4.

1 Overview 23

Tensile Elements
4.1 Overview
In chapter 4 flexible FRP tensile elements for FRP reinforced concrete, bridge strength-
ening and hybrid and all-composite new structures are treated. The corresponding
state of the art of the applications are presented in chapters 6 to 9. The list of
elements includes strips, pin-loaded straps, bars and cables as well as unidirectional
sheets (unidirectional non-woven fabrics). The most important products on the market
are dealt with together with their main properties. For more detailed information one
should refer to the documentation of the manufactures.
The difference between untensioned and pretensioned rods and cable wires is not
always evident since both are manufactured by the pultrusion process, cable wires are
only of smaller diameter. Particular attention is drawn to the corresponding anchor
systems. Two basic types can be distinguished: wedge anchors for short-term loading
and bond anchors for long-term loading.
For the greatest efficiency mainly unidirectional sheets are used for two-dimensional
strengthening elements. If more than one direction has to be strengthened (e.g. bend-
ing and shear), the sheets are applied in several layers in alternating directions. As a
rule sheets are provided with protection against UV radiation.

4.2 Strips
Reinforcing strips were among the first applications of FRPs in bridge construction.
There are different products. In the following as a typical example Sika CarboDur
strips have been chosen; they exhibit the following properties:
- pultruded strips with unidirectional carbon fibres in an epoxy matrix,
- dimensions: width 50-150 mm, thickness 1.2 or 1.4 mm,
- tensile strength 1,300-2,800 MPa, Young’s modulus 165-300 GPa, elongation
limit 0.45-1.7%, data according to the types S, M or H,
- attached with epoxy adhesives,
- fast curing possible by heating (current flow in the strip).

Fig. 4.1:CFRP reinforcing strips.

24 4 Tensile Elements

Fig. 4.2: Plate reinforced with CFRP strips.

Up till now strips have usually been applied untensioned. Thereby the excellent
strength properties are not fully exploited. The application of prestressed strips would
offer considerable advantages in both static and economic respects. The prestressed
application has failed to gain acceptance until now because no satisfactory solution of
anchoring the ends has been found. By adapting the gradient anchorage concept for
cables (cf. section 4.4.10) the EMPA (Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials
Testing and Research) has now developed an analogous device for strips. The pre-
stressed strips, supported over rollers at the ends, are anchored stepwise by heating
section by section and subsequently releasing the rollers. In this way a gradient
anchorage is achieved.
Shortly before marketing the technique a further development is under the way: CFRP
strips with a thermoplastic matrix. By changing to thermoplastic matrices the produc-
tion time can be reduced by the factor 50, bringing a significant reduction of the costs.
Also available are carbon fibre / epoxy L-shaped plates for shear strengthening of
beams (Sika CarboShear, cf. figs. 4.3 and 4.4). Their dimensions are 40 X 1.2 mm.
The angles which overlap on the underside of the beam are anchored in the plate lying
on top of the beam. This necessitates drilling holes, which are afterwards filled with
an epoxy glue. The bearing capacity of the plate elements depends on the length of
anchorage and overlapping.

Fig. 4.3: CFRP L-shaped plates for shear strengthening.

4.3 Straps 25

Anchorage zone

Zone inside the bend

Fig. 4.4: Application principle of L-shaped plates.

4.3 Straps
At the EMPA non-laminated pin-loaded straps are currently under development. At
some future date these can be used as a replacement for straight tensile elements (e.g.
cables). The pin-loaded straps are built up of unidirectional carbon-fibre-reinforced
thermoplastic bands wound together. The advantages compared to cables are to be
found in the anchoring technology. In the case of pin-loaded straps only a small
fraction of the total tensile force has to be anchored at the free end. Because of the ther-
moplastic matrix this can be done, e.g., simply by welding. The individual windings are
not laminated. Thereby relative movement between the windings is possible (cf. white
markings in fig. 4.5), producing a uniform strain and thus stress distribution.

Fig. 4.5: Main idea of the non-laminatedpin-loaded straps.

4.4 Bars and Cables

4.4.1 CFCC Tensile Elements (Tokyo Rope)
Manufacturer: Tokyo Rope Manufacturing Co., Ltd., Japan
Description of system:
- CFCC: Carbon Fibre Composite Cable, use as prestressing tendon and untensioned
reinforcement (also stirrups),
26 4 Tensile Elements

- coated individual prepreg strands are twisted to form cables and rods, which are
then heated to obtain a bond between the individual strands. Cables of 1,7, 19 and
37 strands (fig. 4.6),
- carbon fibres (PAN) / epoxy or bismalimide matrix (depending on operating
temperature),
-tensile strength 1,420-2,000 MPa (depending on number of strands and anchorage),
Young's modulus 137 GPa, failure strain I.6%,
- relaxation 0.7-2.5% (at 20°C), coefficient of thermal expansion 0.6. 10-VoC,
- prestressing anchorage: 5 types in 4 main groups:
- resin filling type: bond anchor metallic or composite (cf. fig. 4.7),
- die-cast wedge system: the cables are poured into a wedge-anchored metal rod
(fig 4 . 0
- multiple wedge system with die-casting: extended die-cast system (fig. 4.9),
- multiple resin filling wedge system: extended resin filling type: 3 strands are put
into a wedge-anchored tube.

