FA2020 - ENE505 - L5 - Nuclear Power

Nuclear Power
Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.
September 13, 2020

Nuclear History
• 1939: Nuclear fission discovered
• 1942: First nuclear chain reaction takes place in Chicago as
part of the wartime Manhattan Project
• 1945: The first nuclear weapons test at Alamagordo, NM
• 1951: Electricity was first generated from a nuclear reactor in
Idaho (EBR-I produced about 100 kW)
• 1970s: Nuclear power grows rapidly (averaging 30% of
generation annually from ’70 –’75)
• 1987: Nuclear power now generates ~15% of global electricity
• 1980s: Nuclear expansion slows because of environmentalist
opposition, high interest rates, energy conservation prompted
by the 1973/1979 oil shocks, and Three Mile Island (1979,
USA) and Chernobyl (1986, Ukraine, USSR)

9/13/2020 2
Nuclear Power in the US

9/13/2020 3
Today Nuclear Is A Major Part of Our Fuel Mix
Nuclear Energy is
Only Used for
Electricity! (and
submarines)

9/13/2020 4
Nuclear Energy Provides ~8.4% US Total Primary Energy
Consumption and ~ 20% Electricity Generation
Nuclear electricity
generation has not
been growing in the
US; the future of US
nuclear is not clear

9/13/2020 5
As of August 2020, there are 95 operating nuclear reactors in the
US at 57 power plants (down from 97 in 2019)
https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/operating/list-power-reactor-units.html

9/13/2020 6
As of August 2020, there are 95 operating nuclear reactors in the
US at 57 power plants (down from 97 in 2019)
• Many more reactors

are being built than
retired
• Two new nuclear
reactors are actively
under construction:
Vogtle Units 3 and 4
in Georgia
• California is losing all
of its Nuclear: San
Onofre closed in
2013 and Diablo
plans to close in
2025
• Cheap gas from
fracking has hurt
nuclear economics a
lot lately!
9/13/2020 7
Despite retiring units, US nuclear generation has stayed steady
1,000,000
900,000
100
Annual Generation (million kWh)

Number of Net Capacity 800,000
Units in US (million KW)
98 to 101 since Generation
80 Peak: 109 in 1994-96 1988
700,000
95 in 2020
600,000
60 Nuclear Generating Units, Total Operable Units (Number)

500,000
Nuclear Generating Units, Net Summer Capacity (Million
Kilowatts)
400,000
Nuclear Share of Electricity Net Generation (Percent)
40
Nuclear Electricity Net Generation (Million Kilowatthours) 300,000
200,000
20
Percent of Total Generation 100,000
(~19 to 20% since 1988)
0 0
1957 1967 1977 1987 1997 2007 2017
9/13/2020 8
Even though nuclear reactors have been retired, generation has
stayed stable due to operational improvements in efficiency and
less down time
Nuclear Capacity Factors have Improved
over time: In other words, we now run
nuclear powers harder, i.e., closer to their
maximum output, than in the past, with
less outages
9 out of 10 highest generation US

power plants are nuclear

9/13/2020 9
U.S. Nuclear Plants are aging together
Average age of reactors in US as of 2019: 39 years old
Source: EIA, AER (2009)

9/13/2020 10
Initial operating licenses for nuclear power
plants are good for 40 years before renewal
• In US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) has the authority to issue initial operating licenses
for a period of 40 years.
– NRC has granted 20-year license renewals to 74 of the 100 operating reactors (69 GW total) in the
United States (i.e. reactors may now operate for a total period of 60 years).
– NRC currently reviewing license renewal applications for an additional 17 reactors, and expects to
receive seven more applications in the next few years.
– A Subsequent License Renewal (SLR) would be required to operate past 60 years.
• U.S. utilities already make significant investments in maintaining and upgrading the current fleet
of U.S. nuclear power plants to ensure safe, secure, and reliable operation throughout their 40- or
60-year lifetimes, but right now economics are challenging continued operation at many
– Nearly all existing U.S. reactors will be more than 60 years old by 2050.
– In making the decision to extend the operating lives of nuclear reactors beyond 60 years, the NRC
will consider the long-term safety and security of continued reactor operation.
• Many entities involved in addressing life extension issues in support of nuclear power plants
– Domestically: Nuclear Reg. Commission, Department of Energy, Electric Power Institute
– International groups: International Atomic Energy Agency and the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development's Nuclear Energy Agency, are also

