 point. centrofed l o a d of .B point.
Me*
in terms
of wLP
Chort 3 3 . Fixed-end moments o f m o l l end of unrymmetiical beam for con- Choit 34. Fired.end moment3 ol large end of unrymmetriiai beam for
centroted good o t .9 point. "niform load.
M,.
in terms
of wLP
Choil 35. Fired-end moments a t either end of ry!nmetricol.bcam for uniform Chort 36, Ftncd.end moments a l imoll end of ~ ~ ~ y r n ~ e t rbeam
i c o i for
load. uniform load.
SECTION 6.2
1. B A R J O I S T S
are adapted from these (1962) specifications: E7OXX r r 15,800 psi f = 11,200 w
O t h e r R e q u i r e m e n t s for M e m b e r s
r = least radius of gyration of member or com- C,, - I - 0.3 u,/u', for end panels
ponent C, -- 1 - 0.4 aa/af, for interior panels
L/r of web members may be taken as % ( L / r r ) u, = calculated axial unit compressive stress
or I./r,, whichever is larger; r, is in the plane of the u,,= calculated bending unit compressive stress at
joist, and r, is 11orma1to it. joint under consideration
o;, = allo~vableaxial unit compressive stress based Chord and web mcmhrrs in compression, com-
npO" (I&) for the panel length, ccnter to ccnter of posed of two componrnts stqmated one from another,
panel points shall have fillers spaccd so that the L/r ratio for cach
-oa = allou~ablebending unit stress, 0.60 u, componmt shall not cxcecd the I,/r ratio of the wholc
member; if in terision, the L/r ratio of cach component
ur+: == 13'"000 where ( L ) is the full panel length,
- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - p
1
No. 02 to No. 08 inci. I I'
of the rnernhvr. Butt welded joints shall he designed to
carry the fnll allo\vable strtmgth of the member.
No. 09 to No. 14 i d .
No. 15 to No. I9 incl. :1 Membcrs connt:cti~rginto a joint shall have their
c e ~ ~ t r of
r s gravity mect at a point, othem-ise the bend-
The top chord shall be considered to have lateral ing strtwcs duc to cccnntricity shall be taken into ac-
support if it is propcrly attached to the floor or roof conrlt. Eccentricity on either side of the ncutral axis
deck at distances not to excced 36". of the chord mcxnbers may be neglected if it docs not
The vertical shear values to l ~ osrd
c in thc dcsigr~ t w w d the distance h ~ t w r ~ ethc
n n ~ v t r a laxis and liack
of web memhcrs shall he detemlincd from full uniform of the cliorcl. Whrn a single arrglc compn3ssionmember
loading, but shall not ba less than 25% of the rated end is attached to the outsidc of the stem of a Tee or double
reaction. angle chord, the wcentricity shall be taken into account.
6.2-4 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
Reinforcing bars i n concrete columns are field spliced. Simple positioning jig maintains
proper alignment during welding. These large size AlSl 4140 allay steel bars were
welded with low-hydrogen electrodes.
The American Welding Society has issued Bulletin
D 12.1-61 giving the Recommertded Practices for the
Welding of Reinforcing Steel, and these should be
followed. Table 1 of allowable stresses is adapted
from the AWS bulletin.
Reinforcing steel may be spliced by butt welding
two ends directly together, using either a single Vee
or double Vee groove joint with an included groove
angle of 45" to 60°, or a single bevel or double bevel
groove joint with an included groove angle of 45".
These joints should have a root opening of Vat' and a FIGURE 1
root face or land of Ys".
This butt welded joint may bc made with the aid splicc m(3mber shodd have a cross-sectional area equal
of an additional splice member, for example a plate to tlla strength of the connected bar.
or aoglc connected with 1ongitudin:il flnre-bevcl welds, Reinforcing steel may also be spliced by a lap
see Figure I, or a sleeve conncctcd by transvcrse fillet joint, either lapped directly together or with an insert
welds around the sleeve and bar, see Figure 2. The plate between the two bars. When the two bars have
Bevel 8. Vee groove weidi Flare-Vce groove 8. floie- Fillet welds for ony diiec-
i n tension, compression, or bevel groove welds for tion of force
shear anv direction of farce
4i'lohO'
v' -5
m-mtL[r=/yf
Doubie~vrsgroove
FIGURE 2
1 reqvired. if
below 10-F.
oreheat to IOO'F
I
1
preSIUie g o i
welding
or approval oi
the Engineer
1. INCREASING PANEL RIGIDITY
-h-%--h
- ......( 3 )
where:
FIGURE 2 c, = distance from ncutral axis of whole section to
outer fibcr of plate, in.
where:
c. = distancc from neutral axis of whole section to
* r / = distance between stiffeners, in. outer fiber of stiffener, in.
d = distance between center of gravity of panel
and that of stiffener, in. Tlic pand section may then be treated as a simply
supported beam and designed with sufficient moment
A, = cross-sectional area of plate within distance of inertia ( I ) to withstand whatever load is applied.
b, in.' Use a 1" wide strip of this panel, and use uniform load
**A, = cross-sectional area of stiffener, in.' of ( w ) lbs per linear inch; if entire width of panel ( b ) ,
t = thickness of panel, in. use uniform pressure of ( p ) psi.
Fignrc 3 illustrates the technique of treating a
** I. = moment of inertia of stiffener, in.+ panel section as a beam under three different can&
tions. Formulas for finding maximum deflection, bend-
*If therc i s any question about ihcdistnnce belwcon stiffeners
becoming toogreat, Section 2 . 1 % will provide some guidance. ing momrnt, and vertical shear are given, with p being
**Data obtained from any stocl handbook the pressure in psi against the panel.
6.4-2 / MiscelIaneous Structure Design
F - app/lcd force
N(50%
Condition A Condition B Condition C
F-I,"
- .K
384 E r ,,,,
.-
\/3
(1-K2). (10)
Mm,, = ( 5 )
I M,, = 0.0642 p b ~ ~ 1 ..( 8. ) Mma, = F L K (1 - K ) I ........ (11)
1- ....(6)
....... . . . . . . . . . . . . (12)
,
,
where:
h = height of liquid or material, in.
13 = height of liquid or material, ft
s = specific gravity of liquid or material,
lbs/cu in.
d = density of liquid or material, lbs/cu. in
/
D = density of liquid or material, lbs/cu ft. \i /
/
FIGURE 4
ow to Stiffen a Panel /
The leg size of the continuous fillet weld required to I = moment of inertia of whole section,
join a stiffener to the panel may be found from the n = ~iuinberof continuous welds joining the stif-
following formula: fener to the panel
= " a
11.200 I n
(E70 welds)
If intennittent fillet welds arc to be used, calculate
the continuous fillet weld leg size expressed as a deci-
mal, and divide this by the actual leg size of intennit-
tent fillet weld used. W ~ c nexpressed as a percentage
this will give the amount of intermittent weld to be
used per unit length. For convenience, Table 1 has
various intennittent weld leogths and distance between
centers for a given percentage of mntinuous weld.
75%
3-5
57 4-7
50 2 - 4 ,
44
I 4 - 9
43
40
I 4 - 10
6.4-4 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
FIGURE 1
Determine the required plate thickness of the following
tank to hold water, Figure 1.
Since the varying pressure against side walls is
due to the weight of a liquid:
p = ,4336 H s
where:
1% - the maximum height of the liquid, in feet
s = the specific gravity of the liquid
= .4336(6)(1) It is nwessnry to consider only the longest side
= 2.6 psi plate, having the greatest span between supports:
6.5-2 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
120". The top edge is free, the other three are sup- The ratio of plate height to width still being .6,
ported. This is recognized as condition 4D in Table 1. +slues are estimated from Table 1 to be-
Since the ratio of plate height to width is-
p =: ,102 and y = ,0064
- ( J 4 ) (2.6)(120)2
20,000
= ,262
:. t = fziE
= .512", or use W' &.
Checking the detlection of this plate- It might be advisable to go back to the Yz" plate
thickness, still using the top edge stiffener, in which
case the bending stress and deflection would be re-
duced to-
a
,, = 15,300 psi
, and A,,,, = .92"
There is another method of determining the bend-
Since this deflection would be excessive, a stiffen- ing stress and deflection. A description of this follows
ing bar must be added along the top edge of the tank immediately.
to form a rectangular frame, Figure 2. Considering Plate Section as a Beam
Tank with Top Edge Stiffener A narrow section of the tank's slde panel (width
m = 1") can be considcrcd as a beam, Figure 3,
using formulas taken from Reference Section 8.1 on
Beam Diagrams.
FIGURE 2
A t center: At center:
1.24 p P ,3125 12 - a) p b'
(rnax) = c, = - --
O,
t=
(max) O;, = - t'
,695 p r" 1.146 - .1 a) p b4
Am,= = - -
E t3 (appiox) Amrr -- E P
At center:
v. = -
,075 p bP (10 'a j-3)
P 13 +
2 'a +3 ad)
,1705 p r'
A,.. ,- E t'
At edge;
3 P P At edge:
(moxl c, = - 1.5 p b' 'a
4 ti
,225 p P
(Spon 0) cr =
tZ 13 + 2 + 3 ad)
ila
0, = - P lmox) 1.5 p b"
(Span b l oa =
t' (3 + 2" a 3 39
SQUARE PLATE
*After Roark, "Formulas for Stress and Strnio". Table I continued on following page
6.5-4 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
Table 1 continued
k - b 4
RECTANGULAR PLATES
-(48)
- Edger fixed; uniform load
At center;
At midpoint of iong edges;
c.=--
p bZ 1.225 + ,382 'a - ,320 a? (moxl oa = - .5 p ba- P p b'
P f (1 +
,623 a*) Or = ?
-B
75 p bP
(,"OX) Sb = -P (i + 1.61 a3)
or =
p b'
f
At midpoint of short edger:
.25 p bs
,1422 p bd Y p b4 u, = -------
= -
Lax P
E P U + zTT2ior = - - E't
q q ~ p q - - ~ ~ : i ; I " . ~j - -. I
1.8 1.9 2.0
I
gc
1 ,4252
,0240
1
,0251
-
(4C)Ail edger supported; varying laad
Load incieoring uniformly from zero ot
one edge to a moximum of lp) psi
ot opposite edge
(tiiongulor load)
P
p bP
am.. = -
P
Am.= = -
Y p b4
E t3
P
Tobie I continued
( 4 0 ) Top edge
- free, other three edges wpported; i(1ryiig load
v,,,*= =
B P bY
P
Y P b4
Am.= =
E r
Since the maximum bending moment here is- Adding Another Stiffener
M,,, = ,0642 p hZ m (with h expressed in inches) When a panel is divided into two parts by a large
stiffener, it becomes a continuous panel, triangularly
loaded with a rather high negative moment at the
stiffener which a d s as a support. There is no simple
formula for this; therefore the method of mnsidering
a I" strip will be used, and of course will result in a
slightly greater stress value than actually exists.
= 20,800 psi The plate thickness in the tank being considered
can be reduced by adding such a stiffener
instead of the 15,300 psi obtained by considering the around the middle of the tank, Figure 4.
entire plate width; and-
A,,, = .0625 p h4 m
-
E I
SPHERE 1 Urn.
smg= 0
ccp = :
!
i
.( re2 - iss
+%
(mox ot inner iuifoce)
a,. = P
(man at inner ruifoce)
Uniform internal
prersvre in all
= P (m) riz
r.p + itP
The biaxial tensile stresses u p ) and u p ) in to be uniformly distributed across the shell thickncss
thin-u,all containt~rscan be calcillated with the basic without serious error occurring in strcss calculations.
formulas ~ h o w nin Tahlri 2. where: However, in a thick-walled container grnerated by n
figme of revolution thc decreasing variance of hoop
t, = thickness of shell, in. stress from the inner surface to ihc ontcr surface of the
r, = mean radi~lsof a circumference of the shell, sbell wall must be considered.
in. Table 3 presents formulas for calculating the
stresses in two eommon thick-\vaIIcd cylinders. In the
r, = mean radius of the meridian of the shell, in.
first condition, the internal prcssurc parallel to the
p = internal pressure, psi sbuctural (Iongitudinnl) axis is balanced by the ex-
ternal forcc against the moving piston and hy the re-
sistance of the cylinder's support, and the resultant
longitudinal stress (c,,,,) is zero. In tha second con-
In thin-walled containers, the hoop stress is assumed dition, there is a longitudinal stress (u,,).
Thin shell - when t. <- 'h rz ond p < ,385 a. E Thin shell - when t, < ,356 i t end p <--,665 a, E
!
I
tn = Pi1 .
21a. E -.I p)
> ,385
Thick shell - when t, > '12 r l and p E
1 Th~ckshell - when t- >
t# = r , i f i -
,356 r i and p
I)
> ,665
--o, E
iscellaneous Structure
HEMISPHERICAL HEAD Thin head - when ti, < ,356 Thick head -when tt, > ,356 it
integrol heod
t,, = d, g-
c r 25
bolted
1. BASIC FORCES A N D STRESSES 2. STRESSES IN S ELL FROM INTERNAL
PRESSURE
Designing hangers or brackets for snppotting a shell
such as a pipe, tank or pressure vessel requires con- As explained more fully in Section 6.5, internal pressure
sideration of two important factors: in a shell produces two tensile stresses of importance.
1. The additional stress of the support forces 1. e,,, = tcnsile stress in the direction of the
when combined with the working stress of the shell meridian. This is called the longitudinal stress.
must not increase the stress in the shell above the 2. uc,= tensile stress in the direction of the tan-
allowable limit. gent to the circumference. This stress is commonly
2. The support should not restrain the stressed called the hoop stress, but is also referred to as the
shell so it becomes too rigid to flex under normal tangential or circumferential stress.
changes in working pressures or loads. The tensile stresses G-,, and ee,can be calculated
Many types of stresses are involved in any sup- with the formulas presented in Table 2 of the pre-
porting structure. The more common types are the ceding Section 6.5 and repeated here.
following:
1. The internal pressure of the gas or liquid in
the shell, along with its weight, cause tangential (uc,)
and longitudinal (e,,,) tensile stresses in the shell.
2. Any radial force (F1) aeting on a section of
the she11 causes bending stresses in the ring of the
shell (from the bending moment M,) as well as axial
tensile stresses (from the tensite force T), both of
which act tangentially to the circumference of the
shell.
3. The radial force (F1) causes radial shear
stresses in the shell, and the longitudinal force ( F a )
causes longitudinal shear stresses, both adjacent to the
hanger. These stresses usually will be low.
After proper analysis of the forces involved, the
various stresses must be combined to determine the
maximum normal stress (G-,.x-teusile or compressive)
and maximum shear stress ( T , ~ , ) . If the resulting
stresses arc excessive, a simple study of the individual
stresses will indicate what portion of the hanger is
under-designed and should be strengthened.
For example, the bending stresses may he exees-
sive, indicating that some type of stiffener ring should
he attached to the shell between supports to suh-
stantially increase the moment of inertia of the shell
section thereby decreasing the bending stress.
The following discussions identify and analyze
the &ect of various basic stresses and relate them to
material thickness and curvature.
6.6-2 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
where:
r, = radius of shell curvature, inches
t. = thickness of shell, inches
The value of "e" should be limited to a maximum of
where:
A = area of shell ring cross-section or built-up
section
S = section modulus of the same section
;weL;,......
. %
'II
d k
5. EFFECT OF THESE FORCES UPON A
SECTIONAL RING OF THE SHELL
Determine the total radial force acting on the shell as Part A: Four hangers are used t o support a verti-
a result of the force ( P ) applied to the hangers. cal 12" stimd pipe. Figure 9. Iletermirre the total radial
Part B: With tangential tensile force ( T ) and force acting on the shell as a rcsrdt of the force ( P )
bending moment ( M , ) per 1" wide ring of this shell applied to the hangers.
resulting from radial forces ( f , ) applied to the four Part B: With tensile forco ( T ) and bending mo-
hangers, cnlcnlate the tciisile (u,,,)and bcnding ( u , b ) ment (M,-) per I" wide ring of this shell resulting from
stresses ;it the hangers. radial forces (f,) applied at the four hangers, calcli-
Iatc the tc~rsilc (cr?,) and bending ( u ) stresses at
the hangers.
FIGURE 7
FROM TABLE I
--I FROM PARi A
K 0300 i, f .259 '%in xws
&>
0, a % + % :6,000+r,5~4~d;.5~Q~w
FIGURE 8
THEN
8544 0 FIGURE 10
=
?,hr A-- = 4,Z7Zps,
2
4 STRESSU WIIMN REASON
I Problem 2 1
TABLE 2?
-= C A
, : M : ,1 7 0 5 = + : 6 / 3 ; n .
,057 --
Design of Hangers and Supports /
The radial force ( F ) acting on thc ring section The hoop stress of u,,, = 1,888 psi in the slieil will
and resiilting from the vertical force ( P ) is- he assumcil to bc reduced when considered to be acting
over the entire cross-section of the built-up ring st!ction:
'6
SIRE35 WIIHIIV REASON
DISIGN Oh:
-
FIGURE 12
F l
Part A: What transverse or radial force (F,) can
be applied to the web of this I section through the
gusset plate showm? See Figure 14. The resulting bend-
ing strcsses are to be kept down to a reasonable value,
such as u = 15,000 psi, since the I section is already
under applied load. The grlsset plate intersects the
web of the I section along a predetermined distance
of d = 10".
total tangential forces applied to web
f = f, +f,
= ,074 Fl + ,078 F,
= ,152 F1 Ibs/in.
F;L
FIGURE 14
section modulus of strip
The analysis of this problem again stems from
Figures 1, 2 and 3 and related text. Here, the gusset
plate acts as a hanger.
Considering the web of the I section as a panel,
the section flanges act as stiffeners and give the entire
tangcntinl force on strip
section a high moment of inertia about its x-x axis.
However, to be conservative assume the width of web
beyond the gusset that is effective in resisting the
bending moment on the web to have a maximum value
of 12 times the web thickness.
= 521 lbs
Design o f Hangers and Supports /
FIGURE 15
Here:
M =0
FIGURE 16
hence:
S = ,0144 in."
Here:
e = 3.53"
f = 79.2 lbs/l"-wide strip A, = 2.2216 in2 (arca of effective stiffened portion
of web)
Rut:
I,, = .01601 in.4
A, 1.5 in."area of stiffener section)
I, = 1.125 in.4
d = 1.647" (distance, C.G. of stiifener to C.G. of
web)
.6-8 / Miscellaneous Structure Design
and since
FIGURE 17
and since
c, =
As
t
A. d
+ AD + 2
t
A8 d
"...,u FIGURE 18
- h - - -
.. ca -
2 A, + A,
(1.5) (1.647)
= (3.294) - (.147) -
(1.5) + (2.216)
= 2.483"
section modulus of entire section resistant to force ( F I )
which is maximum at extreme fiber
S = I
-
cs
- (3.570)
- (2.483)
SECTION 7 . 1
2. STEEL CLASSIFICATIONS
3. CARBON STEELS
ASTM Grades A7, A373, and A36
ASTM A7
Field welding of vertical member to bottom chord of
The first ASTM sprcification for stcrl wscd in building Vierendeel truss for 17-story Foundation House in
co~~stroctionwas proposcd in 1900, and was adopted Toronto, Conado. Truss is built of high-strength, low-
one year later as the "St;tndard Specification for Steel alloy steel with 55,000 psi minimum yield strength.