Fig. 4.6: CFCC strand cables.

Fig. 4.7: Metallic resin$lling anchorage.

Fig. 4.8: Die-cast wedge system.

Fig. 4.9: Multiple wedge system with die-casting.

4.4 Bars and Cables 27

4.4.2 Arapree Tensile Elements

Manufacturer: Kajima Corp. and Nippon Aramid Co., Japan, and AKZO Netherlands
Description of system:
- use as prestressing tendons,
- pultruded round (02.5,5,7.5 mm) or rectangular rods (20 X 0.3/1.5/3.0/5.0 mm),
ribbed or sand-coated (cf. fig. 4.10),
- aramid fibres / epoxy matrix, fibre content 3 5 4 5 % (unidirectional),
- guaranteed tensile strength 2,800-3,000 MPa, Young's modulus 125-130 GPa,
failure strain 2.4%,
- relaxation 15%, coefficient of thermal expansion 1.8 lO"/OC,
- max. operating temperature 100°C, max. degree of prestressing 50% of short-term
strength,
- prestressing anchors: wedge anchor and conical bond anchor (cement mortar,
cf. fig. 4.11).

Fig.4.10: Arapree prestressing element.

Fig.4.1 I: Arapree bond anchol:

4.4.3 Technora Tensile Elements

Manufacturer: Teijin, Ltd. and Sumitomo Construction Co., Ltd., Japan
Description of system:
- use as untensioned reinforcement or prestressing tendons,
- pultruded round rods smooth or ribbed (filament-wound), 0 3-8 mm, strands
(cf. fig. 4.12),
- aramid fibres / vinylester matrix,
- tensile strength 1,800MPa, Young's modulus 54 GPa, failure strain 3.6%,
28 4 Tensile Elements

-relaxation 7-14%, coefficient of thermal expansion -3.104/"C,

- prestressing anchors: wedge anchor (fig. 4.13) and bond anchor metallic (cement
mortar) or FRP (figs. 4.14 and 4.15).

Fig. 4.12: Technora rods and strands. Fig. 4.13: Technora wedge anchors.

Fig. 4.14: Technora FRP bond anchor. Fig. 4.15: Technora metallic bond anchol:

4.4.4 FiBRA Tensile Elements

Manufacturer: Shinko Wire Co., Ltd., Japan
Description of system:
- use as prestressing tendons,
-woven rods and cables, 0 9-18 mm (cf. fig. 4.16),
- aramid, glass or carbon fibre / epoxy matrix,
- guaranteed tensile strength 1,385-1,500 MPa (depending on diameter and anchorage),
Young's modulus 69 GPa, failure strain 2% (data for aramid fibres),
- relaxation 25%, coefficient of thermal expansion -5.2. 1OV0C(data for aramid fibres),
- prestressing anchors: wedge anchor and conical bond anchor.

Fig. 4.1 6: FiBRA tensile elements.

4.4 Bars and Cables 29

Fig. 4.17: Leadline rods.

4.4.5 Leadline Tensile Elements

Manufacturer: Mitsubishi Chemical Company, Japan
Description of system:
- use as untensioned reinforcement or prestressing tendons,
- pultruded rods, 0 1-12 mm, smooth or ribbed (different types, cf. fig. 4.17),
- carbon fibres / epoxy matrix, fibre content 65% (unidirectional),
- guaranteed tensile strength 2,255 MPa, Young's modulus 147 GPa, failure strain
1.5-1.7%,
- relaxation 2-4% (at 20"C), coefficient of thermal expansion 0.68 10-6/oC,
+

- prestressing anchors: wedge anchor and bond anchor (cement mortar, cf. figs. 4.18
and 4.19).

Fig. 4.18: Leadline wedge anchor: Fig. 4.19: Leadline bond anchor.

4.4.6 NACC Tensile Elements

Manufacturer: Kajima Corporation, Nippon Steel, Suzuki Metal Industry Co., Ltd.,
Japan
Description of system:
- strands with 7, 19 and 37 wires (fig. 4.20, similar to CFCC),
- carbon fibres (PAN and pitch-based) / epoxy matrix,
-tensile strength 790-1,800 MPa (depending on number of strands and anchorage),
Young's modulus 118-206 GPa,
- relaxation 0.5-1.5% (at 20"C), coefficient of thermal expansion 0.6. 10-6/oC,
- prestressing anchor: FRP bond anchor with carbon/glass fibres for individual
strands (figs. 4.21 and 4.22), made of metal for several strands (fig. 4.23).
30 4 Tensile Elements

Fig. 4.20: NACC strand cables. Fig. 4.21: Anchoring principle for single
strand.