9/13/2020 11
Many operating nuclear
power plants are under a
lot of financial risk
According to a study from the
Union of Concerned Scientists:
• More than 1/3 of operating US
nuclear plants are unprofitable
or scheduled to close
• Bringing unprofitable plants
back to a breakeven point
would cost $814 million
annually on average
• Closing unprofitable and at-risk
plants early could result in a 4-
6% increase in US power
sector emissions.
• Carbon pricing would help
existing nuclear power plants
be more competitive
Report source:
https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/
nuclear-power-dilemma
9/13/2020 12
And building a
new nuclear
power plant is
very controversial,
time intensive,
and very
expensive; it’s
unlikely big
nuclear plants will
be built in the
future in the US

9/13/2020 13
Building a new nuclear power plant is very
controversial, time intensive, and very expensive

9/13/2020 14
Nuclear Power Trends Globally

9/13/2020 15
Nuclear Energy is a Global Phenomenon
• Currently 450 operable civil nuclear power • Operable = Connected to
nuclear reactors globally the grid;
– 400 GWe+ MWe gross capacity • Under Construction =
– 10%+ of global electricity production first concrete for reactor
– 30 countries worldwide have nuclear power plants
poured, or major
• An additional 60 under construction. refurbishment under
– 62,389 MWe gross capacity
way;
• An additional 168 are planned • Planned = Approvals,
funding or major
• An additional 345 are being proposed commitment in place,
mostly expected in
• Over 1996-2013, 66 reactors were retired, as 71 operation within 8-10
started operation.
years;
• WNA estimates that at least 60 operational
plants will close by 2030, most being small • Proposed = Specific
plants. program or site
• If all are built 48 countries would have nuclear proposals, expected
operation mostly within
[Data: World Nuclear Association (WNA), 9/2019] 15 years.

9/13/2020 16
Most Nuclear Reactors Are Concentrated in the
West, Japan, and Former Soviet Union
447 nuclear units, 390 GW of capacity, 11.5% of world electricity generation

9/13/2020 17
Electricity Generation,
The US
generates more
electricity than
any other
country, but
France has
highest nuclear
percentage in its
electricity mix
Source: https://www.worldnuclearreport.org/The-
World-Nuclear-Industry-Status-Report-2019-
HTML.html

9/13/2020 18
Most of the world’s nuclear capacity was built in
the 1970s and 1980s. Will we replace it?
Average age of world

nuclear power plant:
30 years

9/13/2020 19
Nuclear
capacity in the
world is
expected to
grow,
particularly in
China
But the US
nuclear
industry is not
projected to
grow

9/13/2020 20
The Fukushima disaster spurred a lot of nuclear
closures globally, more so than past crises
TMI 1979
Chernobyl Fukushima
Disaster 1986 Disaster 2011
Source: https://www.worldnuclearreport.org/The-
World-Nuclear-Industry-Status-Report-2019-
HTML.html
9/13/2020 21
Nuclear Power Technology

9/13/2020 22
Nuclear Technology Overview

9/13/2020 23
What do Nuclear Power plants look like?
Flue gas stacks Cooling Towers
Nuclear Power Plant Coal-Fired Power Plant

9/13/2020 24
Atomic Energy
• Energy is stored in the nucleus of atoms
– There is enormous energy present in the bonds that hold the
nucleus together.
– Energy is released when those bonds are broken.
– Nuclear energy can be released from atoms through nuclear
fusion and nuclear fission reactions
• Mass and energy are the same: E = mc2
– c = speed of light = 3×1010 cm/s
– Small changes in mass yield a lot of energy
• Burning a tonne of coal: 0.3 mg disappears
• Reacting a tonne of 235U: 6.6 g disappears
– 20,000 times better energy density than coal

9/13/2020 25
Fission (we do) vs Fusion (the sun does)
• In nuclear fusion, energy is released when atoms are combined or
fused together to form a larger atom. This is how the sun produces
energy. Not clear if we’ll be able to do at commercial scale.
• In nuclear fission, atoms are split apart to form smaller atoms,
releasing energy. During nuclear fission, a neutron hits the
uranium atom and splits it, releasing a great amount of energy in
the form of heat and radiation. More neutrons are released when
the uranium atom splits. These neutrons go on to bombard other
uranium atoms, and the process repeats itself over and over
again. This is called a chain reaction.
http://www.eia.gov/