7.1-1
7.1-2 / Joint Design and Production
for Buildings." When the ASTM adopted a numbering ganesc in varying amounts. Carbon may be found in
system for its specification in 1914, "Standard Specifi- thcse steels in percentages ranging from a low of
cations for Steel for Rnildings" was designated as ASTM approximately 0.10 per cent to a maximum of 033
A9. The designation "ASTM A T was given to "Stan- per cent or in some cases, even higher. Manganese
dard Specifications for Steel for Bridges." In 1936 the is generally added to provide increased strength with
ASTM combined A7 and .49 into one specification, less carbon to avoid the liardcnahility effect of high
ASTM A7, "Standard Specifications for Steel for Bridgrs mrhon in the stcel. The manganese also improves hot
and Buildings." rolling charactvristics of the stecl during production.
This specification was written to provide an eco-
nomical as-rolled steel which would assure specific ASTM A373
minimum strength requiren~ents. The cnrrent version LVith the increased nse of \velding after World War
requires minimum tensile strength of 60,000 psi and 11, it became necessary to limit the carbon and man-
minimum yield point of 33,000 psi. There are no limita- ganese in A7 steel to screen out "high side" heats that
tions on chemistry except the sulphur and phosphorus sometimes prescnted welding problems.
maxima. The specification also inclndes a maximum .' In 1954, ASTM .4373, "Strnctur:il Steel for Wcld-
tensile strength and minimum elongation reqnirements. ing" was written. This specification limits the carbon
The most economical way to produce a steel of and manganese, in addition to the maxima for phos-
this nature is through the use of carbon and man- phorus and sulphur, to insure good welds using stand-
~~
A7
-
Group A 13)
-.-+ ------1------------------- -
To I/>'' incl.
32.000
.. .
-. -
Over I"
Shope. 1
Over lo Ii/2" id.
I- -
Over 4" to 8 ioc!.
To 3/4" id.
I over %,, to 11/2" incl.
2
..
[I) Bored upon boric rteeimaking pioceis. !31 G r o w A c o n n i i r e i the fo!lowincl wide flanqe beams
ard high speed welding proccd~ires. However, the was ilrsirahle for thmc stwls, :ind in that year the
limits on carbon a i d mang:nirst :it that tiint: necessi- American Soviety lor T t ~ t i n ghlatcrials wrote .4242,
tated a slight rediiction in t l r ~stn~ngthof the stcel, "High-Strmgth 1 . o ~Alloy Strlrctiird Stccl", ASThl
and thc minimirm yield point was placed at 32,000 psi. A242 is primarily a strength specification with sprcifiid
The specification fnrthcr reqnircs that plates over one miniinrrm yiitld points of:
inch tliick be producrd folly killed to insure ;i homog- 50,000 psi for rnatcrial op to ;tnd including irwh
eneous steel in these heavier thieknesscs. thick
With the est:~blishmentof A373 by the .4STM :IS 36,000 psi for material over ".k inch thick to 1%
a stcel for \ v e l d d construction, thr Bureau of Public in<,lics tliick, i~~cliisive
Roads designated this grndc to IF riscil for \wlded 12,000 psi for material ovcr I?&iriches thick to 4
bridges. inches thick, irrclusive.
The chrmical rtquirtmmts are p i t c liberal. An
ASTM A36 attempt is made to insnre vconoiiiicnl wcliling of these
stecls hy limiting c;irhon :md iirnngaltcsc cinitent. I-lmv-
By 1980 the mapor prodrm~rsof .47 stccl had begun
fwer: the prest.rlc? of other clernttrlts such ;rs sihxm,
to realize the fruits of tlic rirotlernization and expan-
sion of their facilities aftcr the war. Through improve- copper, ~~Ilrmni~tin. phosplr~mls,;ind r~ickel,which are
often added to provide iinlin>wd strc~iglh and cor-
ments in quality control arrd through hctter heating
rosion rcsista~lcc,rrxiy rr\iliiire a special ~vnlili~rg pro-
and rolling techniques, thcy could produce an .47
ci.durc for somc nf t h t w stwls.
type steel to a higher strcngth lcvol \vhile maintaining
carbon and mangarlPsc \vithin the limitations dvsirable In addition. tlic slxdication r c q r i i r ~ .that
~ "these
stecls h a w enh:in<rd cvrinsion resistmce q u a 1 to or
for economical welding.
grmtrr than c;rrlir~nsti~,iswith cqiper." C:irhon stwls
As a result of these improv(.mtmts, S T M A36
"Structural Stecl" was pi-opnscd, and was xdoptcd in with vr~ppcr-or "coppw hi::tririg" strrls, as they are
freqtrmtly i l l - 1 twicc thr: atmospheric cor-
1960. This specification imposrd controls on carbon
and mangancsr to i~lsnre tw~nomical wtkling and rosio~i r s i s t of A7 steel. There are, howevcr.
specified a mini~n~tm yield point of 36.MW psi, n 10 wrtitin prqxictnry grndcs of A2-$2 hwing ovcr four
times the atltri~spli~:ric r~~rrosionrcsistii~iccof A7 stecl.
per cent incrr~asr~ ol.el- A7. In 1962, A36 w s revised
(:oiiscqumtly, in ordering A142 stsvl, the pro-
to place further limitations on carbon and manganese
i l i i ~ wmust be consullt~lto insrire th:it the steel can
and was s~ihscqnerrtly xccptad by the Bureau of
Public Roads for \vt4dcd bridges. he crorromicolly u ~ l d c d;md h;rs iinpn~vrd corrosion
rtzsistance if t l r ~ s eprnpcrtics arc desired.
In essence., the ncw A36 specifiration combines
all of the advantages of A373 in a stecl which has a
ASTM A440
higher rnini~n~im yield point than A7, yet costs no
mort, thau A7 i l l shapes and costs only slightly morr
than A7 in platos.
ASTM A242
1)uring the 11)!30's, n rrlini1lr3r of stwl p r o d ~ ~ v ~began
xs
offerirtg pr.oprit+ary grades of higlr-strength low dloy
steels containing, in addition to carbon mu1 man-
g;incse, such clernmts ;is \.an:idium. cbronrinm. copp<,r.
silicon, and nickel. These stecls were offcred with
ASTM A441
spwifitd minimtini yidd poirtts from 12,000 psi to
50,000 psi. Irr additioir. I I X I ~ ? ilf thwe s t d s puovidid
grimtly improvrd corrosion rt.sist;tnce ovcr ASTM A7.
By 1941 it became. apparcrrt tliat a spccificntion
7.1-4 / Joint Design and Production
120 t o 190 i d
to be uscd in the design of buildings and bridges. 1'366) prcpring a specification lor thcse s t i d s to :illour
The first of this grorlp of high-strcngth stcels was their ust* in welded iiigh\v;ty bridges.
commercially produced in 1958. At that tirnc it was The proprict;iry grades ol high-strt31igtli stc2els :ire
found that minor additions of coluinhium to plairl prcsently (January 1966) limited in their 11sc in h i d d -
carbon steel prodilced as-rollcd yield points up to ing and bridge constnictinrl bcc;~usc of code and
60,000 psi in the thinner ganges in a weldd>le grade specification n~qnircm~~nts. Thew sti~clsdo not as yct
of steel. These "columbium steels'', as they were d e d , have an AS'TM desipntion. Rmxcxw, tb<:scsteels offcr
were produced to specific-d minimiim yield points of the arlvantage of prwiding higli strct~gillat ccononiic;il
45,000 psi, 50,000 psi; 55,000 psi, and 60,000 psi in prices in a variety of yidd points arid they enable
limited thicknesses. designers to obtain thc strcngtli thry rleml without the
In 1962 another group of high-strcrlgth low nlloy ni:ccssity of pa~rillgfor considrrably morc strength than
steels was introdrlcrd commcrcinlly which catended rcqoircd. Fnrtllcrmon~.the c l ~ t m i s t of
~-~ these stt& is
thrsc. high strtwgths to n bro;id range of thicknesscs i~oritrollcdI'm wononric;il w~.Idiilg.(:o~rs<.q~~(.iitl>-, eogi-
in plates and shapcs. Thcsc stet:ls r t ~ u l t c dfrom the wers arc taking ~ n of the t ico~iornies to bc
discovery that thc addition of small amounts of gairird in thr use of thvsc steels ; i d 11;ivi.u s d tlicln on
nitrogen combined with vanadinm in a rarbon-man- ;I great variety of strrictun~including inany truildings
ganese steel prodnced an increase in strength nmch and several liridgcs.
greater than M-odd bc expected froln the eAscts of
theso two rlernents individ~xally,while eliminating the 6. HEAT-TREATED CONSTRUCTIONAL
cleletcrious effects of adding nitrogon alone. ALLOY STEELS
Similar high-strength stcels are now available from Proprietary Grades
several producers, in a wide range of shapes and
platcs with s p u d i d n~inimumyield points of 45,000, In 1953, thc first of the higtl-strength, hc;~ttreated,
50,000, 55,000, 60,000 and 65,000 psi. (Src Tahle 1C) constri~ctional alloy slccls was m;~rketrd. Thcsc ~ 1 :
And the Burcan of Puhlic Roads, in cooperation with low-carhon; qnrwchetl and tcrnpcrrd nlloy stc?cls with
the steel producers concerned, is cnmently ( J a n u a v , specified minim~nnyield points ranging from W,WO
Shapes
45 45,000 65,000 min.
Plates To i I/>" i d
- . .~
To 3 , I . 131
-.--. -
Shoper
60 - - ... 60,000 75,000 min.
Pioter To 3/8" incl.
Shoper To 3h1'i d (3)
65 65,000
l/B"
Plater To incl.
i
(I! Chemistry of high-strength low oiloy rtcelr varier wilh producen. This Toble
ir bored on Bethlehem V Sloeis as of January, 1964.
I ti".
Min. : c r o - Yield
Yield $ Differ- Strength
Point Per entiol Price per Dollar
Grade Group and Thickness (21 psi Tom Over A36 (3) (4)
ASTM
Carbon
Steels
ASTM
High-
Strength
Steel6
ProprietoP,
High-
Strength
Low
Ailoy
Steels
18)
(1) There figures are l o r campornfive purposas only. 15) See Tobie i A . Note 3. f o r dcfin;tian a i Group A.
a n d ore ~ i o tto be used l o r p w i n g purposes. Fig-
urer are based on BEihiehem Steel Company prices, (4) See Tablc IB. Note I. iar defimtion of G m p $ I,
October. 1963. li. a n d ill.
Grade 1
--
To 3/4"
Thickness
1x1.
.
Yield
.
Over %,' t o I!/>'' incl.
~ . -
To%" i n d
Ovei %." t o i%" inri.
..- . . ... ..
ASTM o v e r 11/2" to 4 incl.
Carbon -~ . ..-.- -~~-
~
Stcels
~
Over
~
%" to %." incl.
A373
.
Over %" to 1'. i d
~ ~~~~- ~~~ ~
. . incl.
o v e r I" to i I/?''
ASTM
High- o v e r il',,' 10 P incl.
Strength ~ ~ - ~ ~~- p~ -
- ~ - ~
. -.
L
~ ~
45
Ovei 3,$-
- -
to 52- i
lK
Piopiieiory
High-
Strength
Low
Alloy
Steels
15)
(1) There figurer ore far compomtive puipasea only, the $!eel l d o l l o r i per ton) cornpored t o the yield
and ore not to be used for pricing puiporel. Fig. ~ t ~ ~ per~ q unitt h price for A36 itccl i n the some
ures a r e bored on Bethlehem Steel Company prices, thickness.
October. 1963. (4) Bored upon Bethiehem's Moyari R A242 steel,
(2) The ratio of the price of the steel t o the price which h o i on atmospheric corrosion resistonce o f
of A36. st least 4 t o 6 timer that of plain carbon steel.
(3) The yield ~ t i e o g t hof the rteel per unit price of (51 Baicd o n Bethlehem V Steels.
Selection of Structural Steel / 7.1-9
h. Strcngth-price valncs are hascd on equivalent l>u): in shapes R J I ~a goor1 h y iir plates. I! we rri:ike
thicknesses of material. Use of a iiigh-strcngth stcel oiir comparison 011 the hasis o! strcngth-to-price ratio,
\ d l i~sridlyrcsult in n thinncr section than that re- as in Tnhlts 3, A36 is foiind to bc ;I hcttcr vnlnr than
ql~iredwit11 A36. Since tlre thinner nraterial may be cithcr A7 or A373 in both slrapcs arrd plates.
sold at a lowt:r unit price, actnal savings may there-
fore he greater than indicated by coinparativc strength- Nigh-Strength Steels
price ratios. It is also truc that using highcr strength,
thinner sections d l ptmnit a rtduction in weld size \Vhere full advantnge can be t;ikt:ri of higher yield
which offsets incrcasrd cost of prt4ieat or other spccial point le~.cls,.4411 is ;! lrt'tter lm!: illan A36, exccpt for
welding procedures. Gronp 11%shapcs over i' inch thick (\re11 thickncss)
c. Strength-priix vahres art, based on material
:ind for Cronp HI* slraprx
costs arid do not inch& fn:ight. fahric;ition, or erection. I l l e A242 steels arc not rt~comrnorded for eco-
nomical design onlcss high corrosior~ resistance is a
Carbon Steels rnajor rcquircmmt.
.-
Based on price alone, ,436 was found to be the! Irest ' Hrfw to note 1 (in Tahie I B .
r Grade G r a m ond Thicknest (1) .80 .PO 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30
*Tho yield strength of the rted per u n i t price of the $:eel (dollarr per tan) cornpored to t h e strength per u n t p,ict !or A36
(I) Indicates web thickness. 3 See Table IB. Nole I . for deftnliion of Groups I, 11, ond i l l
(2) See Tobie I A , Note 3, for definition of Group A. (4) hied an aethishim V Steels.
7.7-4 / Join* Design a n d Production
5. TRANSVERSE SHRINKAGE
area of weld
(%")(I")= ,125
2(%)(%")(.58") = .29
FIG. 8 Transverse shrinkage vories directly 2(2/3)(1")($46'') = -
,083
with omount of weld deposit. A, = ,498 in.2
Selection of Structural Steel / 7.1-1 1
stress and often preclrldc advantageous nse of high- through the use of higli-strmgth steols, savings in
strength steels. fabricating costs can be realized. A common oxample
For instance, if we considcr an nnbraced colmnn is in the lower tier col~lmnsof multi-story buildings.
length of 11 feet and rompare the required column
size of A36 and A441 for loads of 100k, 4005 and Proprietary Grades
1600Vve find savings as given in Table A. Whenever higll-strength steels can be used advantage-
ously, seriorls consideration should be given to one or
TABLE A more of the proprietary steels, if these steels are ac-
comparative
Factors 1 A STN
-G - - T
ceptable under thc local codes. Propietary sterls often
provide in<:rcasod economies over -4441. For instance,
if we compare the same cohm~n loads and column
Size lmgth (11 feet) as in Table A, we find savings for
wt. S o v i n g d i t .
proprietary steels as given in Table B.
Cast Sovinyr/ft. -
Size
C.mp.,otive ASTM
wt. Savingslft.
(Kips) Factors A36
Cart Savingrlft. *
-~ - Size
Sire
Cart Sovings/ft. *
Size
The judicious nse of high-strength strels will almost **Saving of grade 50 or 55 o v e i A36; If i indicates a saving h i e d
on prices in c f f e i f Oct., 1963. These volues include bore price ond
always resnlt in an overall reduction in weight of the g i o d e extie (shown in Table 281 pius section a n d length extras.
structure. Wlienc\,or this weight rednction can be trans-
lated into savings in the cost of fnundations, supporting Although ihc minimum specified yield point of
stnictures, or in handling, transportation, or erection 4441 decreases as thickness increases. yield points for
costs, thcn the high-strength steels can and should bc the above proprietary stcels arc 50,000 and 55,000 psi
usod to advantage. respectivcly for all available thickncses. As can be
seen in Tables .h and B, the effect on cost of maintain-
Savings I n Fabrication Costs ing yicld point throughor~ta broad range of thick-
Whcnever the nrSd for built-up sections can be avoided nesses is quite evident.
11. SPECIFICATION VS ACTUAL CHEMISTRY the steel, the paramorrnt question is: "What is the
chemical composition and what are the mechanical
Tht: preceding rnntc~-ialon the dcvelopment of the cnn- propertics of the stcel that I must work with?"
stsuction stecls and the sp~cifications and merits of Many fabricators and engincers tend to rely on the
thcse stwls should be hclpful to the cngineer or archi- spt:cification of the strcl for the answer to this ijnestion.
tect who is scxrching for the most ccoiiomical design. Rut such practice has in many cases led to a welding
IIowrvcr, to the fabricator, who must determine procrdure based on the worst combination of chemistry
the procedure to use for fonning, bnrning or welding (as f a a s welding is concerned) that the specifjcation
7.1-12 / Joint Design and Production
will allow. This practice can result in a more costly quirements of the gradr: ordered and which it is
welding operation than is necessary. expacted will provide the mech:mical properties re-
A more realistic answer to the establishment of qnired in the finished product.
welding procedure lies in the steel's "pei1igree"-the Each ingot pollred from imp heat of steel is
mill test report. The mill test report is a certification of identified with the heat number, and this identity
the chemical composition and physical properties of is maintained throughout all subsequent rolling mill
the steel in a specific shipment. operations.
To cite an example, an investigation of the mill Tha rolling of steel has a definite effect on the
test reports from a certain mill disclosed that the steel rnt:chanical properties of the finished product. Con-
supplied by that mill had a carbon and manganese firming mechanical tcsts (tensile strength, yield point.
content considerably less than the maximum allowed and per cent elongation) are, therefore, made after
tinder the specification. In addition, 85 per cent of the the steel has been rolled to final section and cooled.
steel purchased from this mill was less than % inch The mechanical properties of thc section and the
thick. The average chemistry for plates up to 3i4 inch chemical composition of the heat are recorded on the
thick rolled on this mill compares with the allowable niill test report.
specification chemistry as follows: The mill test report is filed by the mill for its own
record and certified copies arc forwarded to the cus-
tomer, when requested, for his use. The report's dis-
I I I
A36 / Soecification 1 0 25% mox 1 - closure of the particular mill order's chemistry is a
Mill Average .20
- .. ! 50%
. .:. . _- valnahlc guide to devclopmcnt of the most economical
and satisfactory welding procedure.
.224', mox. 1.25%
Mill Average .I8 The chemistry of the steel in a structural steel
fabricator's shop can th11s he readily detcnnined from
Although the above average figores are for a the mill test report. Fnrtherrnorr, where necessary the
particnlar mill, they indicate that the carlion and chemistry of thc steel can be anticipated to a reason-
manganese content is nsnally considerably less than able degree far in advance of shipment by referring
the maximnm of the specification and will be in a to previons mill test reports on similar products from
range that will permit significant variations in welding the same mill.
procedures. For greater economy of welding, the structural
stcel fabricator or erector can and should base his
12. M I L L PROCEDURE
welding procedure on the actual chemistry of the
When a mill receives an order for a particulru grade steel he is welding, rather than ttpon the worst
of steel, prodiiction of that item is scheduled to be nossible combination of chemistrv allowed under
rolled from a heat of stcel meeting the chemical re- the specification.