Fig. 4.22: FRP bond anchor for single strand.

Fig. 4.23: Metal bond anchor for several strands.

4.4.7 C-Bar Tensile Elements

Manufacturer: Marshall Industries Composites, Inc., Dallas, USA
Description of system:
-reinforcing bars and stirrups, 010, 13, 16, 19 mm (figs. 4.24 and 4.25),
- glass fibres /polyester matrix, ribs using vinylester coating with ceramic fibres,
-tensile strength 720-840 MPa, compressive strength 317-470 MPa, on bending
up a strength reduction of 40-50%, Young’s modulus 40-42 GPa, failure strain
1.8-2.0 % (depending on 0),
- long-term stresses c ca. 50% tensile strength (stress rupture),
- coefficient of thermal expansion axial 8.1 . 10-VoC,radial 32.4. 10-6/oC.
4.4 Bars and Cables 31

Fig.4.24: C-Bar bars and stirrups.

Fig. 4.25: C-Bar slab reinforcement.

4.4.8 Parafil Tensile Elements

Manufacturer: Linear Composites, UK
Description of system:
- prestressing tendons made of aramid or polyester fibres in polyethylene duct without
matrix, 0 4-99 mm (fig. 4.26),
- tensile strength aramid cable 1,960 (1,960) MPa, Young’s modulus 129 (79) GPa,
data for high modulus (high tensile), relaxation ca. 8%,
- tensile strength polyester cables 630 MPa, Young’s modulus 10 GPa,
- prestressing anchor: friction bond of the naked fibres between a conical steel sheath
and a conical spike (fig. 4.27).

Fig. 4.26: Parafil system,

32 4 Tensile Elements

silicone rubber compound

nose seal spike I

rk end

Of fibre core baci seal

disc or bung
Fig.4.27: Parafil anchoring system.

4.4.9 HLV Polystal Tensile Elements

Manufacturer: Bayer AG, Strabag Bau AG, Germany
Description of system:
- pultruded glass fibrelpolyester rods in polyaramid sheaths, 0 7.5 mm,
-tensile strength 1,520 MPa, Young's modulus 51 GPa, failure strain 3.3%, degree
of prestressing 50% of short-term strength,
- relaxation 3.2%,
- fibre optic sensors which can be integrated during pultrusion process,
- prestressing anchor: steel composite anchor, filled with a special resin.

4.4.10 BBR Tensile Elements

Manufacturer: BBR Systems, Stesalit AG, EMPA, Switzerland
Description of system:
- prestressing tendons and stay cables made of pultruded parallel wires 0 5 mm
(to 241 wires),
- carbon fibres (Toray) / epoxy matrix,
-tensile strength 3,300 MPa, Young's modulus 165 GPa, failure strain 2.1%,
- coefficient of thermal expansion 0.2 109"C,
- fibre optic sensors which can be integrated during pultrusion process,
- prestressing anchor: concial bond anchor, filled with gradient material (variable
Young's modulus: aluminium oxide balls coated with epoxy of different thick-
nesses, cf. fig. 4.28).

A4 I
2 4 1 CF-Wirer 65 nn

Fig. 4.28: BBR anchor principle with gradient material.

4.4 Bars and Cables 33

4.4.11 NEFMAC Tensile Elements (New Fibre Composite Material for Advanced
Concrete)
Manufacturer: Shimizu Corp., Japan
Description of system:
- reinforcing meshes for concrete made of glass, carbon and aramid fibres in different
matrices (fig. 4.29),
- hybrid fibre arrangement glasskarbon with pseudo-ductile behaviour,
- also obtainable as reinforcing cage (fig. 4.30),
- production in the pin-winding process,
-tensile strength 530-1,300 MPa, Young’s modulus 37-100 GPa (depending on
fibre type).

Fig. 4.29:NEFMAC reinforcing mesh, structure.

Fig. 4.30:NEFMAC reinforcing cage.

4.4.12 Eurocrete Tensile Elements

Manufacturer: Eurocrete Ltd.
Description of system:
-reinforcing rods, 0 8, 13.5,22 mm,
- glass and carbon fibres, surface roughened during production,
- tensile strength 950-1,400 MPa, Young’s modulus 45-1 15 GPa,
- glass fibre rods: long-term stress < ca. 20-25% tensile strength (stress rupture).
34 4 Tensile Elements

4.5 Unidirectional Sheets (Non-Woven Fabrics)

4.5.1 FORCA Tow Sheets
Manufacturer: Tonen Corp., Japan
Description of system:
- unidirectional glass, carbon or aramid fibres (mainly carbon fibres), held together
with 2-3% matrix material and a thin glass fibre mesh,
- strength 2,500-3,500 MPa, Young’s modulus 235-500 GPa, failure strains
0.5-1.5% (data for carbon fibres),
- numerous epoxy matrices (depending on weather conditions, time in pots, etc.).