9/13/2020 26
Chain Reactions can be fueled by isotopes Uranium 233, Uranium
235 (only naturally occurring), or Plutonium 239
“Chain Reactions”:
• Only one neutron is required
to stimulate a fission reaction
• Neutron-induced fission
reactions produce additional
neutrons that can be used in
subsequent reactions
• As long as one neutron
produced from a fission
reaction, produces another,
the reaction continues
• More neutrons-> more
reactions-> more energy
• Nuclear power plant
operators have to keep these
chain reactions controlled so
too much heat is not
generated
9/13/2020 27
The sun uses nuclear fusion reactions; we have only
been able to conquer nuclear fission reactions
• Nuclear fission is
much more
powerful than
chemical reactions
• Nuclear fusion
would be even more
powerful
• Nuclear fission reactions vs chemical reactions: The ratio of energy released by

nuclear fission, compared to a chemical reaction (at the atomic level): 100 million to 1
• The uranium required to produce the electricity generated with 1,000,000 short tons
of coal: ~12 short tons of enriched uranium in a light water cooled reactor
9/13/2020 28
What is Uranium?
• Uranium is a nonrenewable energy source,

but it is a common metal found in rocks all
over the world.
• Uranium occurs in nature in combination with
small amounts of other elements.
• Economically recoverable uranium deposits
have been discovered primarily in the western
United States, Australia, Canada, Central Asia,
Africa, and South America.
• Mined uranium ore typically yields one to four
pounds of uranium concentrate (U3O8 or
yellowcake) per ton, or 0.05% to 0.20% U3O8.
• Once uranium is mined, the U-235 must be
extracted and processed before it can be used
as a fuel

9/13/2020 29
Uranium location has no relation to fossil fuel
location
* Soft ores tend to have high percentages of uranium (10%

down to 0.02%), hard ores tend to have low concentrations
(0.1% down to 0.01%).
http://www.wolfatthedoor.org.uk/

9/13/2020 30
235U Is A Better Reactor Fuel Than 238U;
• Nuclear power plants use a certain type of uranium, U-
235, as fuel because its atoms are easily split apart.
Although uranium is about 100 times more common
than silver, U-235 is relatively rare.
– 238U and 235U occur in nature
– 99.3% of naturally occurring Uranium is 238U which doesn’t
undergo fission
– Different isotopes have different energy generation
potentials: 238U is more abundant, 235U is better for nuclear
power
– Thus, most (85%) of the uranium we mine never even
sees the inside of a reactor
• Enrichment is achieved by taking advantage of the small
mass difference between 235U and 238U
– Use centrifuges to spin uranium gas (UF6)
Note Isotope definition: each of two or more forms of the same element that
contain equal numbers of protons but different numbers of neutrons in their
nuclei, and hence differ in relative atomic mass but not in chemical
properties; in particular, a radioactive form of an element.

9/13/2020 31
There are other isotopes that are used for
nuclear power generation
• 238U
and 232Th are used in conversion reactions to get
fissile isotopes 233U and 239Pu, respectively
• 239Pu is also the most efficient nuclear weapon material
– US does not recycle (i.e. reprocess) Plutonium to avoid
proliferation of nuclear weapons
– Japan and France reprocesses Plutonium for energy
security issues
• In US, we do NOTE reprocess but we are OK with not
reprocessing because the natural fuel is abundant and
reprocessing is not cheap (creates a waste management
challenge)

9/13/2020 32
Uranium can be mined in an open-pit or in-situ

9/13/2020 33
There are many steps to the nuclear fuel cycle
• Exploration- Uranium located via airborne
radiometric surveys, chemical sampling of
groundwater and soils, and exploratory drilling to
understand the underlying geology.
• Uranium Mining- Prior to 1980, most U.S.
uranium was produced using open pit and
underground mining techniques. Today, the
majority of uranium is produced using solution
mining techniques commonly called in-situ-leach
(ISL) or in-situ-recovery (ISR).
• Uranium Milling- A typical mill facility at an open
pit or underground mine crushes, pulverizes, and
grinds the ore into fine powder (“yellowcake”)
that is then reacted with chemicals to separate
the uranium from other minerals.
• Uranium Conversion- conversion of yellowcake
into uranium hexafluoride (UF6) gas.
• Uranium enrichment- UF6 gas is sent to an
enrichment plant where the isotope separation
takes place; a centrifuge or gaseous diffusion
process is used to separate uranium isotopes

9/13/2020 34
Uranium must be mined and enriched before
use in reactor Centrifuges Are Used to Enrich
Uranium
Every time you spin a salad dryer, you

see that, when subjected to rotation,
heavier materials in a mixture will
concentrate near the outer wall,
outside of the lighter stuff.
The same principle is operative in a

centrifuge. UF6 gas is rotated at very
high angular speeds, with the result
that the heavier 238UF6 is
concentrated near the wall while the
lighter 235UF6 is relatively more
ω prevalent near the center of the
chamber.
9/13/2020 35
Natural Uranium vs Enriched Uranium
• Naturally-occurring uranium consists of two isotopes:
235U (0.71%) and 238U (99.29%)
• Isotope separation is a physical process to concentrate