1. INTRODUCTION
Ordinarily, a correctly desigrred joint :ind properly &lost stet~lsc;ni he co~nmerciallyarc wcldcd, with good
made weld do not rt-quire special procedures to prc- rcsr~lts-sonnd, strong \veltIcd joints. The "weldahility"
vent cracks during wdding or ill sci-vier. The need uf a metal rt4t.r~to the rtllativc mse of producing a
for spcciai procdnrcs i11crcases, however, with hcavy sati~factnry~ crack-frm, sound joint. A steel is said
plate structural members ; ~ n dis growing with the cx- to be ideally .iv~Wableif the rctpirtd \veld joint ~m
panding use of steds having grrater atnotmts of alloy- Iw niarle nithont difficnlty or ~xcessivecost.
ing elements in their clrtwistry. Soroc stools are rnorc. suitcd to high-speed wclding
This section first provides some insight into the tli:lii othtxs. Analysis of the t:loctrodo corc \virr, is
factors that promote weld cracking and m a k a s ~ g - acctrrntc~lycoi~trolledto prodwe good wrlits, but since
gestions for welding proceclurt~sto vorrect or prevcnt the plate mctal heconles part of the weld, control of
a cracking prohlcrn. This section thcn . i d present a the plate analysis is nlso irnportant. Whcn higher cnr-
comprchensivr discussion of wlim to rise prehrxting rents ;ire nsed to get I~igherwelding spocds, mort: of
to eliniinate or prt3vcnt crac1;ing. It will nlso prrsent thr plate metal mixes with the wcld. If possihlr, wlect
a new approach to establishing the prclieat and iilter- an msily wdded steel that doesn't n>quirc expensive
pass temperatuw, based on the heat inpnt of the weld- t~li~ctmcl'sor coinplicated welding procednres. 'Table
ing proccdrue, thr critial cooling rat<. (dotermint:d by 1 gives a rangr of carbon stt:rl analyscs for maximum
the cheinistw of the steel), and the joint geometry, wrlcling speed.
The comrno~ily used mild steels M i within the
In order to evaluate the weldability of steels, a wclding. The arc is an electrical discharge or spark
limited kno\vledge of the basic arc welding process sustziined in a gap in the electrical circuit. The re-
is advisable. sistance of the air or gas in the gap to the passage of
Welding consists of joining two pieces of metal thc current, transforms the electrical energy into
by establishing a metnllurgical bond between them. heat at extremely high temprmtures. Electrical
Many different welding processes may be used to power consists of amperes and voltage. The amount
produce bonding through the application of pres- of energy available is the product of the amperes
sure and/or through fnsion. Arc welding is a fusion and the voltage flowing through the circuit and is
process. The bond between the mptals is produced meastired in watts and kilowatts. The energy used
by reducing to a molten state the surfaces to be is affected h y such variables as the constituents in
joined and then allowing the metal to solidify. &ctrode coatings, the typc of current (-46 or DC),
When the molten metal solidifies, union is com- the direction of cul-rent flow, and many others.
pleted. In all modern arc welding processes, the arc is
In the arc welding process, the intense heat re- shielded to control the complex arc phenomenon
quired to reduce thr inetal to a liquid state is pro- mid to improve the physical properties of the weld
duced by an electric arc. The arc is formed between deposit. This shielding is accomplished through
the work to be wt~ldedand a metal wire or rod varions techniques: a chemical coating on the elec-
called the elcctrode. The arc, which produces a trode wire, inert gases, granular flux compoi~nds,
and metallic salts placed in thc core of the elec-
Welding Machme AC or DC trode. Arc shielding varies with the type of arc
Power Source and Controls welding process used. In all cases, however, the
Electrode Holder 7 shielding is intended: 1) to protect the molten
metal from the air, oither with gas, vapor or slag;
2) to add alloying and fluxing ingredients; ,and 3 )
to control the melting of the rod for more effective
use of the arc energy.
\Ground Cable
I
Gaseous Shield
temperature of about 6500°F at the tip of the
electrode, is formed by bringing the electrode close
to the metal to he joined. The tremendous heat at
the tip of the electrode melts filler metal and base
metal, thus liquifying them in a common pool
called ;I crater.* As the arens solidify, the metals
are joined into one solid homogeneous piece. By
moving the electrode along the scam or joint to
be welded, the surfaces to be joined are welded
together along their entire length. The arc welding process requires ;I continuous
The electric arc is the most widely used source supply of electric cnrrent suflicient in amperage
of energy for the intense heat required for fusion :md voltage to maintain an wrc. 'l'his currcnt may be
either altcmating (AC) or dircct ( D C ) , but it must
* F o r soinc applications, filler metal is deposited b y a con- be provirlecl through a source which can be con-
sumnblc w e l d i n g electrode; for others, a "nonmnsumable" trolled to satisfy the variables of the welding
elcctrode supplies the heat a n d s separate welding rod the
filler metal. 11roces" :mmnerage and voltage.
eldability and Welding Procedure / 7.2-3
elds Crack an
5. WELD CRACKS
1. weld cracks occ~~rring during wclding,
A crack in weld, howcver, is nwer minor and cannot
3 2. cracking in thc heat aficcted zone of the base
be condoned. Good design and proper welchng pro- metal.
ct?dure will prevent thcsc cracking problems: 3. welded joints failing in service.
7.2-4 / Joint Design and Production
ib/
FIGURE 1
Factors that Affece Weld Cracking During Welding Factors that Affect Welded Joints Failing in Service
1. Joint Resfruint that causes high stresses in the Welds do not usually "crack in service but may
weld. "break" because the weld was of insufficient size to
2. Bead Shopc of the deposited weld. As the hot fulfill scrvice rtquircments. Two other factors would be:
weld cools, it tends to shrink. A convex bead has s~ffi- 1. Notch toughness," which would affect the
cient material in the throat to satisfy the dcmancls of breaking of welds or plate when subjected to high
the biaxial pull. However, a concave bead may rcsult impact loading at i9xtrcmely low temperatures.
in high tensile stresses across the weld surface from 2. Fatigue cracking* due to a notch effect from
toc to toe. Thcse h r s s e s frequently are high cnough poor joint gcomctry. This occurs under servicc con-
to rupture the surface of the weld causing a longitndinal ditions of nnusually severe stress reversals.
crack.
An excessively penetrated weld with its depth items t o Control
greater than its width under conditions of high restraint
may carlsc internal cracks. I. Bead Slzupe. Dcposit beads having proper bead
Both of thesc types of cracking arc greatly aggra- surface (i.e. slightly convex) and also having the
vated by high sulphur or phosphorus content in the proper width-to-depth ratio. This is most critical in the
base plate. case of single pass weids or the root pass of a lnultiple
3. Carbon and Alloy Content of the base metal. pass weld.
The higher the carbon and alloy content of the base 2. Joint Restraint. Design weldments and structure
metal, the grrater the possible scdoction in ductility to keep restraint problcms to a minimum.
of the weld metal through admixture. This contributes 3. Carbon and Alloy Content. Selcct the correct
appreciably to weld cracking. grade and quality of steel for a given application,
4. Hydrogcn Picliup in the wcld deposit from the througll familiarity with thc mill analysis and the cost
electrode coating, moisture in the joint, and contamin- of welding. This will ensure balancing wcld cost and
ants on the surface of thc base metal. steel price using that steel which will develop the
5 , Rapid Cooling Ratc which incrrases the effect lowest possible overall cost. Further, this approach
of items 3 and 4. \\.ill usually avoid use of inferior welding quality steels
that have excessively high percentages of those elements
Factors fhot Affect Cracking in t h e Heot-Affected tht~talways adversely affect weld quality-sulphur and
Zone phosphorus.
1. Nigh curbon or alloy content which increases Avoid excessive admixture. This can be accom-
hardenability and loss of ductility in the hmt-affected plished through procedure changes which reduce pene-
zone. (Underbead cracking does not occur in non- tration (different clcctrodes, lower currents, changing
hardenable steel.)
2. Hydrogen embrittlcnient of the fusion zone
through migration of hydrogen liberated from the " N&w notch toiighncss nor fatigue cracking are discussed
herr. See Srction 2.1, "P~.opcrtics of Materials," Section 2.8,
weld metal. "Desi~ming for Impact Loads, and Section 2.9, "Designing for
3. Rote of cooling which controls items 1 and 2. Fatigue Loads."
eldability and elding Procedure / 7.2-5
polarity, or improving joint design si~chas replacing cooling from the critical temperature r ( d t s in n slightly
a sqllare edge butt weld with a bevel joint.) lower strength.
4. Hydrogen Pickup. Select low-hydrogen welding For the nornld thickncsscs, the mill has no
materials. difficulty in meeting the minimum yield strength re-
5. Ifeat Inpot. Control total heat input. This may quired. However, in extremely thick mill sections, be-
include preheat, weliiing heat, heating between weld cause of their slower cooling, the carbon or alloy
passes to conh.01 interpnss temperature and post heat- content might have to be increased slightly in order
ing to control cooling rate. Control of heat input lowers to mcct the rcquired yield strength.
the shrinkage stresses and retards the cooling rate Since a weld cools faster on a thick plate than on
helping to prevent excessive hardening in the heat-
i~ffectedzone, two primary causes of cracking.
6. T A C K WELDS
7. T H I N N E R PLATE
. THICK PLATES
FIGURE 4
section may show the concave \veld to have less pme- weld to frccly slrrink (dotted lines). Tl1e11 pull thc
tmtion and a smaller throat ( t ) than first thought; phtes hack to the origit~al rigid position thztt they
therefore, the convex weld may actually he stronger \t.onld norm:ill>- he in il~~rinfi
; i d after w~,lding(solid
w e n though it may h a w lcss deposited metal (darker lincs). This ncct.ssitatt~sa stretching of the w d d .
cross-section);
Designers originally favored the concave fillet weld
because it seemed to offer a smootlrer path for the flow
of stress. However, experience has shown that single-
pass fillet welds of this shape have a greater tendency
to crack upon cooling, which unfortunately usually
outweighs the effect of improved stress distribution.
FIGURE 6
This is especially true with steels that require special
\\&ling procedures.
When a concave fillet \veld cools and sl~rinks,its In :~ctual practice all of this stretch or yielding
outer face is stressed in tension, Figure S ( a ) . If a call occur only in the weld, since the plate cannot
surface shrinkage <:rack should occur, it can usually he move and tho weld has the loast thickness of the joint.
avoided by changing to a convex fillet ( b ) . Here the Most of this yielding takes place while the weld is hot
and has lower strength and ductility. If, at this time,
the intcrnal stress exceeds the physical properties of
the weld, a crack occurs which is rrsually down the
centerline of the weld.
ce not in lension The problem is enllanced by the fact that the
first (or root) head usually picks up additional carbon
or alloy by admixture with the base metal. The root
bead thus is less ductile than subsequent beads.
'4 concavc head surface in a groove weld creates
the sume tendency for surface cracking as described
(a) Concave weld (b) Convex fillet weld for fillet welds, Figure 7. This tendency is further
incre;ised with lower ductility.
FIGURE 5
11. UNDERBEAD CRACKING drogen tends to pile up here; going no farther. See
Figure 10.
Underbead cracking is not a problem with the con- tipon further cooling, the lieat-aifcctetl area tmns-
trolled analysis low carbon steels. This problem if it forms back to fcri-itc with almost no solubility for hy-
occurs is in the heat-affectcd zone of the base metal. drogen. Any hydrogen present tends to separate out
It can become a factor with thick plate as the carbon bctuwn the crystal lattice and builds up prcssnre. This
or alloy contcnt of the steel increases. As an example, pressure, when cornhined with shrinkage stresses and
this can occur with the heat treatable very high any hardening cfft:ct of the steel's chemistry, may
strength, high carbon low alloy steels like 4140 or cause tiny cracks. Since weld metal is usually of a
6150. The construction alloy steels which have over lower carbon than the hasc plate, this trouble occurs
100,000 psi tensile strength and are heat treated before m a i ~ ~ l just
y beyond thc \veld along the austcnite-
welding, also can experience underbead cracking in fcrritc boundary and is c;~llecl"underbead cracking"
thick plates. When armour plate was used, underbead See Figure 11. Ii some of these cracks appear on the
cracking (toe cracks) was a problem. The point is that
the problem is only important on hardenable steels.
Low-hydrogen processes should be used to join
these materials since one cause of underbead crack-
ing is hydrogen embrittlement in the heat-affected
zone. Hydrogen in the welding arc, either from the
electrode coating or from wet or dirty plate siufaces,
will tend to be partially absorbed into the droplets
of weld metal being deposited and absorbed into the
molten metal beneath the arc.
As the welding arc progresses along the plate,
the deposited hot weld metal (which has now solidi-
fied) and the adjacent base metal heated by the weld
above thc transformation temperature are both aus-
tenitic at this elevated temperature, and have a high
FIGURE 1 1
solubility for hydrogen. Fortunately, a considerable
amount of hydrogen escapes through the weld's sur- plate surface adjacent to the weld, they are called "toe
face into the air; however, a small amount may diffuse cracks". Slower cooling by welding slower and pre-
back through the weld into the adjacent base metal. heating allows hydrogen to escape and helps control
(The rate of diffusion decreases with decreasing this problem.
temperature.) The use of low-l~ydrogenwelding materials elim-
inates the major source of hydrogen and usually
eliminates underbead cracking.
-<
men to
roluble in this iegmn
reheat and Ho
e a t Temperature
I Welding Pioceas
Shielded Metol-Arc Welding with
Thickness of
Shielded Metol-Arc Welding with Low-Hydrogen Electrodes
Thkkert Port at
Other t h a n Low-Hydrogen Electrodes and Submerged Arc Welding
P d n t of Welding A36". A7', A373' A36'. A7" A373', A441'
(inches)
, A242' Weldable Grade
To
.
%, lncl. none"
-.
Over I]/>to 2%. inc!. 225-F 150°F
' Weiding shall not be done when the a m b i e n t temperowre is iower t h a n OFF.
'When the bare metal is betow tho temperature listed for the welding proceri being used and
t h e thickness of moteiiol being weided, it shall be preheated f a r both toik welding and welding
in such m a n n e r that the iurfocer of the parts o n which weid mctol is being deposited are at
or above the m i n i m u m tcrnperotuie for o distnnce cquoi to t h e thickneii of the port
being weided, but not less thon 3 inches, both iotcioily a n d in advance of the welding.
Preheat tcrnperoiure shall not exceed 400DF. (lntcipnii temperature is not subject to a m a x i m u m
limit.)
"sing U O X X a r E70XX electiadei other thoii tho low-hydrogen types.
'Using E6OXX or E7OXX iow-hydrogon electrodes IEXX15, -16. -18. -281 or Grade SAW-I o r SAW-2.
'Using only E70XX lawhydrogen rleitioder lE7015. €7016. E7018, E7028) or Grode SAW-2.
W h e n the boie metol temperatwe Is below 32°F , preheat the bore metal to at leort 72°F.
eldobility and elding Procedure / 7.2-1 1
(1) FIGURE 12
\vilere:
cation uses a single-arc, submerged-are automatic weld
J =: Heat input in Jodss/in. or watt-sec/in. at 850 amps and a speed of 20 in./min. (for a %'' fillet
E = Arc voltage in volts weld), wit11 the ginicr positioned for flat welding. This
I = Welding current in amps would provide a heat input of 86,000 joules/in. An
V = Arc speed in in./min alternate metbod positions the girder with its web
vertical so t l ~ a tboth welds are made si~nultaneouslyin
Since all of the welding heat input at thc arc does the hrxizontal position, and uses two sets of tandcm
not enter the plate, the following heat efficiencies arc arcs (each set with two wclding heads); the heat input
snggested for rise with this fonnula and subsequent from e:icb arc would he 73,600 joules/in.-a total of
formulas, charts or nomogrnphs:
--(3-809; manual welding 147,000 joules/in. of weld for ezreh fillet. Because of the
resdtirig lower cooling rato, less preheat should be
required once the weld has been started. This may be
'30-10(1'2 submerged ;uc welding
a considerable advantage - for the comfort of welding
Most preheat arid interp:iss te~llpcrature recom- operators, especially when welding inside 1,lrge box
mendations are set np for manual welding where there girders.
is ;I rr:lativcly low hi%~t input. For example, a current of 16. COOLING RATE
200 amps and a speed of 6 in.jmin. would produce a
welding heat input of so bout 48,000 joules/in. or watt- When a \veld is made, thc weld and adjacent plate
sec.,'in., asslirning an efficicrrc). of 80 percent. Yct, it cool very rapidly. Thc rate of cooling depends first
might hc nccessauy to weld a 12-gmrge 3heet to this on the combination of initial plate temperature (To)
plate in thc vertical drr\\-n positim with 180 arnps anrl (int,luding cffccts of preheat or interpass temperature)
;I specd of 22 irr.jmin. This would rsduce the wclding and the welding licat input ( J ) , and secondly, on the
heat input to 9800 joul(~siin.If this werc a thick plate, plate's capacity to absorb this heat in terms of plate
it \vould indicate thc need, wit11 this second pro- thickness and joint geometry.
ccdure, for n ~ o r ~prelhaat,
: althongh existing prcheat Fignro 12 ilh~strntcsthe temperatrires in the heat-
t a b l a do not r t m p i z c the cffect of diEcrctit welding :dFectcd zone of the plate as the welding arc passes
hcat inputs. by. Under a givm set of coriditions, the cooling rate
On the other I ~ ~ i n t somc
i, do\i;ii\vard i~djustn~ent will vary as ropres<.~ltcdby the changing slopes of
in preheat from the \ d i w list011 in the prclieat tables both curves.
should he ~ n a d e for standard welding procetlures For a particnlar cheinistry: at a given tempcratrire
which providc a mlich grcatrr welding h a t i ~ ~ p i r t . level ( T , j thir-e is a critical cooling rate (R,,) whicli
We are considering here a stable heat-flow- condition shoold not bc cscreded i n order to avoid u~~dcrbead
after some welding has progresstd. cracking. This temperature level is in the range of
This does r ~ o tconsider the more severe cooling J00"l' to 750°F. American investigators tend to use a
conditions at thc moment wdrling commerrces. U n - higher value sucli as 750", while English and Canadian
dorrht~dly,some initial hcat could bt: supplied to a invcstigators favor a lower value such as 300°C, or
localized arra at thv start of tllc weld on thick plate. 572°F. In this discussion, wc have placcd this tempera-
Tho qncstion hecomcs Iiow much, if any, pre- ture levt4 (Ti) at 572°F.
heat is nerded for thc rernaini~iglength of joint. . ,
Ihe iiivestig:ition of cooling rates has been based
For esainplt:, it is st;uidard practice today to use largely on two rxtreme conditions, which have been
submerged-an antom:~ticwelding to build up columns d t d o p c d rnatheniaticaily.* These are:
and girdcm from heavy plate. Onc method of fabri- I. The thin platc, in which the combination of
eldability and Welding Procedure / 7.2-13
1.0
.9
.8
Tb
-
- To
.7
T' --T d i , ,b
.5
Upper portion of curve
i
4
.3
.2
FIGURE 17
1
I .2 3 4 5 6 7 .8 .9 1.0 i i 1.2
The higher the carbon equivalent, the lower will c;~rbon r~!~inivalt.nt-criticnl cooling mtc cnn.i, sliowrr
be this critical (allowable) cooling rate. Thus, the in Fignrc 21 has l x ~ nPI-odnccd to usv :IS ;i gnide in
highcr tlic steel's carbon equivalent, t h more in>- casc thl, CTS test on the particolar steel is not inad(,.
portant becomes the nse of lowhydrogen \velding and This cwvc may he c~npresscdby the foliowi~r~ forrnnla:
preheating.