4.5.2 Replark Sheets

Manufacturer: Mitsubishi Chemical Corp., Japan
Description of system:
- with epoxy pre-impregnated unidirectional carbon fibres, very similar to FORCA,
- tensile strength 1,960-2,940 MPa, Young’s modulus 230-640 GPa, failure strains
0.3-1.2%,
- numerous epoxy matrices (depending on weather conditions, time in pots, etc.).

4.5.3 Torayca Cloth

Manufacturer: Toray, Japan
Description of system:
- unidirectional carbon fibre bundles, separated and held together in transverse
direction by sewn polyester threads,
- due to the voids easy lay-up and possible escape of air bubbles,
- tensile strength 3,500 MPa, Young’s modulus 235 GPa,
- numerous epoxy matrices (depending on weather conditions, time in pots, etc.).

4.5.4 FITS System

Manufacturer: Teijin Ltd., DuPont-Toray Kevlar Ltd., Nippon Aramid Co., Japan
Description of system:
- unidirectional aramid tapes (advantages compared to carbon fibres: increased
failure strain, better in bending [corners], better and quicker impregnation).

4.5.5 SikaWrap Fabrics

Manufacturer: Sika AG, Switzerland
Description of systems:
- uni- and bidirectional woven and non-woven carbon, glass and aramid fiber fabrics
equipped with weft fibers or thin thermoplastic grids in order to keep the fabric
stable, hand-laminated with epoxy matrix (fig. 4.3 l),
- numerous epoxy matrices (depending on weather conditions, time in pots, etc.),
- tensile strengths 3,8004,900 MPa, Young’s modulus 230-640 GPa, failure strains
0.4-2.1 % (data for carbon fibers),
- tensile strength 2,300 MPa, Young’s modulus 76 GPa, failure strain 1.5% (data for
glass fibers),
4.5 Unidirectional Sheets (Non-Woven Fabrics) 35

-tensile strength 2,880 MPa, Young’s modulus 100 GPa, failure strain 2.8% (data
for aramid fibers),
- Caltrans system allowed.

Fig. 4.31: SikaWrap fabrics. Fig. 4.32: Hardshell element.

Fig. 4.33: Application.

4.5.6 Hardshell System

Manufacturer: Hardcore Composites, New Castle, USA
Description of system:
- prefabricated shell elements made of uni- or multi-directional E-glass fibres/
vinylester for strengthening columns (figs. 4.32 and 4.33), produced in VARTM
process (vacuum-assisted resin transfer moulding),
- one or several layers overlapping glued with epoxy adhesive,
- tensile strength 400-620 MPa (depending on fibre architecture), Young’s modulus
21-35 GPa, failure strain1.8-2.0%, fibre content ca. 50 vol%,
- Caltrans system allowed.
36 4 Tensile Elements

4.5.7 XXsys-RoboWrap System

Manufacturer: XXsys Technologies, Inc., San Diego
Description of system:
- method of strengthening columns: unidirectional carbon fibre sheets are wound by
a robot while adding an epoxy matrix (fig. 4.34),
- automatic curing (fig. 4.35),
- Caltrans system allowed.

Fig. 4.34: XXsys Rob0 Wrappel: Fig. 4.35: Rob0 curing system.

4.5.8 Tyfo S Fibrwrap System

Manufacturer: Composite Retrofit International, Montreal (USA: Fyfe Associates)
Description of system:
- unidirectional glass or carbon fibre sheets, hand-laminated with epoxy matrix,
filament-wound sheets can be “prestressed” using cement injections,
- tensile strength 1,034 (522) MPa, Young’s modulus 69 (28) GPa, failure strain
1.0 (2.0) %, data for carbon (glass fibres),
- Caltrans system allowed.

4.5.9 SnapTite System

Manufacturer: C.C. Meyers, NCF Industries, USA
Description of system:
- E-glass fibres /polyester shells, similar to Hardshell (cf. 4.5.6),
- Caltrans system allowed.

4.5.10 MBrace System

Manufacturer: Master Builders, Cleveland, Ohio
Description of system:
- unidirectional glass or carbon fibre sheets, hand-laminated with epoxy matrix,
- tensile strength carbon fibre sheets 3,000 (3,550) MPa, Young’s modulus
380 (235) GPa, failure strain 0.8 (1.5) %, data for high modulus (high tensile),
-tensile strength glass fibre sheets 1,700 MPa, Young’s modulus 71 GPa, failure
strain 2.0 %.