Cottrcll zmd Bradstreet" kavc used a type of
Roeve Restraint test, calltd tho CTS (Controlled
Thermal Severity) test. For any given steel, three thick-
nesscs are tested - '/a, ?b, and 1". Each test requires
mis
R , - -
C,,, u . 3 0 7 4
critical ctw,iingrate T,
-16.26
572eF,
. .. . . . .. . . . . ( I ] )
8
@ 80
-"
2
0
60
a
0
I Example I Using Chart (Fig. 17) Use this number as a pivot point
(4a) t = 1 . 0
Given:
watt-sec
J = 2Q,000 Y
me11
2nd nomograph
(1) R = 25 "F/sec
find required preheat temperature (T,): watt-sec
(2b) J = 20,000 ----
inch
a) Determine Ti - To/,>, =
( 3 b ) Red To/,,,, = 282 "17
Use this nnmbt~ras a pivot point
FIGURE 4
procedure will produce good root fusion and will Spacer strips may be used <:specially in the case
minimize back gauging. of double-vee joints to prevent bum-through. The
In Figure 3c a large root openirig will result in spacer, Figure ?d, to prevent burn-through, will be
b u r d ~ r o n g h .Spacer strip may be used, in w~hichcase gonged out before welding the second side.
the joint must be back gonged.
Backup strips are commonly used when all weld- Backup Strips
ing must be rio~iefrom one side, or when thc root Backup strip material should conforn~to the base metal.
opening is excrssive. Backup strips, shown in Figure Feather edges of tlic plate arc recommended when
4a, b and c, are generally left in place and become an using a txickup strip.
integral part of the joint. Short intermittent tack u&ls should be used to
hold the hackr~pstrip in place, and thesc should pre-
ferably be staggered to rcduce any initial restraint of
the joint. They should no? be directly opposite one
another, Figure 5.
Thc backup strip should be in intimate contact
with both plate edges to avoid trapped slag at the
root, Figure 6.
W e l d Reinforcement
On a bnt? joint, a nominal \veld rrinforcement (approui-
mately $',c," above fiush) is all that is rleccssary, Figure
7, left. Additional buildup, Figure 7, right, serves no
useful pnrpose, and will increase the weld cost.
Care s h o d d be takcn to h e p both the width and
FIGURE 5 the height of the reinforcement to a minimum.
Joint Design / 7.3-3
2. EDGE PREPARATION
weld is required. A land is not recommended when
Thc main p ~ ~ r p o sofc a land, Figure 8, is to provide weldirrg into a backup strip, Figure 10, since a gas
an additional thickness of nirtal, as opposed to a pocket would he formed.
feather edge, in order to minimize any bum-through Plate edges are beveled to permit accessibility to
tendency. A feather edge preparation is more prone to all parts of the joint and i n s ~ ~ good
r c fusion throughout
bum-through than a joint with a land, especially if the the entire weld cross-section, Accessibility can he
gap gets a little too largc. Figrxe 9. gained by compromising between maximum bevel and
A land is not as easily obtained as a feather edge. ~ni~iirn~rniroot opening, Figure 11.
h ft:atlier edge is generally a matter of one cut with Degree of bevel may be dictated by the importance
a torch, while a land will usually require two cuts or of maintaining proper electrode angle in confined
possibly a torch cut p111s machining. quarters, Figr~rc19. For tlic joint illustrated, the mini-
A land usually requires back gouging if a 100% mum recommended bevel is 45".
FIGURE 6
?lqt,t
-
L w Reinforcement . - rRe~nforcement
FIGURE 7
FIGURE 8
..
F GURE 9
FIGURE 10
Not Recommended
7.3-4 / Joint Design and Production
\ /
, FIGURE 11
U and I versus V e e Preparations enough to expose sound weld metal, and the contour
J arid U preparations are excellent to work with should permit the electrode complete accessibility,
but economically they have little to offer because Figure 15.
preparation requires machining as opposed to simple
torch cutting. Also a J or U groove requires a land,
Figure 13, and thus back gouging.
Back Gouging
To consistently obtain complete fusion when welding
a plate, back gouging is required on virtually all joints
except "vees" with feather edge. This may be done by
any convenient means: grinding, chipping, or arc-air
gouging. The latter method is generally the most
economical and leaves an ideal contour for subsequent
beads.
Without back gouging, penetration is incomplete,
Figure 14. Proper back chipping should be deep FIGURE 12
FIGURE 14
FIGURE 15
Joint Design / 7.3-5
~ m i t o t l o n sFar Jalnfs
o !P/ P8rnitf*d Weldin%-
45./',./ A , , PO,i,i."l
M.i% / F4.l mnd Orerh.06 onll
20./',d TI" on6 0.erhs.d oni,
NOTE: The size of the fillet weld reinfoicing aioove ~ d d irn Tec nod corner iointi rho11 t / 4 but r h a i i be ?b' mox.
i . Gouge root before welding second side 'Par 505il
2. Use o i this weid l i m i t e d to bare metal thickness of 5%'' or larger.
when laser plcie is bevelled, firs: weld mat p a s f h i i ride.
7.3-6 / Joint Design and Production
8-P6 C-P 6
TC-US-S
NOTE: The size of the fillet weid reiniorcing groove welds in Tee a n d coiner joints i h o i l equal t!4 but 1ha1i be niax
1 G o q c roof before welding second side l P o i 505il
2. Use of this weld preferably limited to bore nieioi thickness of SIR''or laiger.
' When lower ,dote is bevelled. iirrt wcld root poir this ride.
is not always dictated solely by the design function. penetration. The amount of weld metal compared to
The choice often directly affects the cost of welding. the conventional fillet weld varies from 75% for a 1"
For example, Figure 18 illust~ates this influence. plate to 56% for a 4" plate. For plates up to about I'iz"
The choice is to he made between 45" fillet welds or thickness, the extra cost of beveling the plate and the
some type of T groove joints. probable need to use lower welding current in the
( a ) For frill-strength wolds, the: leg of the fillet 15" groove tend to offset the lower cost of weld metal
u d d must be about 75% of the plate thickness. for this typo of joint. But for heavier plate the re-
(1)) Full strength map also he ohtaincd by double duction in wcld metal is great entmgh to overcome any
beveling the edge of the plate 15" and spacing the extra preparation cost.
plate so the root opening is '/s" to allow for colnplete ( c ) Full strength may also be obtained by bevel-
7.3-8 / Joint Design and Production
NOTES:
* Welded in the flot position.
.
e It mot face i r less than 1/4",
-
there should be a t leoit one moouoi beod to picvent burnthrougtt
.
Minimum effective throot = \ l t i 6 . where I is thickness of rhinnei part.
* Plote thickness: single groove joint t 2 3/,'; double groove joint t Zli/:".
Effective throat = t.,.
in2. the e d ~ eof the plate 60" so as to place some of is about I'h" date. The GO" hevcl, partly p r c t r a t e d
the weld within tbc plate; a 60" fillet is thcn placed joint, wit11 60" fillets appcarstto he the lowcst in cost
on the outside. The mini~nnmdepth of bevel and the above 1" in thicknesses. Tlic relative position of these
additiond leg of fillet are both equal to 29% of the curves will vary according to thr wt,lding :~ndcntiing
plate thickness. For all plate thicknesses, the amount costs uscd.
of weld metd is approsimately half that of the con- It uwuld hc a good idea for each cornpanp to
ventional fillet. This joint has the additional advantage make ;I similar cost stndy of tho welding in their shop
that almost high u d d i n g current may be used as in for gniilancr of their cngint,ers in qirickly selecting the
the making of the fillet weld. most cconomical weld. Natr~r:~llythc variotis costs
All of this is shown in thc graph, Figure 18. The (labor, \velding, cutting, handliug. asscmblp, etc.) will
cross-over point in this chart between the conventiolial vary with each company.
fillet welds and the 35" full penetrated T groove joint
Joint Design / 7.3-9
4 &-
I
,OD .".,."..
t i c
./De*s I)O"h,. 1.
. n-b>* x ,.--". @G
S'"*l< l%l/ec
I
v2 1 li% 2 212' 3
Plate thickness. In.
FIGURE 18
TYPES of
Single
But!
Tee
Corner
La
Edge
FIGURE 21
People who specify or are otherwise associated with of tllc joint. For instance, the tce joint could 1,s either
welding often use the terms "joint" and "weld" rather fillet weldcd or gnmve w<,ldcd.
loosely. For clarity in communication of instructions, The 1.ig1lt-liii11d clliirt shows the h s i c typcs of
it is dcsirahle to keep in mind the basic difference in \velds: fillet, stltiii~-c,brvcl-groow, V-groove, J-groove,
meaning between these two terms. This is illustrated by and U-groove,. Tlre tylx: of joi~itdoes riot afFcct ~vlult
Figure 21. we c d l tho I i l t l r o ~ t g lthc
~ silrglt: bevt+groove
The left-hand chart shows the five basic types of weld is ill~rstr;itrtIns a lxitt joilit. it may be iisrd in a
joints: butt, tec, corner, lap, and edge. Each is clcfinrd I)~itt,tee or conler joint.
in a way that i s dcscriptivs of the relationship thc Tlrt completr: dt~fiiiition oL a welded joint must
plates being joined lrave to each other. Ncither the include (lescriptio~iof Imtlr the joint :ind tbe \vcId.
7.3-12 / Joint Design & Production
Strength of Welds
Many engineers are not aware of the p a t reserve
strength that vidds have. Table I shows the recognized
strength of various weld metals (by electrode desig-
nation) and of various structural stecls.
Notice that the minimum yield strengths of the
ordinary EGOXX electrodes are over 50% higher than
the corresponding minimum yield strengths of the A7,
A373 and A36 structural steels for whicli they sllould
be used.
Since many EGOXX electrodes meet the speci6-
cations for E70XX classification, they have about 75%
TABLE 2-Minimum Pvoperties Required
higher yield strength than the steel. of Automatic Submerged-Arc Welds
Submerged-Arc Welds rAWS & AISC) (as-welded; multiple-pass)
AWS and AISC require that the bare electrode and Gmde SAW-1
flux combination used for submerged-arc wclding shall tenrile strength 62,000 to 80,000 psi
yield point, min. 45,000 psi
be selected to produce weld metal having the tensile elongotion i n 2 inches, min. 25%
properties listed in Table 2, when deposited in a reduction in nrco. mi". 40%
multiple-pass weld.
-
where:
AISC 1.17.5)
f allowable force on fillet u~eld,lbs per linear Along thc <:dgc of material lcss than %" thick, the
inch maximum effective leg size of fillct weld shall be equal
-
w = leg size of fillet weld, inches
r allowable shear stress on throat of weld, psi
to the plate thickness ( t ) :
to
THICKNESS OF THICKER
%"
PLATE JOINED
ind.
t I M I N I M U M LEG SIZE
OF FILLET WELD
W
Effective
lenqtt, [La)
FIGURE 9
FIGURE 7
FIGURE 10
1. If t @ 5 W"
then ,t = t&
2. If t @ > %"
FIGURE 8 then t , 2 '/z t e z%
'"
(AWS Hldg Art 212(a)3, USC 1.17.6) Spacing and Size of Plug Welds
(AWS Bldg Art 213, :iWS 13ridge Par 218, AISC
1.17.11)
FIGURE 11
Determining Weld Size / 7.4-5
s 2 4 d
d 2 t* + < 2% tw
Spacing and Sire of SIof
L s 10 t,
w 2 t* + X8" 5 2% t,
s,24w
ST, 2 2 L
r 2 t*
4. PARTIAL-PENETRATION GROOVE
Partial-penetmtion groove welds are allowed in the Tension applied transverse to the weld's axis, or
building field. They have many applications; for ex- shear in any direct~on,has a reduced allowable stress,
ample, field splices of cohimns, br~ilt-upbox sections e q d to that for the throat of a corresponding fillet
for trnss chords, etc. weld.
For the V, J or U grooves made by manual welding, Jnst as fillet wolds have a minimnm size for thick
and all joints made by snhmcrged-arc welding, it is plates because of fast cooling and greater restraint, so
assirn~ctlthe hottom of the joint can he rcached rasily. partial-penetration groove welds have a mininium cffec-
So. thc effective throat of the weld ( t , ) is equal to the tive throat ( t , ) which should be used -
;ictlinI throat of the prepared groove ( t ) . See Figure
13. t, >
=
If a hevcl groove is tvclded manually, it is assumed
that the wcldor may not ( p i t r reach the bottom of the where:
groove. Thcrefore, AWS and AISC deduct 36" from the t, = thickness of thinner plate
p r c p r c d groove. IIere the effective throat ( t , ) will
q ~ a the l throat of the groove ( t ) minus %". See
Figure 1 3 ( a ) .
a. Primary welds transmit the entire load at the
particular point where they are located. If the weld
fails, the member fails. The weld must have the same
property as the member at this point. In brief, the
weld becomes the member at this point.
b. Secondary welds simply hold the parts to-
gether, thus forming the member. In most cases, the
forces on these welds are low.
c. Parallel welds have forces applied parallel to
their axis. In the ,case of fillet welds, the throat is
stressed only in shear. For an cqnal-legged fillet, the
maximum shear stress occurs on the 45" throat.
d. Transverse welds have forces applied trans-
(a) Single bevel joint (b) Single J joint versely or at right angles to their axis. In the casc of
fillet welds, the throat is strcssed both in shear and
FIGURE 13 in tcl~sionor comprrwion. For an wpal-lcggcd fillet
Tension applied parallcl to the weld's nsis, or com- weld, the m;iximum shear stress occurs on the 67'h"
pression in any direction, has the same allowable stress throat, and the masin~umnormal stress ocmrs on the
as the plate. 22%" throat.
7.4-6 / Jcint Design and Producticn
TABLE &Determining Force on Weld definite length and outline. This method has the fol-
lowing advantages:
1. I t is not necessary to consider throat areas be-
I
standard treating
design the weld cause only a line is considered.
formula as a line
2. Properties of the welded connection are easily
I Type of.Loading
f
stress
IbaIinZ
PRIMARY WELDS
force
Iba/in found from a table without knowing weld-leg size.
3. Forces are considered on a unit length of weld
instead of strcsses, thus eliminating the knotty prob-
t e n s i o n or
lem of combining stresses.
compression
4. I t is true that the strrss distribution within a
vertical
shear 1 : V fillet weld is complex, due to eccentricity of the ap-
plied forcc, shape of the fillet, notch eifect of the root;
etc.; however, these same co~iditionsexist in the actual
Ellet welds tested and have been recorded as a unit
force per nnit length of wcld.
1 ' - I I
,
SECONDARY WELDS
I
I 8. DETERMINING FORCE ON
I
- - ~ ~ ~
~~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~ ~~
.-" strcss
~~
f
S,
- force
in. --
the weld is treated as a line, having no area, but a
Determining Weld Size / 7.4-7
Normally the use of time standarcl dcsigu forrnulas TABLE 5-Properties of Weld Treated as Line
resnlts in a unit stress, psi; however, when the weld is
treated as a line, these formu1;is resdt in a force on
the weld, ibs pcr linear inch.
For secondary welds, the weld is not treated as
a line, hut standard design formulas are used to find
the forcc on tlie weld, lbs per linear inch.
In prol~lamsinvolving bending or twisting loads
Table 5 is used to determine properties of the weld
treated as a line. I t contains the scction modillus (S,),
for bending, and polar momcrit of inertia (J,), for
twisting, of some 13 typical welded connections with
the weld treated as a line.
For any given connection, two dimensions are
necded, width ( h ) and depth ( d ) .
Section modulris (S,) is used for wrlds subject
to bending loads, arid polar moment of inertia (J,)
for twisting loads.
Section modnli (S,) from these formulas are for
maximum force at the top as well as the bottom portions
of the meliled connections. For the nnsyrnmetrical con-
nections s h o \ ~ nin this tabk:, maximum bending force
is at the bottom.
If there is more than one force applied to the
weld, thcse are found and eomhinod. .411 forces which
al-e combined (vectol-ially added) mmt occur at the
same position in thc welded joint.
LE L A l l o w a b l e s for elds-Buildings
(AWS Bldg & AISC)
tension transverse
t o axis of weld
or
A441. A242* €60 Iow-hydrosen
or SAW-I
I
I c
i
.,._ 13.600
rheor on
effective throat
Por(ia1-
P~-netration
Groove Welds
-
tension parailel
to oxis of weld
or
cornpreliion on
effective thioot
~~~~~ . -.
/I A7, A36, A373
I I E 6 0 o r SAW-I
~
some or fP.
A7, A34. A373 E60 or SAW-I
. .... . .- .- ~ --4- ~ -
r = 13.600 psi
E6O iaw-hydrogen
f
: . 7 9600 w iblin
Filict
Wold
E70 or SAW-2 7 -=: 15,800 psi
Plug
and
Slot
* wddnble A242
I ~.
. ~.
shear on
effective
oms
..
~
I
I
Same os far fillet weid
Type of Weld
Complete-
Penctioiion
Groove Welds
Fillet
Weld?
r = 14,700 psi
E70 low-hydrogen
or SAW-2
* weldoble A242
$ E70 or SAW-2 could be used, but would not incrcore allowable
Determining Weld Size / 7.4-9
2 1 - .) .. ' ( b -+
-b . d)'
J
,-- .
12 (2 h
~..
+ rl)
u
FIGURE 15
ease Metal @
<= 7500
0
d = 10,500
psi
I n Teniton i2 1 3 K i -2;3K
C"""..A"A
1
I
By Fillet
Welds
But not to exceed +w+ PI
I --
.. . ~
Bore M c t o l
compreii,on
--
10 7500
~ ... .
10,500
Connected r = K. P54 * ~
psi
: -- 213 K
~~ ~
By Fillet I 213
Weldi
.-
eutt Weld
In Tension
Butt Weld
Cornpieiiion
Filie: @
f=
,800'"
Welds K lbl n
u =: Leg size
'- 2
- ( 18,000)
- (20)
= 900 lbs/in.
(Continued on page 11)
Bare Metol
In Ten~ion
0
Connected
By Fillet
Welds
..-. .- .. .
Bare Metol
Compression
Connected
By Fillet
Welds
-...
Buff Weid
0
In Tension * = .19,000 psi
~~~
PCpsi
I -- 7 R
~ -
Butt Weid
0
Comprerrion *= 24.000
pri
P, psi
i - R
.. .~
@
Butt Weid 13.000 psi 13,000 psi
in Shear =
I - I/, R
- ~- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . .
W e t Welds
w = leg sir
Siwply supported
roncenrra:ed loud5
lugs, etc. ), the real purpose of the weld between the and web will be the same regardless of end conditions
flange and web is to transmit the horizontal shear of the beam.
forces, and the size of the weld is determined by the To apply these rules, consider the welded frame
value of these shear forces. in Figure 18. The moment diagram for this loaded
It will help in the analysis of a beam if it is frame is shown on the left-hand side. The bending
recognized that the shear diagram is also a pictnre moment is gradually changing throughout the vertical
of the amount and location of the welding required portion of the frame. The shear diagram shows that this
between the flange and web. results in a small amount of shear in the frame. Using
A study of Figure 17 will show that 1) loads ap- the horizontal shear formula (f = Vay/ln), this would
plied transversely to members cause bending mo- require a small amount of welding between the flange
ments; 2 ) bending moments varying along the length and web. Intermittent welding would probably he
of the beam cause horizontal shear forces; and 3 ) sufficient. However, at the point where the crane
horizontal shear forces require welds to transmit these bending moment is applied, the moment diagram shows
forces between the flange and web of the beam. a very fast rate of change. Since the shear valne is
Notice: 1) Shear forces occnr only when the equal to the rate of change in the bending moment, it
bending moment varies along the length. 2 ) It is quite is very high and more welding is required at this
possible for portions of a beam to have little or no region.
shear-notice the middle portions of beams 1 and 2- Use continuous welding where loads or moments
this is bemuse the bending moment is constant within are applied to a member, even though intermittent
this area. 3 ) If there should b e a difference in shear welding may be w e d throughout the rest of the fab-
along the length of the beam, the shear forces are ricated frame.
i~suallygreatest at the ends of the beam (see beam
3). This is why stiffeners are sometimes welded con- Finding Weld Size
tinuously at their ends for a distance even though they
are welded intermittently the rest of their length. 4) The horizontal shear forces acting on the weld joining
Fixed ends will shift the moment diagram so that the a flange to web, Figures 19 and 20, may he found
maximum moment is less. What is taken off at the from the following formula:
middle of the beam is added to the ends. Even though
this does happen, the shear diagram remains un-
changed, so that the amount of welding between flange
where:
f = force on weld, lbs/lin in.
V = total shear on section at a given position
along beam, lbs
a = area of flange held by weld, sq in.
y = distance between the center of gravity of
flange area and the neutral axis of whole
section, in.
I = moment of inertia of whole section, in.4
n = number of welds joining flange to web
load
FIG. 19 Locate weld at point of
minimum stress. Horirontoi shear
force is maximum along neutral
axis. Welds in top example must
carry m a x i m u m s h e a r force;
there is no shear on welds in
FIG. 18 Shear diagram of frome indicates bottom example.
where the amount of weldins is criticai.
Determining Weld Size / 7.4-13
:illow~xhleforce
~
FIGURE 21
where:
V = 189,000 lbs
TABLE TO-Intermittent
I = 36,768 in.' Length and Spacing
a = 27.5 in." Continuous Length of intermiftent welds ond
weld, % di3tmce between icnterr, in.
y = 24.375' 75 .. 3-4 ..
n = 2 welds 66 .. .. 4-6
= 1720 lbsjin
7.614 / Joint Design ond Production
For this reason the sizc of intermittt:nt fillet weld that is, intcrmiltent welds having leg size of %" and
w e d in design calculritions or for determination of Icngth of 4", set on 12" renters. A ?W fillet wcld ~is~rally
Icngth must not excetd % of the web thickness, or here: rtquires 2 passcs, nnlrss the work is positioned. A
2-pass weld rcqnirt:~more inspection to maintain size
2h of MI' (web) =: ,333" and weld quality. The shop would like to change this
to a %,," weld. This single-pass weld is casier to m:tke
The percentage of eontinuonr weld length needed and thcre is little chance of it being undersize.
for this intcrrnittent weld will be-
This change could he made as follows:
% ---_-
= continuous leg size
~nterm~ttent
lag size
The prewnt :k"
Determinc the leg size of fillet weld for the base of a 30 lhs/sq f t or pressure of p = ,208 psi. Use A36 Steel
signal tower, Figure 22, assuming wind pressure of & E70 welds.
FIGURE 22
eld Size / 7.4-15
actual force
0 = allowable force
-.(20.5)"
- (6%))" = 1386 in."
6
~~
(6%)9
- ri
- .-
8
-
- 114 in?
Total I, = 1500 in?
To determine amount of fillet weld to attach masoniy
plate to beam, using E70 welds. The following con-
ditions exist:
= 146 in.'
FIGURE 23
Built-up member A d M 11 Ir
bending stress in pipe (column)
IW WF 45# 13.24 0 0 0 248.6
- -.
= -M- e
-
~ -
-- 5.31 ---47.79 -
1-253.8
0-
I -.p...-.p-.
1 8 x '/z" 9.00 ~-
Tom
-
22.24 -47.79 502.4
properties of section
=r 23,600
- -psi
= ,0207" if continuous
If using 3/,," internlittent weld, then
:= calcrilatrd continuous leg
~
size
----~~p
S,=bd
= (120)(8)P
= 960 in."
-
properties of zoeld, trrating it os a line
- i
*--
d=8'
i
DRIVE ROLL FOR CONVEYOR BELT
= 2(120)
FIGURE 24
63,030 x I-IP
T =
RPM
~csultantforce on twld
5100
f=-
K
1--
2
- 5100
= 67.6 in.' -I-+%
= 3400 lbs/in. (allowable force)
bending
= ,600" or use %" h
twisting I Problem 7 /
f? = \/ f b 2 + ftB + fr2
-
- 4(746)? + (1880)2 -+ (250)'
= 2040 lbs/in. (actual rcsultant force)
Jv =
-
(b +
12 ( b
( 3 -t 4 )-
4-
- 6 b2
+ d)
- 6(3)2(4)2
@
1. For twist about connection's center of gravity, due
to P,
-
12 ( 3 + 4)
= 18.3 in."
1. Horizontal
FIGURE 26
Determining Weld Size / 7.4-19
L
-
-
E60 welds
9,600
E70 welds
11,170
-.
7.4-20 / Joint Design and Production
11. WELDS SUBJECT TO COMBINED STRESS From these formulas for the resulting maximum
shcar stress and maximrim rrormal stress, the following
Although the (1963) AISC Specifications are silent is tme:
concerning combined stresses on welds, the prcviolls For a given applied normal stress ( u ) , the great-
specifications (See 12 b ) rcqnired that welds snbject cst applicd shear stress on the throat of a partial-
to shearing and externally applied tensile or compres- pm~&ation groove weld or flllet weld (and holding
sive forces slrall be so proportioned that the combined the rnaxirnu~mshmr strcss resulting from these com-
unit stress shall not exceed the unit stress allowcd bined stresses within the allowable of T = 13,600 psi
for shear. for EGO welds, or 7 = 15,800 psi for E70 welds) is-
Very rarely does this have to be elreeked into. For
simply supported girders, the maximnm shear occr~rs for 1:60 toelds or SAW-1
near the ends and in a region of relatively low bending
stress. For built-up tension or compression members,
the axial tensilc or compressive stresses nay be rela-
tively high, but thcoretic;illy there is no shear to he
transferred. for E70 welds or SAW-2
In the case of continuous girders, it might be well
to check into the effect of combined stress on the
connecting welds in the region of negative moment,
because this region of high shear transfer also has high
bending stresses. This same forn~r~ta
may be cxprcssed in terms of
Even in this case, there is some question as to allowable unit force (Ibs/lincar inch) for a fillet weld:
how much a snperimposed axial stress actually reduces
the shear-carrying capacity of the weld. Unfortrmately for EGO welds or SAW-1
there has been no testing of this. In general, it is felt
that the us(: of the following combincd stress analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(8a)
is conservative and any reduction in the shear-carrying
capacity of the weld would not be as great as wor~ld
be indicated by the following formulas. See Figure 28. for E70 welds or SAW-2
In Figure 28:
7= shear stress to be transferred along throat of
weld, psi
u = rrormal stress applied parallel to axis of weld, For the same given applied normal stress (u),
psi the greatest applied shear stress ( 7 ) on the throat of a
groovt: weld or fillet weld (and holding the maxirnr~m
From the Mollr's circle of stress in Figure 28: normal stress resulting from these combined stresses
within the allowable of u = .60 u,) is-
Ruilt-up tension
Teniioti flange to chord in t r u s s
web of or
box glider
FIG. 29 Relationship of Formulas # 8 and #9; see Table 11, page 19.
SECTION 7.5
1. COST FACTORS of weld metal required. Very few people realize the
great increase in weld metal and cost that results from
There are several methods which may be used to study a slight increase in weld size.
welding cost, and these depend on the need for such The cross-sectional area of a weld generally varies
a study. For example, is it needed to estimate a new as the square of the weld size. For example, making
job for bidding? Or, it is needed to compare one a %," leg size fillet weld when a W' weld is desired,
procedure against another? Or, is the chief need one increases the leg by 25% but the area is increased by
of determining the amount of electrode to order? 56%. The amount of reinforcement is diEcult to specify
A good methocl of cost estimating should give the and control; yet the range of its variance can substan-
final cost quickly; yet indicate what portion of the tially affect the amount of weld metal required. A slight
operation is more expensive, i.e. where the welding increase in root opening increases the amount of weld
dollar is really being spent. metal for the entire thickness and length of the weld.
The h a 1 cost includes a t least these items: a ) The resulting percentage increase in weld metal is
labor and overhead for plate preparation, assembling, usually surprising.
welding, cleaning, and sometimes stress-relieving; b )
elcctrode, flux, and gas; and c ) electric power. Computing Weld Weight
Table I includes a number of useful formulas for
determining various cost components. Designers or associated personnel frequently have to
Unfortunately there is no one all-inclusive formula compute the weight of weld metal required on a
By which all types of welding jobs may be studied. particular job, as a matter of either cost estimating or
The simplest type of cost estimation is a job that re- determining the amount of material to be ordered for
quires a long, single-pass fillet or groove weld. Next a particular job. Sometimes these computations must be
comes the long, multi-pass weld, where a different pro- based on the size and configuration of the joint. The
cedure may be used for each pass. In both examples, normal procedure to follow in such a case is to com-
it is sufficient to assume a reasonable operating factor pute the cross-sectional area of the joint in square
due to the downtime between electrodes consumed inches and then convert this into pounds per linear foot
and to apply this to the actual arc time. This downtime by multiplying by the factor 3.4. To simplify these
is affected by the weldor, as well as the job. A more computations, Tahle 2 (weight in lhs/linear f t ) has
complicated weld may require a handling time factor. been developed; its use is illustrated in Problem 1.
This handling time is affected more by the job, than Tables 3, 4, and 5 provide precalculated weights
by the welding. for specific joints and read directly in lbs per foot
Three items which are difficult to tie down, yet of joint. Tahle 6 is a similar table for AWS prequalified
greatly affect the cost of a weld, are these: joints. Tables for the direct reading of weld metal for
1. The amount of filler weld metal required; this partial-penetration grwve or Met welds are included
varies with size of weld, size of root opening or fit up, in Section 3.6, "Fabrication of Built-up Columns."
amount of reinforcement, included angle of groove, etc. For estimating the weight of manual electrode
2. The operating factor used, i.e. the ratio of actual required, ronghly add another 50% to this amount of
arc time to the over-all welding time. weld metal.
3. The amount of handling and cleaning time. In order to arrive at the labor cost per foot of
This section includes various tables and nomo- joint, it is necessary to know the speed at which the
graphs which are helpful in making true cost estimates. joint can he welded. This may be found in prepared
No estimating system, however, is satisfactory without data on standard welding procedures, both for manual
the estimator applying his good judgment and per- welding as well as the submerged-arc process. For
ception. special joints for which no information is available, the
deposition rate (Ibs/hr) may be determined from
2. COST OF WELD METAL tables and charts for given welding currents. The joint
speed is then funnd by dividing this deposition rate
The cost of welding is directly affected by the amount by the amount of weld metal required (lbs/linear ft.).
7.5-2 / Joint Design and Production
-
SPEED
i t .- 5 -in
I min 60
TIME
12
I JOINT S P E E D
1
hr min ft it/hr = m/mm 2 +l t l
S, S2 S3
~~ ~ ~~- ~
-
-. 7--
JOINT SPEED 1 ROD ME1 TED P E R FOOT 1 ROD MELTED P E R HOUR
it
. - % -
hr
6OD
J
I lh rod mel&
it wcid
z~
N L,*.S 1 - hr
6000 M (OF)
ib rod melted
N L,.
APPROXLhlnTE R1EI.T
OFF IUTE E ( w c volt$ Ilwcldinp c u r r e n t ) -
lb rod m c E
1000 hr
APPROXIMATE COST O F
SUBMERGED ARC _&
-
,00663 I ( F t W ) - 10 L
AUTObL4 TIC WELD it S
WELD COST
I p e r foot of tach p a s s I p e r l b of deposit
LABOR OVERHEAD
I 5 L " L
ft - s (OF)
12lNIMW
MANUAL EI.ECTRODE
ft N L S
GAS
lb rod c o n s u m ~ =i
. ----
m = W, W,
- W,
elding Cost. / 7.5-3
7.5-4 / Joint Design ond Production
Reinforcement: 10%
7.5-6 / Joint Design and Production
Weight of Weld M e t a l
(lbs. p e r foot of joint)
DC - Dct
T r a v e l Speed
(inches p e r minute)
elding Cost / 7.5-7
11 1.7 lbsjft
Since r = Y4"
read from Table 2 :
,334 lbsjft
FIGURE 3
3. OPERATING FACTOR
countered in obtaining this value, it is necessary to
The selection of a proper operating factor (OF) is establish an approximately true value rather than to
difficult, and yet affects the final cost more than any simply ignore it or assume it to he 100%. Consider
other single item. Even though some difficulty is en- the following:
1 - .- ~.
METHOD A METHODB
1
~ ~ ~ ~ - - ~ - - ~ ~ ~ p p p
E-6012 ELECTRODE
-
%" leg iillet . 30# rorl/R %a" .
leg fillet 30'1 rorl/it
$116"E-6012 rod @
melt-off rate M
But this analysis reveals the following: The arc It might appear at first that simply snbstituting
time for the E-6012 electrode per rod is 2.06 minutes; the E-602.1 electrode into the holdcr would dccrease
using a 50% operating factor, this represents a down- the downtime; i.e. the operator can lift np his helmet
time of 2.06 minutes per rod. This downtime between faster, knock off the slag faster, pick up and insert
electrodes includcs time to lift up the helmet, clean the next clrctrndr faster, etc. Of course this is not true.
the slag off the weld, insert a new- electrode into the A more accurate method wonld be to use a fixed
holder, etc. On the same basis the arc time for the downtime, adjusting the operating factor accordingly.
E-602.1 electrode would he 1.57 minutes per rod; and Re-examine this cost study, using an average downtime
using the same operating factor of SO%, this means a between electrodes of 2.06 minutes:
downtime of only 1.57 minutes per rod.
t'
~~
Assume E = lbs
Ibs rod melted
consumed = 90%)
Notice that the decreased arc time with the E-6024 study of the job, which we are trying to avoid.
results in a slightly lower operating factor, 43.5% in- The nomograph, Figure 6, map be ured to quickly
stead of 50% although the joint does cost less. read the labor and overhead cost per foot of weld.
One might further suggest using a downtime per 4. PER HOUR
electrode and a handling time per foot of weld. These
figures, if available, would give a more true picture .4s a matter of interest, consider the cost per hour for
of the welding cost, but it would mean making a time these two procedures:
rod cost
= 7.37 l h s / h r 1 rod cost
= 8. 49 l b s / h r
--
It can be expected then that the cost per hour for the total lengths of each type and size of weld on the
making the same size weld will increase slightly with job.
faster procedur's. Obviously the increase equals the 3. Time the actual weld or job.
difference in cost of electrode consumed. Of course Most welding procedures are based on good weld-
the number of units turned out per hour is greater, ing conditions. These assume a weldable steel, clean
so the unit cost is less. smooth edge preparation, proper fit-up, proper position
of plates for welding, sufficient accessibility so the
5. ESTIMATING ACTUAL WELDING T I M E welding operator can easily observe the weld and placc
the electrode in the proper position, and welds s&-
After the length and size of the various welds have ciently long so the length of crater is not a factor in
been determined, there are three ways to estimate the determining weld strength. Under these standard con-
a c t ~ ~ welding
al time: ditions, the weld should have acceptable appearance.
1. Convert these values into weight of weld metal Failurc to provide these conditions requires a sub-
per linear foot, and total for the entire job. Determine stantial reduction in welding current and immediately
the deposition rate from the given welding current, increases cost.
and from this find the arc time. This method is espe- It is impossible to put a qualitative value on these
cially useful when there is no standard welding data factors, therefore the designer or 'ngineer must learn
for the particular joint. to anticipate such problems and, by observation or con-
2. If standard welding data is available in tables, sulting with shop personnel or other engineers who have
giving the arc travel speeds for various types and sizes actual welding experience, modify his estimate accord-
of welds, in terms of inches per minute, apply this to ingly.
FIG. 6-Welding Cost Estimator
(Does Not Include Cost of Filler Metal)
ia bor and
overhead
qhr.
J,P;o
0
0
/o Op~ratr'n~
factor
&+
a ~
--
-. cost of ki" f i l l e t weld
P r o b l e m : Find
Labor a,nd o v e r h e a d d5°--oper hour
@ O w r a t i n g factor 50% -
@ Sp,peed of j o i n t - 1 0 /riches per m i n u t e
@ Reod cost = 20d per foot
d o t e ; This cost f~guredocs not/i7c/udeelactrodz c o s ~ ,
Toduterniina this i/se 'Ibs o f electrode r&redper footo
jmnt''from above refcrerms and mnultjpb by e/cct,+ode
sal/;ng prtce. Add t h i s t o t h a t o b t a i n e d in sfep @
7.5-12 / Joint Design and Production
SECTION 7.6
1. LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY OF Vessels, Section 8. Here the same allowable is used
CONNECTION from minus 20°F all the way up to 650°F. The ASME
code body recognizes the fact that the strength of sterl
In the modification or repair of buildings, it may be riscs slightly upon heating and docs not start to drop
rrecessaly to weld to the existing steel framework. off until a trmpcrnture of 600°F or 700°F is reached.
When welding and riveting are combined on the In wclding to an existing structure, the amount of
same strength joint, the riveted portion of the joint material actually l~ratedmonrentarily above 700" umild
may slip or yield slightly, thus throwing the entire he a very s~nallspot right at the wslding arc. Figure
load eventually on the weld. Normally, on new con- 1 shows the temperature rise in a plate while making
struction where welding and riveting are combined, the n ,7{i;" fillet weld in the vertical-up position. This in-
joint would he figured on the basis of the weld takiug dicates that in wing a E6010 electrode, the
the entire load. Since 1930, most of the old riveted temperature on the hack side of the %'' thick plate
railroad trestles havc been reinforced by melding be- opposite the weld was held below 600°F. Figure 2
canse of the newer and heavier locomotives. shows the same wcld using a $$?" E6010 electrode.
Riveted connections can ba reinforced with plates. Here the temperature on the back side of the 'h" thick
with holrs to fit over the rivets. The plate is welded plate was held below 650°F. Also see Figure 3.
to the existing connection with fillet welds all around its The very tiny area of the member heated above
edge, and is plug welded to the plate at each rivet hole. this temperaturr does not represent a sizable percent-
This technique, however, rcquires a considerable age of the entire cross-section of the stress carrying
amount of out-of-position welding with small electrodes. member. This has been the opinion of rnany fabricators
and erectors u:ho have been welding 011 existing struc-
2. EFFECT OF ELDING HEAT ON tmes for several years.
MEMBER'S STRENGTH All welds will, however, shrink. This creates a
shrinkage force wlrich, if welds are not placed sym-
Frequently, a question arises as to the effect of welding metrically about the mcmber, will result in some dis-
on the strength of an existing structure already under tortio~, of that member. This could occur in melding
a stress. Actually the strength of steel does uot drop off to an misting member if most of the welding is donc
upon heating, until a temperat~~re of about 650°F is on one side. For rxample, if all of the welding is done
reached. This is brought out in the table of allowable on the tmttom flangr of a beam, the unsymmetrical
strengths of matorials in the ASME Unfired Pressure welding will tend to distort the beam upward in the
5 / 3 2 E6010
Vertical up
140 amps - 25 volts
3'/2"/min.
i = 45,100 j o u l e d i n .
Temperalure back sade Temperature bock side ot
of 3A" plote opposite weld Y2" pplte opposite weld
below 6 0 0 " F below 6 5 0 " F
I
FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2
7.6-2 / Joint Design and Production
Approximate distance of 65D'F isotherm from v d parts or for strengthening, it is desirable to relieve the
I I 1 I I I member of dead load stresses, or to pre-stress the
material to be added. If neither is practical, the new
material to be added shall be proportioned for a unit
stress equal to the allowable unit stress in the original
member minus the dead load unit stress in the original
member.
( Problem 1 I
To reidorce an existing member to withstand an addi-
tional live load of 20,OM) Ibs. The existing section has a
cross-sectional area of 10.0 in.', with an allowable work-
ing stress of u = 18,000 psi. The original design loads-
dead ( D L ) , live (L,L), and impact (1)-gave the fol-
lowing:
To be w e d in n e w steel to be added =
18.000 psi
10.000 p s i
-.
8,000 psi I
FIG. 3 A guide to establishing proper welding
I 20,000 ibr
8,000 ibr
= 2.5 in2 = orea of new ircei to b e added
1
procedures for minimum heat input.
Check this as follows:
I
i00.000 lbi I iO.O in.' = iO.000 psi
100,OW ibs i 12.5 in.' = 8,000 psi
200.000 ibi 18.000 psi
I
this would tend to distort the beam downward in the and 18,000 psi 5 18,000 psi C K
Q
while \velding.
In making alterations to structt~rcs,existing rivets it involves vertical and overhead positions or painted
may be utilized for carving stresses resulting fronr or dirty material. Material should be cleaned as thor-
dead loacls and welding shall he provided to carry all oughly as possible before wrlcliiig. If the nntcrial is
additional stress, However, if the framing is shored nnnsoally thick, a low-hydrogrn electrode should hc
during repairs and the meniber to be reinforctd is nsed, and it would be wrll to check for any preheat
thus relieved of stress, the welding shall carry the w11ic.h might be recornmcnded. See the following topic,
entire stress. Temperature for Welding.
When making a rt:pair on a structnre it is ntLcessary
to know the type of steel it is made of. It may be
AISC Sec 1.15.10: R i v ~ t snnd Bolts in Combination possible to get a mill rcport from the steel mill which
\i.ith Welds. In new work, rivets, bolts or high strongth fornislied the stecl. Sornetirnes on w r y old structures
1)olts used in bearing type connections shall not be this information cannot be ohtained. If this is an irn-
considered as sharing the stress in combination with portant structure, it wot~ldhe a good idca to get test
welds. Welds. if nsrd, shall be provided to carry the drillings and have them analyzed.
entire stress in the connection. High strength bolts An erperionced weldor will sometimes weld a
installed in accordance with the provisions of Sec 1.16.1 small piece of mild sterl to the structnre and then
as friction-type connections prior to welding may ho knock it off with a hammer. If the weld cracks out of
considered as sharing thr stress with the wrlds. In the base metal, taking some of it with the weld, this
making wrlded altc,rations to structures, existing rivets indicates that thc stecl is hardenable and the heat-
and properly tightened high strength bolts may be affected zone adjaccnt to the weld has bren hardened.
tltilked for carrying stresses rrsnlting from existing If the w d d itself cracks, this indicates higher carbon
dead loads, and the, welding natd be :tdeqltate only or alloy in the steel which has been picked up in thc
to carry all additional stress. molten weld and become hard during cooling. In both
cases, preheating imd low hydrogen electrodes should
AASHO Requirements be used. If the mild stecl bar bends down without the
\veld breaking, this indicates good weldable ductilc
.4.4SfIO 1.127: The unit working stresses used in steel.
determining the load-can-ying capacity of each member
of a structure shdl take into account the type of
material from which the nmnber is made. The unit
working stress assnmed for the inventory rating shall
not cscerd 0.3-15% of the yield point and for the
operating rating shall not exceed 0.82 of the yield
point.
Where infornration concerning the specification
under which the metal was supplied is not available,
it will be assumed that the yield point docs not rxcwd
30,000 psi for all bridgcs hnilt after 1005.
Rridgcs built previous to 1905 shall be checked to
see that thc matcrial is not of a fibrous nature. If it is
fihl-ous or of doiihtfnl character, the yield point will be
assumed to bc equal to that of wrought iron which
shall be taken ;IS 26,WO psi.
In the ahsencr of definite information, it shall be
assninctl that the yicld point of wrooght iron is 26,OOO
psi, and the unit working stress shall be taken as 14,000
psi.
4. GENERAL
All structural work for a rnaior addition to the
Pmlmxd repairs and mrthods shonld be considered Jordan-Marsh Deportment Store in Boston wos
2nd approved by a qnalified enginrer. Welding on a completed without interruption of business. The
job of this type should be of the best quality and concrete wall was penetrated and new steel
adeq~tately inspected. An tl6010 type of electrode welded successfully to vintage steel under load
would nomrnlly he recommended for this welding, if -without removal of the load.
7.6-4 / Joint Design and Production
There is little chance that the strnctwe to be re- metal which is wet, exposed to ice, snow, or min, nor
paired is made of wrought iron, which was used in when the weldors are exposed to inclement conditions,
structmes prior to 1900. Wrought iron contains slag including high wind. unless the work and the weldors
rolled into it as tiny slag inclusions or laminations, and are properly protected.
is low in carbon. The slag pockets might bother the In general, the AISC and AWS specifications on
welding operator a little; but this should he no real minimum temperature for welding are a good guide
problem. Some cngincers recommend that extra effort to follow. See Table 1. The following thoughts might
he made to fuse or penetrate well into the wrought iron supplement them in producing better welds at thcsr
surface, especially if the attached member is going to cold temperaturcs.
pull at right angles to the wrought iron member; other- Welding on plates at cold temperatures results in
wise, they reason, the snrface might pull out because of a very fast rate of cooling for the weld metal and nd-
the laminations directly below the snrface. jacent base metals. With thicker sections of mild steel,
It is also possible for the sulphur content of A7, .4373_ and A36, this exceptionally fast rate of cool-
wrought iron to be excessive, and it should be checlced. ing traps hydrogen in the weld metal. This reduces
Keep in mind t t ~ a tany chemical analysis for sulphur ductility and impact strength of the weld and may
represents the average value in the drillings of steel cause cracking, especially of the root bead or first
taken for analysis. I t is possible in u ~ o n g h tiron to pass. This type of weld cracking has been shown to
have the sulphur segregated into small areas of high occur almost entirely in the temperatwe range below
concentrations. The lowhydrogen electrodes (EXX15, 400°F.
EXX16 and EXXl8) should he used where sulphur With a preheat or interpass temperature of 2W0F,
might be a problem. this cracking does not occur, even with the organic
The AISC published in 1853 a complete listing of type of mild steel electrodes. This is because the
steel and wrought iron beams and columns that were higher temperature results in a slower cooling rate, and
rolled between 1873 and 1952 in the United States. inare time for this entrapped liydrogcn to escape.
Lowhydrogen eiectrodes greatly reduce the source
5. TEMPERATURE FOR WELDING of hydrogen and, therefore, the cracking problem. This
weld metal has greater impact strength and a lower
The AWS Building and Bridge codes require that transition temprrature. In gcncral, the use of low-
welding shall not be done when the ambient tempera- hydrogen electrodes will lower any preheat requirement
ture is lower than 0°F. When the base metal temp- hy approximately 300pF.
erature is below 32"F, preheat the base metal to at The fastest cooling rate occurs with so-called "arc
least 70°F, and maintain this temperature during strikes", when at the start of a weld the electrode is
welding. scratched along the surface of the plate without any
Under both codes, no welding is to be done on metal being deposited. This can be damaging and
To %, i n d None' Noner
Over % to i inci. 150°F 70°F
Over il/ to 24/2. incl. 225°F lSO°F
Over 2$ 300°F 225'F
' Welding iholl not be done when the ambient tempeioture i s lower than 0°F.
' When the bare mctol ir below the temperature listed for the weiding process being used and the
thicknerr of material being welded, it shall be picheoted for a l i welding (including tack welding) in
such monnei tho? the suifocai of the parts on which weld metol is being deposited are at or obove the
s p e c i f i d minimum temperature for o dir!ance equai to the thickneir of the port being welded, but not
l e u than 3 in., both loteiolly and i n advance of the welding.
Preheat temperature sholl not exceed 400°F. llnterparr iemperoture ir not r u b j e d to o maximum limit.!
Uring E6OXX or E70XX eiectiader other thon the low-hydrogen types.
See limltotionr on use of ASTM A7 rteei in Poi. 105(b).
' Using low-hydrogen e!ectrodcr (€7015. E70i6, E7018, €7028) or Giode SAW-I or SAW-2.
' Uring only low-hydrogen eiectioder (E7015, €7016, E7018, E7028) or Giode SAW-2.
' When the bore metal temperature ii below 32-F. preheat the base metal to ot ieart 70'1.
elding on Existing Stpuctrares / 7.6-5
Length of Weld 9-
.
Time (Secondr) 300. 2000.
A weld 9" long made at a temperature of 70oF Weld side ( 1 ) complete. So far this should hc
has about the samc cooling rate as the samc weld 3" rather unrestrained. A fcw tack welds on the opposite
long at a preheat of 300°F. Welds of larger cross- side might crack; if so, they should he realigned and
section have greater heat input per inch of weld. High rewelded. Weld side ( 2 ) completc. It might he argued
welding current and slow travel speeds slow down the that this is free to shrink because the* opposite side ( 3 )
rate of cooling and decrease the cracking problen~. is un\velded. However there is some restraint o f f m d
Perhaps the greatest difficulty in cold temperature by the weld along side (1). Now side ( 3 ) directly
welding is the discomfost of the welding operator. It opposite side ( 2 ) is welded; this will start to lock-up
becomes more awkward to move amund tlie weld be- now. Then weld side ( 4 ) opposite side ( 1 ) . If either
cawe of the extra clothing required. The welding lens \veld ( 3 ) or ( 4 ) should crack. it should be gonged out
continually hecomes frosted or fogged from the breath to sound metal and rewelded. Finally, the four corners
of the operator. The helmet must he removed and the ( 5 ) are completed.
lens wiped. Another suggestion is to estimated the amount of
transverse shrinkage and to open up the joint initially
ELDING OF INSERT PLATES by this amount, by driving in sevaral harrlened steel
drift pins. The joint is thcn welded, full throat, lip to
For thick plates, a donble V or U joint would reduce these pins. The pins are then removed, and the joint
the amount of weld metal and therefore transverse completed.
shrinkage. The halanced weld would preclude any
angular distortion.
FIGURE 7
weld area
transverse shrinkage ( A ) = 10L%
thickness
:= 10%,average width of weld
(b) Double Vee
awa of weld
FIGURE 5
( XG")(.62") = ,1162
The use of round corners will tend to reduce any 'h (.62") (.30") = ,0930
notch effect at the mmers of the weliled insert. M (.W)(.30") = ,1350
Sometinics the plate to be insert& is prr-dished. Zlj (1.0")(.lo") = ,0667
-
providing n little excess material in tlie plate to offset ,4109 in.2
the transverse shrinkage. However, longitudinal shrink-
age stresses will build up around the periphery of tha
plate, hccanse the edge welded lies in a flat plane and
A = .I0
("I' ;"
(.411)
~~~-
In production of large plate girders, flange i s commonly tack welded to the web. Then, with the
girder web held at a 45O angle, the web-to-flange weld can be efficiently made using a self-
propelled submerged-arc welding unit. This (/2" fillet is here being mode in two passes. Flange is
4" thick, web %". Improvements in equipment and technique are currently permitting many (/2"
fillets to be made in a single pass.
SECTION 7.7
by viewing each one of these factors separately. A heen criticized for making u~idersize welds, makes
solution based on correcting the combined effect is real surc that these welds are still larger. The resnlt-
the only practicable approach. a 94" fillet has become a K" weld. Thesc men usually
do not realize that weld metal increases as the square
2. EVIDENCES AND CAUSE OF DISTORTION of the leg size. The apparently harmless %" increase
in the leg size has increased thc amount of weld metal.
When distortion occurs, it appears as a shortening of deposited, the weld shrinkage and the weld cost by
the weld area. This generally can be cataloged as 1 times.
longitudinal shrinkage and transverse shrinkage, Figurc
2. Further, if transverse shrinkage is not nniform 4. CONTROL OF ELD SHRINKAGE
throughout the thickness of the weld, a n p l a r distortion
\ d l result. When longitudinal shrinkage acts in a direc- One te~hniquewed to ~nritrolweld shrinkage involves
tion that is not along the neutral axis of the memhcr, prehending the member or presrtting the joint before
the result is bowing or cambering (also shown in welding. In this way the net &ect of weld shrinkage
Fig. 2). pulls the member or connection back into proper aligr-
Distortion results when a condition of non-uniform ment (Fig. 4).
expansion and contraction is crcated. Distortion can Whenever possible, welding should be balanced
be anticipated by evaluating the following factors: around the n e ~ ~ t r axis
a l of the member. This makes thc
I . The weld along with some adjacent metal con- moment arm, d, cqunl to zero. Evtw though a shrink-
tracts on cooling, producing a. shrinkage force, F. age force, F, does exist, the slrrinl~agemoment ( d X F )
2. The shrinkage force acts about the neutral axis becomes zero (Fig. J ) .
of a member. The distance between the center of Freqnently the nentral axis of the member is below
gravity of the weld area and this neutral axis represents
the moment arm, d.
3. The moment of inertia of the section, I, resists
this contraction. The I of a section also resists straight-
ening, should it be necessary.
E f f e c t o f H i g h W e l d i n g Speeds
The volume of this adjacent base metal which contrib-
utes to the clistortion can he controlled by weldiug
procedures. Nigher welding specds through the use of
powdered-iron-type manual electrodes, semi-automatic
and frilly automatic submerged-arc welding equipment,
or vapor-shielded automatic welding equipment reduces
the amount of adjacent material affected by the heat
of the arc and progressively decreases distortion.
5. TRANSVERSE SHRINKAGE
area of weld
(%")(I")= ,125
2(%)(%")(.58") = .29
FIG. 8 Transverse shrinkage vories directly 2(2/3)(1")($46'') = -
,083
with omount of weld deposit. A, = ,498 in.2
Control of Shrinkage and Distortion / 7.7-5
i automatic
utual .
A .I2 "
i a / i u / n t d d A . ,146'
where:
A, = total cross-sectional area within the fusion
Of murse any poor fitup (increasing the root line, of all welds, in.'
opening) or excessive weld reinforcement will grcatly d = distance between the center of gravity of tlie
increase this transverse shrinkage. weld group and the neutral axis of the mem-
ber, in.
. ANGULAR DISTORTION
L = length of thc member, assuming welding the
The formula for calculating warpage is- full length, in.
I = moincnt of inertia of the member, in.4
A = resulting vertical movement, in.
Control of Shrinkage and Distortion / 7.7-7
Measurement of actual distortion verifies the for- left, and allows both welds to he made at the same time
mula for theoretical calcnlation of distortion, Figwe 10. (since they are both in the fiat position). The equal
111some instances when equal welds arc positioned rnomcnt arms in this situation should result in no
symmetricdly around nentral axis of a member, a s w c q of the beam. In both cases the welds will
certain amount of distortior~still occnrs even though produce some cambc;r but this is usually desirable.
the magnih~tlcsof the shrinkaga moments are e q d Many long slender members are made by welding
and opposite. It is believed some plastic flow or ilpset together taw light-gage fonnecl stctions. Waiting until
occurs in the compressive area next to the weld area the first weld has cooled brfore making the second
after the first weld is made. Heca~iseof this upset, the
initial distortion, from the first wdd, is not quite offset
by the second weld on the opposite side. Where
multiple-pass welding is involved, this condition can
be corrected, as illustrated in the groove-weld sequence,
Figure 5. Herc Pass 1 is on the top side. Pass 2, depos-
ited on the opposite side, does not quite pull the plates
back into flat alignment; therefore Pass 3 is added to
the same side. The net resnlt will usually pnll the plate
slightly beyond the flat position and Pass 4, on the
top side, should bring this plate back into flat align-
ment. Frequently this probltm is of no major impor-
tance since the sections to be w c l d ~ darc large enough
in respect to the size of the weld to prevent the oecur-
rence of this upsetting. As a result, on large sections
the second w-eld on the opposite side is jnst as effective
as the first weld.
In cases where the welds are not symmetrically
balanced ahout the neutral axis of the section, advan-
tage may be takcn of this M e r e n r x in distortion by
first completing thc joint nearest the neutral axis (it
has the shorter moment arm) and then welding the
joint on the side farthest from the nentral axis (taking
advantage of its greater moment arm). See Figure 14, FIG. 14 Where welds ore not bolonced obout
which illustrates a masonry plate welded to the bottom the neutrol axis of the section, distortion con
flange of a rolled beam. On the icft, thc welds are not be minimized b y welding first the ioint nearest
symmetrical, so weld ( a ) was made first. Weld ( b ) the neutral oxis ond then the joint farthest
follows since it has a grcater moment a m . On the from the neutral axis. Similarly, weld sizes moy
right, the widcr masonry plate extends slightly on the be varied to help bolonce forces.
7.7-8 / Joint Design and Production
, : ~ w m m
&, - &
~
A=-&
Web
area of the metal expands abnormally through its the wdds that are farther away smaller.
thickness and upon cooling tends to become shorter in 2. If the welding is not symmetrical, this result
all directions. The section so treated will become is achieved by:
shorter and stresscd in tension with each successive a. Prebending the member.
application of heat. h. Supporting the tnember in the middle and
The bending of a member by welding and its letting the ends sag, and for the opposite effect, by
straightening by flame shrinking is analogous to the supporting the member at the ends and letting the
case of a stool which will tilt to one side when the middle sag.
legs on one side are shortened but will again become c. Breaking the manher into sub-assemblies bo
erect when the opposite legs are also shortened the that each part is welded about its own neutral axis.
same amount. Ddlrction is directly proportional to the shrinkage
moment of the welds (weld area times its distance
10. SUMMARY AND CHECK LIST from the neutral nsis of the member) and inversely
proportional to the moment of inertia of the memher.
Transuerse distortion Although a high moment of inertia for the member i.
1. Depcnds on restraint. desired to resist bending. it also makes the member
2. Is eqwal to about 10% of the average width of more difficult to straighten, once it has become dis-
the weld arca. torted. Flame shrinking may be applied to the longer
3. Increases with the weld area for the same plate side if welding has bent the member.
thickness. Assrmhly pror~durcsthat help control distortion
4. Increases with the root opening and the in- 1. Clamp the member in position and hold during
cluded angle. welding.
5. Is directly proportional to the welding heat 2. Preset the joint to offst:t expected contraction.
input per inch, that is, Joules per inch. 3. Prebend the member to oifszt expected dis-
Angular distortion can be reduced by. tortion.
I. Use of a double bevel, V, J, or U for butt joints. 4. Before welding, clamp two similar members
2. Alternating welds from side to side. back to back with some prebending.
3. Beveling the web of a T-joint; this will reduce 5. If stress-relieving is required, \veld two similar
the moment a m of the weld and reduce the angular members back to back and keep fastcned until after
movement. stress relief.
6. Use strong-hacks.
4. Use of the smallest leg size for fillet welds, .I . Use jigs and fixtures to maintain proper fit-up
since the distortion varies approximately with the
1.3 power of the leg size of such a weld. and alignment drtring melding.
5. Use of thicker Aanges; distortion varies ap- 8. Make allowances for contraction when a joint
proximately inversely with the square of the flange is assembled.
thickness. 9. Arrange the erection, fitting, and welding se-
quence so that parts will have freedom to move in
Bending of long membcrs by lorlgitudinal welds can one or more dire&ions as long as possible.
be partially controlled by: 10. Use subasscinblies and complete the welding
1. Balancing welds about the neutral axis of the in each before h a 1 assembly and welding together.
member. 11. If possible break the member into proper
a. Making welds of the same size at the same sections, so that the welding of each section is balanced
distance on the opposite side of the nentral axis of about its ouw neutral axis.
the member. 12. Weld the more flexible sections together first,
b. For welds of different sizes-if at different so that they can be easily straightened before h a 1
distances from the neutral axis of the member-making assembly.
1. THE MATURE OF RUSTING Europe. Foreign reaction is particularly significant
since the adoption of welded box-section structurals
Any steel surface* will gradually and progressively mst has progressed further there than in this country, no-
if left unprotected. For this reason it is important to tably in German bridges built in the past 15 ypars.
keep most steel stnictures painted. What follows is a symposinm of their replies.
Most of us are so familiar with the rusting of steel
that we fail to recopize several important facts about @ Frorn an article, "Corrosion l're\mtion Inside
this: Closed Hollow Bodies, by Seils and Kranitzky, in DER
STAHLRAU (Germany), February. 1959, pp 16-53.
Fe + 'O (moisture) 2 Fez 0, (Translated in abstract form. ) :
(steel) (air) (rust) Investigations on behalf of the German railroads
are reported on six groups of weldcd structures: Four
1. Most chemical reactions will come to a stop if
railroad bridges; three highway bridges; hollow
just one of the reqnired elements or compounds is not
supports on a Munich railroad station; a locomotive
supplied, or if one of the prodncts is not removed from
turntable; traveling platform on a rail car; and one
the reaction.
experimental weidment.
2. A moist condition (water) is required for steel
to rust in the presence of air (oxygen). Steel will not
rust in dry air.
3. Under ordinary conditions, there is a continu-
ous supply of air (oxygen) and moisture, so this re-
action never comes to equilibrium. The result is a
continuous rusting action, unless prevented by some
protective coating.
Detailed inspection substantiated the present tection insidc. It is felt that after the initial minor
assumption that condensation in hollow steel sections corrosion resnlting from entrapptd moist air, Little
is very slight. Inaccessible or difficult-to-reach sections further advance will he experienced, and even undcr
should :~lwayshe welded airtight. Any manholes shonld the most adverse conditions could not detract from the
bc c l o s d with rnbber gaskets. With these precautions, strcngth of the section.
corrosion protection of inner p r t s becomes unnecessary.
Wherever possible, large, accessible liollow weld- * From a structural engineer at Eindhoven,
ments should be madc n airtight as is practical. Closure Netherlands, representing an American international
docs nnt lead to any observable tenciency for water construction company:
condensation and resulting corrosion. If sections are to "All modern fabricators make completely closed
hc ventilated, adetlnate numbers of openings should be sections. There arc a few which have taken some pre-
provided on the front and side walls to allow for soma cantions for corrosion protection, probably at the insist-
eircnlation of air. Openings in the floor are not very imce of the customer. One has used a normal type of
sr~itablr for ventilation, particularly when sidewalls manholn in large girders, for inspection pnrposes. The
have no openings. U ~ ~ d this
e r condition humidity coiild girders were not painted on the inside.
he higher. "Another company is using this mnstruction in
If water pipes have to pass tl~roughhollow sections; colnmr~s. Near the bottom of the d u m n is a hole
there should be an opening in the hollow member to abont %" dian~ett~r, drilled and than closed with a ping.
allow water to escape in case the pipe should later 7Bi. holc is nsed in two ways. First, bcfore the column
develop a lcak. This opening, however, can be prolkled is shipped, pressure is applied to thc inside to deter-
with a t w e of relief or check valvc which will auto- mine whether welds are airtight. If they ;are, the plug
matically opcn when rerjnired and later reseal. Areas is replnced, the column erected and then inspected
in the vicinity of any of t h e e opcnings shonld be after a few years hy removing the plug, to see if any
particularly well protected. The pipe system itself water has collected. Until now, there has never been
should be insulated to n\roid possible condensation. an!; water for~ndinsitlc thc columns.
Experience has shown that if any condensation "E.D.F. iri France has in use a large number of
does occur in the interior of scaled sections, the upper long welded steel colurnns closed at both ends, with
cover plate is tlie most vulnerable area. n o access holes.
In contrast to the outside coatings, a simpler "It is bad practice to completely close columns
corrosion protection can he applied to the inside sor- filled with concrete. Holes should be punched or drilled
faces. Areas subject to frequent use, such as manhole to avoid the possibility of explosion in case of Ere.
openings or in some cases the bottom side of a cover Water in the concrete may vaporize nnder heat. caus-
plate, should be given additional protective coating. ing tremendous pressure on the inside if no escape hole
A recent type of corrosion protection for the is lxesmt.''
interior of hollow sections is zinc powder paints. They
have two important propertics: First, they are largely 5 From a London striictural engineering director,
imaffected by the welding heat; and, sec~ndly,they active with one of the 1argt:st companies in the field
do not influence the quality of the weld metal. there:
"This 'bogey' of internal corrosion in hollow sec-
5 Several of the new mnlti-span German bridges t i o ~ ~iss constantly cropping up. . . In general, in order
across the m i n e make nse of welded orthotropic to be ahsohttely certain of the absence of internal
(orthagonal anisotropic) plate decks, with savings in corrosion, it is always preferable to insure that the
dead weight of steel as high as 50% over mnventional structure is scaled completely."
bridges. In this section, Boor beams and longitudinal
rihs are s!iop welded to the top deck plate, the latter 5 The papi,r, L'ESERGIA ELETTRICA (Italy).
thus serving as a common top flange. July, 1953, discusses tlie mechanics by which water can
Many times torsionally rigid ribs are used, either enter an iinperfectly sealed stnictnre--condensation,
U-shaped or trapezoidal, forming a closed box section hrei~thingresnlting from heating and cooling, capillary
with the top deck plate. Thickness seldom oxceeds infiltration, etc.
,,,
5 , ,r , and occasionally is as little as :KG". The box-
A passage from this research study is worth quot-
shaped rihs are either butt welded to the webs of the ing for its basic informatio~~.
fioor hcarns at each intersection, or pass through thcrn "To produce internal corrosion, one essential con-
and are attached with fillet welds. dition must be fulfilled, i.c., an aperture of appreciable
Orthotn~picplate decks naturally have many sealed size in order that water and oxygen can he present in
sections. Tlicy are not given any special corrosion pro- sufficient quantity and a lack of either will delay cor-
Painting and Corrosion / 7.8-3
rosion. In the case of a closed tube, chemical equi- "If, however, sealed members are used, then some
librium between water, oxygen and rust is reached as provision should he n ~ a d efor frequent checking of the
soon as a practically imperccpiible layer of oxide has seal by testillg the tightness of the box under air
been formed. pressi~re."
"Tests we have made indicated that corrosion was
unlikely to occur through holes having direct access From the geueral secretary of the -4rnerican
to the atmosphere. provided they were shielded from Welding Society:
actual films of water. The test, of course, refers to "For many ycars clevatcd storage tanks in thh
structures under ordinary airnospheric couditions whew country have been supported by towers consisting of
>, no artificial agcncy was teuding to draw air into the closed tubular mcmbers. Companies in the structural
structure. field have had extensive experience in the usc of such
"We would prefer that a hollow welricd section closed sections in which normally the i n t e n d surfacc
be airtight, and if this is do~iethere is no nced to dry receives no spccial trcatment. Some of these have been
the air hefore sealing unless, of course, a slight initial sealed sections and somc not scaled. Service generally
currosiol~must be avoided." has been entirely sat is factor:^ in both casos. Whcre the
section has been snalcd: no rffort his been made to dry
From the chief structrrml engineer of an eastern the containcd air before sealing."
structural fabricator and erector:
"On light structures such as schools, we have
observed many designs which use tubular sections.
Some are Bled with concrctc and many are not. Sonre
require sealing and others do not. '4pparently no con-
cern is shown in regard to the rusting of the unsealed
sections.
"If tubular sectioiis are used and moisttue is apt
to accumulate, provision should hc made to drain thcm.
To seal fully tubular sections does not appear a
feasible proposition."
@ From a partner in a New York city consulting stiffener was not painted on the inside
engineering firm:
"Closed box sections should be sealed, but if pos-
sible should be covered with a protcctive intcrior paint
beforehand. The use of higher alloy steels, such as There may be an occasional problem with paint dis-
\vcldable A242, adds a measure of pmtection at low coloring, flaking, or blistering over welds or in an
additional cost, and the added strength may offset immediate adjacent area. There are several possiblc
the extra cost. reasons for this. Dnst, smoke film, iron-oxide film,
"I have seen no general applicatio~rsin this country. grease and similar materials on the surface of the weld
However, some of the older bridges using the old and immediate adjacent area prevent the paint from
Phoenix shapes (arc form with ends bent up at right coming in contact with the snriace of the steel and
angles) have been sealed and have stood up well. properly bonding to it. These materials form a barrier
"The subject of interior corrosion is very important, between the paint and the steel surface. h surface that
not only for columns but also for lnrgc closed box has been bnrnishrrl very smooth with a power wire
girders which at some f ~ ~ t u time
r e may become popular brush might also prevent proper bonding.
in this country." Elements in the fumes of wclding, when deposited
@ From tlrc manager of technical research for a
in the slag as a film on the stet:l surface, may combine
Canadian bridge company: with moisture in the air to produce an alkaline solution
that reacts wit11 paint. This may cause discoloring
"One of our erection engineers who has worked
and blistering. This problcrn incrrascs with increas-
on bridge erection in England, India and other coun-
ing humidity.
tries states that bridge hox chords, either welded or
Submerged-arc welds :ire relatively free of paint
riveted, are often sealed to avoid air movements. This
problems because thp slag is ncarly always removed
sealing is accomplished by gasketing the manway open-
and the process leavcs no filn~of smoke or iron oxide
ings into the chords. When this is done, painting on
on the adjacent plate.
the inside can be a single coat or can be eliminated
Clcaning is thc obvious first step. Removing slag,
entirely. Seding of box sections to avoid rusting on
spatter, smoke iilm, iron-oxide film; and other similar
the inside is increasing in popularity.
"It is presnmcd that where welding is continuous materials, helps cliniinatc both causes of problems.
First, it provides a cleon smface to which the paint
to seal any box section completely, rusting will be
can bond. Secondly, it removes from weld deposits
inconsequential, being limited by the amonnt of air
most of the chmnicals ihat might r e a d with a paint. In
present wl~cnsealed."
most cases, cleaning will eliminate paint problenrs, but
The chief engineer of the same company's don't burnish the surface with a power brush.
Vancouver, B.C., plant adds: If discdoration or blistering prcvails after normal
"The practice of hermetically sealing struchual cleaning, two additional steps will help. First, a wash
mcmbers to avoid inside painting and corrosion origi- in a mild acid solution, such as boric acid, followed
natcd in Europe when c l o s d welded sections were by a good rinse with clear water will neutralize the
introduced. No type of closure short of hermetic sealing alkaline solution so that it won't &cct the paint. Sec-
is dep'ndable. In such structures, no manholes were ondly, a more alkaline-resistant paint m.ay be substi-
providcd and no paint was applied on the inside." tilted. Paints with a vinyl, epoxy or chlorinated rubber
"Completely logical" is how this engineer describes base are the best.
the practice of hermetically sealing closed welded Just wiping the snrface with a shop rag will removr
members. much of the film 'and improve paint bonding. Painting
with a bmsh instead of a sprayer lrelps the paint get
@ The Port Mann arch bridge in British C o l ~ ~ m b i a under the film and make a hetter bond to the sudace.
uses an orthotropic deck. The longitudinal stiffeners Painting the affected area as quickly as possible after
are U-shaped and when continuously welded to the welding will prevent the chemicals in the deposited
deck, form a closed tnbular section. The ends of the film from picking up much moisture. Therefore less
stiffeners have openings for field bolting. At a distance alldine solution will be formed to attack the paint.
of 15" from each end of each stiffener, diaphragms are Two coats, including an alkaline-resistant primer put
continuously welded inside to seal off' the remaining on as soon as practical, is usually better than a
length frorn the ontside. This sealed portion of the single coat.
1. REJECTION VS. PREVENTION factory nondc~strrictivetrsting device that car1 provide
a "yes" or *nowanswer. Instead, we look for; 2nd hope
The structtiral w-rlding of br~ilclingsand bridges cnjoys not to find, \veld drfccts. if thty art: found, ilic weld
:t good rqntation in the scLnsc that weld faih~resof a is j n d g d "goacY or "h:~d"as wr. think the dcfccts may
c1' v,rstrophic
. nature have not occurred. But, it is not or may not influmce its pcrformnnce in scrvicc.
uncommon to find welds whicli hxve failed in the sense
that they did not meet final irispoetion xquirrments. 3. WHAT 15 THE SOLUTION?
Then: are mrny ronsons why \velds may b e rejected
at final inspwtion. Before repairing the weld, howcver, First, find out what these defects arc and what causes
s e m d w r y appropriate qwstions should be resolved. tlicin. S < ~ ~ x iset
d , rrp welding procrdurcs that will
I<'or example, it is always good policy to review the clirninatc tlrarn. 'This is not as (liffiailt as it inight
inspection methods; to look for and insist upon some appea' It dot^, howevc*r, mean that a great inany
reliable correlation bctween the reztsons for rejection snrall, bnt irrrportmt, details must be spe1lt:d out m d
and the service conditions. When such correlation does nccomited for.
mist, prompt @ion should be taken to corrcct thc It is m m ~ ~ r a g i ntog note that good qualified u-el&
rejr&:d welds and to prevent tlieir rvcuncnce. If, 0x1 ors and wcldirig machine operators undr.rstand tho
thc other har~d,the inspcction mcthods arc rmrealistic importanw of those sinall drtails. They arr also gener-
or inappropriate, they shorrld 11c replacd. ally capable of prctlicting t~xnctlywhat fiilal inspection
When wcld rtjcction is j~lstificd, a person can be will n w d . ..\ conscientinns wrldor or welding operator
certain that somebody cithrr did not know what his can provide fnll-timc visual inspection. Since llo s r w
job was, or jrrst did not do it properly. There is a logical evcry head, he is hettcr infomiccl than any inspector
~:xplanationfor any sc+rious weld defect, and there is \vho only sccs a finished weld or some srnall portion
an ecpally logical remedy and correction. Many \veld of t h ~ .wcld as it is heing madc.
defects are rrhtrtl to proeetl~~res arrcl can be visnally
detected as the job progresses. 4. WHEN DOES INSPECTION START?
Early detection of weld dcft:cts permits economical
vorn:ction. If left for final inspwtion after the. job is 'l'he dccisim to inspect only d t c r welding is completed
complete, a ni:ijor loss of t i ~ n e2nd riioncy nsnally is extnwely dangcnms and not the best way to assure
rrsults. Pcrfnnnance standards on the production floor product quality. This puts thr iirspwtor in the position
and the. enSctirm site :u.c needed to assrtrc thc quality of a combir~:rticn physician-coroner with the dubious
of the weld 1)eing produced. distinction of being tho one to declare the weld dead
or alivc, and if dead, to decide "the cause of death."
2. WHAT I S A GOOD WELD? A batter approach to quality mltrol allows inspection
to provide constant checkr~psas welding progresses-
To a great m m y people, the answer to "What is a prwentivc inspection. This promotes early detection of
~ o o dweldy would be, "Any wcld that passcs final symptorns and corrrction of procednrcs :is well as minor
i~rspectiotr."We can hardly blame production-minded Ilaws, both of which might otherwise lexl to scrions
pcopIe for g o i ~ ~along
g with this answer. But is this dcfrxts. LVII~IIthis approach is follow~xd,final inspcc-
a good answer when you realize that frequently there tion hecorncs a nxitinr function to confirm the fact
is little or no conriection behveen the defects found that good welding procednres have bcen employed
during inspi>ction and the performance of the weld in and that ol)jcctionablo defects haw: not been permitted
service? (See Section 1.1, an Tntrodnction to Welded to occur.
I h i r -m .,1 Inspection should start bcfortb the first arc is struck
An improved definition u w d d be, "A good weld is :md shonld not bt* the sole responsibility of an inspector
any weld which will continua indefinitely to do the p r ,w. Evcryont: iirvolved in the preparation and
job for whicli it was intended." The problem with this pn)dr~ctionof a wclded connection or joint should at
definition is that we do not h a w any thoroughly satis- least visually inspect his own work to make snre that
7.9-2 / Joint Design a n d P ~ o d u c t i a n
it has hacn dents properly and in a ilialiner consistent uhen the bead is concluded. Bad bead contour, poor
\vith tlw t~stablisltcd stmdarcls of qiiality. This goes wash-in at the edgm or uneven edges are all indications
for p m p k wlm prepire plate cdges, assembly men, of poor fusion at tile moment, or that it will occur on
wcld t a c h s , wdding operators, weldors' helpers, :md s~~bseqoent beads.
everyone whose riforts can in any way affcct the Tlisre are marig symptoms of trouble which the
qi~nlityof tllc welds. \veldor can spot. This is the time to correct the con-
dition either by gouging trixt the questionable portion
5. R E C O G N I Z E S M A L L D E F E C T S AND :tnd/or cl~ar~ging the procedure. The wrong attitude at
CORRECT THE a timt: like this is to assume, as some weldors are in-
clined to, that "the defect can be 'burned out' on the
l'erliaps the most common weld rejections occur as n c ~ tpass." This is a game of Russian Roulette that
;t rcsult of r;diographic inspection, This method has the invariably pays off only in weld rejccts.
ability to espose lack of fission and/or slag inchsions
that wolild not be apparent to visrial final inspection
tcclmiqrrcs. 6. "PREQUALIFIED JOINTS"
With very few exceptions, a good, conscientious
v ~ l d o rcan h:ll by visi~dinspection whcthcr or not Thc term "preqnalifisd joints" has led to some mis-
he is p t t i n g good fusion, Figure 1. This irlcll~drswhat imdcrst:mding and, in 21 sense, it is a misiiomer. It is
he sees 61s he makc,s the bcad as well as what he sees certainly a mistake to think that just hcciuse pre-
rlualifird joints have been nscd the final results will
be completely satisfactory.
The AWS Code for Wclding in Building Constroc-
tiori (AWS D1.O-66) and i\WS Specifications for
Welded I-1igh:hil.a~and Railway Bridges (AWS D2.0-66)
c1o not suggest that it is that simple. They say that
these joints are to be "w-elded in accordance with
Sections 3 and 4," :tnd then they may be considered
" ~ ~ ~ - ' ~ l ~ ~ a l iAf i ecarefd
d." study of Sections 3 and 4
rt:\,c& 12 pngcs of good sound advice, recommenda-
tio~is, restrictions, etc., all aimed i n the direction of
producing good \velds.
If joints are prepared as "prriql~alifiedjoints" and
;ill of the rcqiiirements of Sections 3 and 4 have been
met, it would appcar to be nearly impossible to pro-
(lrsce welds wliich worild not pass final inspection. Also,
it should he inidt:rstood that prequalified joints have
hren put in the code and are recommended only he-
cause past osperienct: has demonstrated that these
joints arc cayablr of prodi~cinggood weld qnality zchen
they ure rrscd together with good welding procedures.
FIG. 2 Correct opplicotion of the various semi-outo-
The establishment of preqnalified joints, however,
motic welding processes con tremendously increase docs not p r d u d e the fact that other joint designs can
deposition rote and lower costs. Irad to equally satisfactory results. The progressive-
eld Quality and Inspection / 7.9-3
minded fabricator or mnstrnctor who wishes to use 1. Pt~rsonnel (qnalified personnel should bc :IS-
other joint preparations and has valid reasons should signed to the job).
he n~conragedto do so. 5 . Prove it (pretcst procednres and preparations
The code allows adoption of alternate joint desigr~s. to prove needed u ~ , l dqriality will result with their use).
I t also logically requires special tests be performed to
prove the acccptnbility of wckls made with the alter- Process Selection
nntc dc.sign. 111most cnscs, thcse special tests, although
admittedly tinic consuming, ;Ire worth completing to Tbi: first and most important step is selecting the best
pcnnit the q~plicationof a progressive proccdnre that weldiiig proccss for the job. This is a very cl~allenging
Icads to iinprov(:il pcrform;lnce or cost reduction. dccision to make, espt~iallyif the job is suited to semi-
;mtoniatic welding wlme there are so many cliflerent
7. GOOD COMMUNICATIONS ARE NEEDED choices. Anti yet, in this area lies the greatest oppor-
tunity for i~nprovemcnt,Figure 2. Since manual weld-
With the hroai lntitodc that wiMing offrrs to the i ~ i gis inhcrcntly slow a ~ espensive
~ d and subject to the
designer, it is only natural t11:lt hridgrs and buildings 111nnan cltvntmt, it is hecoming a matter of rconomic
takc on ;I "one of x kind" natnrc. Tlicse connection si~rviralto convert whenwcr possible to a semi-auto-
variations present a challenge u-hich welding is quite nrntic process, Figure 3.
cqmblr of mwting. Rirt not v~ithoutgood comm~inicn- The entire indnstry is involved in this transition,
lions hct\vr:rn all intmrstrd parties. but the progms is n:i;itivdy slow. This is &a in part
Comnru~riceting is most important 1 in the to the rl:itnral rcluctancc to acccpt new methods. It
gamt., especially \vl~iltbwelding proctd~rrcsare being is also iror that raclr of the newer processes has its
worked out. This is tlrc time for dcsign vs, p r o d i d o n own pecnliaritirs. ;dvarrtagcs rind limitations, and all
discnssions to bring up and solvv questionable issim introduce somc prohltrms affecting weldor training,
before they become points of major c1is:igrecrncnt. joint prcparatiorr and welding procedures.
. FIVE P'S OF GOOD STRUCTURAL WELDING Th? semi-ar~tomaticprocesses (exclusive of sub-
i n t ~ g e l - a r c )do not enjoy the "prequalified status of
There are fivr ;mas which reqnire close atttwtion to ~ n a ~ i u aandl suhmergcd-arc welding. This shonld not,
assore good \vdd qr~ality: however, picvent their use. since the AWS Code and
1.. Process selection (\velcling process mnst be Specifications statr, "other welding processes and pro-
right for the job). cedures may be: nscd, provir1:d the contractor qualifies
2. Preparation (joint preparation rnnst he corn- thrm in accordance with the requirmnients of Article
patible with the pro~cssbeing used). 502."
3. Procedures (dctailcd p r o c < ~ h r e sare essential Srlection of a st.mi-;~litornatic process may also
to assure uniform results). scqniro joint quailification since appropriate joint prepa-
CURRENT
VOLTAGE
POLAR/ r Y
ration may not be tlw smnc as "PI-eqoalified rnanunl" being r~scdwill all irifhimcc ti)<,lxw4 ; i r ~ root i \paciiig.
or " p r ~ y ~ ~ a l i f s~~bnnergcd-arc
ied joints." AII of tllest. fnctol-s h;ivi, h w r takt511into wrrsiilrr;ition
Where coiiditior~spcrnnit, the rrst: of frill-;tr~tomatic i n tllr p~-tyr~alifi(d joir~ts.
welding providrs rrvm~greater ecmomv arrd control of The joints detailed in the ;~pprriilisof t h i code
weld quality. I)ook iudicntc ;I nomind tlimension for hevrl and
root spacing. Sinw tlri. joint design (hrvrl angli,
Preparation root spacing) must priwidc ; ~ c w s sof the arc to tine
Acccptahlt: butt joint preparatioiis arc r~othingmore basts of th? jllint, it is importaiit to ~u~ticrstand that
than a coinpromise between the inclr~ded angle of the dimcnsi~msof tlw rtmt opening mtl groow, ar~glc
bevel and thc root spacing dimer~sion.A large iincluded of tht joiqts are minimi~rn v d o w (:ill of this and
anglc will permit a smaller root spacing; convsrsely, a rnme is c11vcn~1 i l l the fine print of tire sprcificatirm !
small i11c1uclc.d angle requires a larger root spacing. Also set. S r c t i i ) ~7.:)
~ mi joint I>csign
'The tyix of joint, the vi~eldingposition, arid the process Not only rnt~st thc mot spacing and bevel bc
Maximum S i z E l d r o d = a
Vertical
fillet Graovo
FIG. 5 Mock-up welds, such as shown here, provide o first-hand check of welding
procedures before they reoch the production floor. They can later be used as
workmanship samples
Procedures
'l'lie imprtairt \velded connectiorrs of ;my s h c t u r e
~leservea u.i:ll i , l ; u ~ ~ i tthoro~ighly
~t, investigated and
coniplcttaly drtailcd w.;cldirrg prr~ctdiirc.
Reliahlc \vrl<Ii~igl?xx"lirrcs are hcst obtained
tlrroi~gli first-tranl-1 qwrii:ncr~. In the strnctrlriil field.
it is ofte~rhelpfnl to prod~~ct: a f d sc;dc mock-up of
the aclwl joint prior to its i - f h w to the productio~r
floor. If possihl(~,use t l ~ cidentical stcel, same type,
chtmistry, sin3s and siiaprs that will be iised on the
job. Figure 5 corrtnirrs csamplt~sof "mock-up" welds. WELDING PROCEDURE:
T
h' Electrode:
5. Type of flux, gas, etc. (as req~iinxi). for destructive testing and positive evidence that the
6. Current and voltage (with changcs as required ailopted procedure can produce the required results.
for diffcrent passes ). And perhaps most important of all, it gives all weldors
7. Preheat and interpass temperature. one "proved procedure" so that the job is no longer
8. Pass sequence (show sketch if necessary). subject to the multiple choice of several weldors.
9. Type of inspection required.
10. Any comments or information that will help Personnel
the weldor, such as special techniques, electrode angles, In the case of manual wclding, it is true that the weld
wdd bead placement, etc., Fjgme 6. quality cannot be any better than the skill of the
This method of establishing the welding procedure weldor. This skill should be evaluated before the man
takes time. It, nevertheless, is an almost foolproof ap- is permitted to do any actual welding.
proach to guaranteeing weld quality since it provides The simple and relatively inexpensive device for
firsthand experience, workmanship sampIes. sa~nples doing this is the AWS weldor quaiification test, Figure
FLAT P O S I T I O N
HORIZONTAl
POSITION
l E R T l C A L POSITION
V E R H E A D POSITION
SPECIMEN
PREPARATION
eld Q u a l i t y and Inspection / 7.9-7
Pretest It
Once a u d d i n g pmctdnre has been established,
nobody shonld be more cager to prove it than the
contractor, and nolwdy is in a better position to do
so. Mock-~rpsample viclds m d e under typical condi-
tions can he subjected to all kinds of destructive and
nondestmctive tests, Figurc 8. Many of these tests
woiild bc cornplrtely impractic;il or even i~npossiblc
;as a final inspection requirement. Testing at this stage
is relatively inexpensive, and the latitude is much
broader than wonld he pcrn~ittc<lor [lcsired as h a 1
insp("ctior~.h4asi1num testing at this time gives assur-
ance that fi13al inspr:ction c m he held to a minimum.
9. PREVENTIVE INSPECTfON
FIG. 8 Sample welds, such or those shown, made
under typicol conditions should be made and sub- I n summary, it shorild be nnivrrsally recognized that
jected to the vorious types of destructive and non- i~~spcction aftcr \v~4dirrg,while often rssential. is somc-
destructive tests needed to establish the degree of what too late. Any excessive wt:ld cracks, undercuts,
quality required for the iob. With this approach, undcrsize wclds, poor fusion or other defects detected
many tests con be applied that might be impractical that late will hc cxprnsive to correct. All parties con-
or impossible to use during final inspection. ccrned slior~ldinsist on good wclding, supervisim" con-
scientious q~~alilied wtMors, and a thorough system of
.,
i . This tcst is ns~iallyadequate. But in a great many prcivtmtivo inspection.
instances, it is qurstionahlr \vhether this siniplc test Preventive inspection, in which cveryont: con-
(~stahlishesthc ability of tile weldor to do the actiial c e r n d should sharc rcsponsihility, involves a systematic
job and proves that ho can make the welds 011 thc obst.rv;xtion of wcldiug prncticcs and adhertmce to
job that will satisfy final inspcction rquirements. sp~dicationshefom. dnring, and after wclding in order
For example, if the weldor will be r a p i r e d to to visi~allydetect and stop any occurrences that may
make vertical butt wrlds on %" thick plate and final result in st~bst;~nitard wi4ds. Thc: check list that follows
inspection calls for radiographic inspection (Section will aid in dweloping this pattem of operation.
1-09 of the I1ridge Specifications), will the AWS weldor
qualification test prove the wr:ldor can produce these
ivelds in a satisfactory manner? Obviously, it will not
because radiogl-aphic inspection is not nornlally called
for in the AWS \ve,ldor qualification tcst. The test
hrcomes Inore mexningfr~lif radiographic i~~spection is
added to the normal testing reipircments.
TIE contractor is in the hcst position to evaluate
the actual skill required for the job as opposed to the
skill reqnired to p:iss an AWS weldor qualification test.
When the actual j ( ~ bdemands more of the man than
he would otherwise hc able to demonstratr on a stand-
ard weldor qualification tcst, the contractor for his own
protection is jrlstified in requiring more realistic tests.
Most srmi-autoniatic processes present some prob-
lems relative to wt:ldor training. If, however, the
process has been properly selected for the job and
correct welding proccrf~irt:~h a w been worked out,
weldor training should not pose a difiicult problem.
With competent instiuctiorr, this can be handled as a
joint weldor-tr:~ining,wt:ldor-yr~i~lificationprogram. FIG. 9 This "mock-up" beom-to-column connection
The question of pn)perly qualified personnel also was mode with scrap ends, ~ r e ~ o r eand
d assembled
involves people other t h m weldors, and attention to specifications then welded to work out procedure
should be given to their training also. details.
7.9-8 / Joint Design and Production
( 1 ) Proper Included Angle With a backing h;ir, the mot opening is increased
to dlow proper fnsion into the backing bar, since it
0 0 will riot be hack goiigmi; :tlso thcre is no bnrn-through.
\Vith a spoccr bar, it serves as a hacking bar but
milst be back gougcd hefore welding on the back side
to cnsure sonnd fusion.
The incli~dcdangle most bc snificient to allow electrode (3) Proper Root Face
to rcaeh root of joint, and to ensure fr~sionto side walls
on multipk~passes. In gcn'rnl, the greater this angle
the more weld metal will be required.
The above items, included angle (1) and of plate, there is ;I range in thc combination of
root opening ( 2 ) , go hand in hand to ensure inchided angle and root opening that will result
clearance for tlie electrode to enter the joint ill a minitnnm amount of \veld metal consistent
sufficiently for proper fusion at the root, and yet with the required \veld qnality.
rnot reqnirc excessive weld metal.
In general, as the included angle is decreased
to rednee the amount of weld metal, the root must
be o p e n d up to maintain proper fusion of weld
metal at thc joint root. For any given thickness -i r-3/8" r r%"
W e l d Quality ond Inspection / 7.9-9
Electrodes must suit the metal being joined, the The srqi~rneingof passrs shoilld ha such that no un-
wciding position, the function of the weld, the plate fused portion results, nor distortion.
thickness, the sizn of the joint, etc. Where stand-
ard procedures specify the electrodes, periodic checks (12) Proper Travel Speed
should be made to ensure their nse. o @a0 n
(7) Proper Welding Current and PoloriCy
Each pass slionlci fuse properly into any backing plate, If t r a \ ~ speed
l is increasetl, good fnsion will rcsait
prccedirig pass, or adjacent plate metal. No unfillcd or because t l ~ cnroltrn weld inctal and slag will be forccd
unfused pockets should be Icft between weld beads. backu.ard, with the arc digging into the plate.
7.9-10 / Joint Design and Production
ye,
I&
/*'will
of weld so extra
weld metal here
keep shelf
2. An!: notch cffoct of an rirrfilletl crater shnnld hc
no worsr ttrm tilt, notch prrscrrted hy the st:~rt end of
thc Gllct weld; sho\vrr bclow. No rn:rttcar what is clone
.' *-- , ttlted upward to the crater, it will still rtyi-i~si:~it thc lermirration Of
Weaving Crorr-seclion Front wew tl11. \veld, in other \vord ;111 ~ t n w ~ ~ pl od r~t ido ~~ncctirrg
~
technjque of weld of weld a weldcd portion.
--
/ A ,
size and will
,
prowde piope:
;==Z weld ihope , ~otih effecl of (Giding croter up to
crater ir no worse
full thiaol doer not
Crorr-sedion Front view t h a n that at stoil reduce its notch
Weoving
of weld of weld effeil at etid of weld
techniaue of weld
Weld Quality and lnrpection / 7.9-11
0.0
I
Undercut along
cover plate would
not represent any
aoorec~obleloss
in area; would
not be hoirnful
(c)
( c ) Htw t l ~ ch e a r force is
applied parnilel to the ~mdcr-
cut and wolzld not present a
stress riser. This shoold not
be harmful.
( c ) If the arc is shortened to the proper arc length,
thc molten weld metal from tltc end of the electrode
will completely fill this melted zone and will leave no
Angle of slope, 0
clockwise rotation ( - ), counter-clockwise rotation (+)
On the next page is a visual index to the various heam diagrams and formulas. As indi-
cated, these are k e p d by number to the type of beam and by capital letter to the type of load.
For some conditions, influence curves are included to illustrate the effect of an important
variable. These are keyed to the basic beam diagram a n d arc positioned as close as practical to
the diagram.
8.1-2 / Reference Design Formulas
\
Type of
Type of
(i @ 0 @
P
IAo a
t3
free
fixed
/
10
I Do
1Db
(2
I\\
guided f '
fixed
(2
Simpiy rupportec
F-3 supported
E
H/' fixed
--
(5
4
supported
fixed
E
mSingle span
with averhong
e
f7-7 Continuous
70
- a) : but x < ( a + b)
W
M, = Rrx - - ( X - aj2
2
At ends,
2EI
i Whenx>(a+b) Mv = Kz (L - x)
moment
When a = c
wb
Beam supported a t both ends R=V=-
2
Two unequal concentrated loads, unequally spaced from ends
V~ = w ( a + -b- -
~t center,
wb
MnaX= -(a
2
+ $1
wbx
Whenx<a M>=-
2
When x > a
M y = - wbx
-- w
( x - a)=
but x < ( a + h ) 2 2
At center, An =-
wb
384EI
(+EL3 - 4bZL + bJ)
Max when Hz<;P? Mz = Rz b
M, = Ri x
moment but x ( ( L - b) M, = Ri x - P i ( X - a )
Beam Formulas / 8.1-7
BEAM FORMULAS APPLIED TO SIDE OF TANK. BIN OR HOPPER
( p = pressure, psi; m = width of panel considered)
M,,., = .01:7 p h%
(negative moment a t middle support, 2)
( * These values are within 98%
of maximum.) Ri = + ,030 p h m
Rz = + , 3 2 0 p h m
Rs = i- . 1 5 0 p h n l
A l s o see f o r m u l a s on p a g e 7
Beam Formulas / 8.1-9
@ Influence Lines
Effect of location of middle support (2) upon reactions (R) and moments (M)
I
Mx = Mo + Rlx = M,,
When x = ,422 L
M,]L2
Amax= .0642 -
EI
When x < a M,= --Me x
I I
I I 6EI
Whenx<a
M,,x
P X = +-(LZ-3bZ-xZ)
GEIL
Whenx >a
M" (L
x2
w t A, =
- xf (3aZ - 2Lx +
GEIL
R R
I-'-"-----L
load
At center and PL
- M,,i"y= -
, a t ends, 8
At x = J? L = .28867 L,
6
Mn LZ
Amax=
124.71 E I
M, L
At center, 0s =-
12 E I
earn Formulas /
8.1-12 / Reference Design Formulas
Influence Lines
Effect of position of force (F) upon moments Ma, MI, M2 and upon kmax
0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
Position jo)of applied force F
eam Formulas /
8.1-14 / Reference Design Formulas
Beam Formulas / 8.1-15
@ Intluence Lines
Effect of position of moment (Mo) upon Mi, M2, M+ and M-
W
V3 = -(L2 + aZ)
2L
M, Betweeusupports, V, = Hi - w x
v
I For overhang, Vxi = n (a - xi)
w xiz
For overhang, Mxi=-
2
At support, M = - w a2
2
W
Betweensupports,-- (L x - x2 - aZ)
Wx 2
Between supports, M. = - (L2- a 2 - x 1.)
2L W
At center, b l c = - (L' - 4 a 2 )
w 8
For overhang, Mki = - (a - xi)*
2 wa (L1-6aZL-3a')
At ends, A =-
\\ x 24EI
Between supports, Ax = -(L'-21,'x' + Lx3 - 2 a 2 LZ + 2 a 2 x ' )
24 EIL wLZ
A t center, Ac = -(5LZ-24a2)
wx, 384EI
For overhang, A.1 = -- (4aZL - L1 + 6a2xi - 4 a x l Z + xi')
24 E I When a = ,207 X total length
wa or a = ,354 L
At free end, A =- (3a3+4aZL-L1)
24 E I
When a = ,414 L, M I = M2 = OX579 w L2
Single span, simple supported beam, with overhang
Uniform load over entire span @ Single sPW simp!^ supported beam, with overhnng
Uniform load on overhang
W"
At center, M,., =w
- LZ
8
M , = - W X (L - x)
2
At center, A"., = - 5wL'
384 E I
A, = -wx
(L"ZLxZ+x3)
24EI
-
Ax, = W L ~ X L
24EI
8.1-22 / Reference Design Formulas
@ THEORY OF T H R E E MOMENTS
Consider the following continuous beam:
The above moment diagram may he considered as made up of two parts: the
positive moment due to the applied loads, and t h e negatlve moment due to
the restraining end moments over the supports.
where:
Mi, Mz, and M3 are the end moments a t the k t , 2nd, and 3rd supports.
LI and I,2 are the lengths of the 1st and 2nd span
11 and 12are the moments of inertia of the 1st and 2nd span
A * a n d A2are t h e areas under the positive moment diagrams of the 1st
and 2nd span.
a1 a n d azare t h e distance of the centroids of the areas of the positive
moment diagrams to the 1st and 3rd outer supports.
By writing this equation for each successive pair of spans, all of the moments
may he found.
Beam Formulas / 8.144
w uniform load
concentrated load
-
Area Area
-
A = 2 / 3 iM L A=L/ZML
R, R,
1
I
I
r momenl
t momenl
- P moment
-
Pb I
R I = V I = - -13
P R1 = V I =-[4L2-a(L+a)] RI = VI = - wL
32 4L3 16
I1 Pa 5
R2 = VZ+ V I = -P RZ = V2+V3 = -[2LZ+b(L+a)] Rz=Vz+Va=-w
8L
16 2~~
3 Pab 1
R3=Va=--P Rs =V3 =-(L+a) R ~ = V ~ 16
=-WL
32 4 L3
19 Pa 9
Vz = - P V2 =- [4LZ-b(L+a)] v2=- WL
32 4 L" 16
Pab 49
At load, M,,,,, = 13 PL At load, Mm.. =-- [4L1-a(L+a)] At x = 7/16 L, Mmax= - w LZ
64 4 L" 512
3 Pah At Rz, wLZ
At R2, MZ = - P L 4t R2. Mz = - ( L + a ) MI=-
32 4 LZ 16
WX
When x < L, MX= -
16 ( 7 L - 8 x)
Torsionai d i a g r a m
At support, T=tL
t LZ
Hz-
2 E, R
8.2-2 / Reference Design Formulas
Scde view
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Angle (a),
degrees