(or ‘enrich’) one isotope relative to others.
• LEU = low-enriched Uranium
– Less than 20% 235U
– Commercial reactors in the U.S. need uranium enriched to
around 3-5% 235U
• HEU = high-enriched Uranium
– More than 20% 235U
– Weapons-grade is more than 80% 235U

9/13/2020 36
Centrifuges are used to enrich Uranium;
process is energy-intensive
• Primarily electricity needed for
enrichment
• During WWII, at its peak, fuel
enrichment consumed ~15% of all
electrical power in the USA
– TVA dams powered the original
centrifuges in TN
• Oak Ridge National Laboratory
– Columbia River dams powered
centrifuges in WA
• Pacific Northwest National Labs

9/13/2020 37
Uranium Processing Overview

9/13/2020 38

9/13/2020 39
PWRs and BWRs are the most common nuclear
generation technologies
Pressurized Water Reactor Boiling Water Reactor
PWRs keep water under pressure so that it BWRs actually boil the water. Water is
heats but does not boil. Water from the converted to steam, and then recycled
reactor and the water in the steam generator back into water by a part called the
that is turned into steam never mix so that condenser, to be used again in the heat
most of the radioactivity stays in the reactor process.
area. [images: NRC]
9/13/2020 40
Pressurized Water Reactors Are the Most
Common in the US and Globally

9/13/2020 41
The core: Where the magic happens
Overhead of a nuclear reactor

9/13/2020 42

9/13/2020 43
Nuclear Waste
• Nuclear reactors produce
nuclear waste.
• Waste is produced
throughout the entire fuel
cycle.
• The high-level waste (spent
nuclear fuel) is the primary
concern.
• Disposal is being paid for by
a combination of a tax on
each kilowatt hour of
nuclear power.

9/13/2020 44
Nuclear Fuel Cycles Are “Open” or “Closed”
• Open Fuel Cycle: what the US uses
– Ore mining, refining/enriching, reacting, disposing/ storing
(end-to-end)
– Generates vast volumes of radioactive waste
• Closed Fuel Cycle: what France uses
– After reacting, turn depleted uranium into plutonium to
burn again (close the loop)
– Create more plutonium than they burn
• Aka “breeder reactors”
– Smaller volumes of waste
– Proliferation concerns because of plutonium

9/13/2020 45
Today’s US Nuclear Fuel Cycle Is Open
Uranium Mining,
Milling, Refining Conversion Enrichment
Depleted
Yellowcake Uranium
(U3O8) UF6
(gas) Enriched
Ore Tailings
UO2
Fuel
Fabrication
Disposal
Fuel
Assemblies
e-
Irradiated
Fuel
Transportation Onsite Cooling
Kelly T. Sanders,
9/13/2020
Ph.D.
Storage Reactor 46
What happens to spent fuel in the US?
• Interim storage is final disposal in the United States
• Following use in the reactor, the fuel assembly becomes highly
radioactive and must be removed and stored under water in a spent
fuel pool at the reactor for several years.
– Even though the fission reaction has stopped, the spent fuel continues to
give off heat from the decay of radioactive elements that were created when
the uranium atoms were split apart.
– The water in the pool serves to both cool the fuel and shield the operators
from any radiation.
– As of 2002, there were more than 165,000 spent fuel assemblies stored in
about 70 interim storage pools throughout the United States.
• After cooling a few years in the pool, the spent fuel may be moved to a
dry cask storage container for further onsite storage. An increasing
number of reactor operators now store their older spent fuel in these
special outdoor concrete or steel containers with air cooling.
• The final step in the nuclear fuel cycle is the collection of spent fuel
assemblies from the interim storage sites for final disposition in a
permanent underground repository.
• The United States currently has no permanent underground repository
for high-level nuclear waste.

9/13/2020 47
Yucca Mountain
• On June 3, 2008 DOE submitted a
license application to the NRC for
Yucca mountain.
• The NRC had a statute time limit of
3 to 4 years to complete its safety
analysis and public hearings.
• Federal funding for the site ended in
2011
• Leaves US non-governmental
entities, such as utilities, without any
designated long term storage site for
the high level radioactive waste
stored on-site at various nuclear
facilities around the country
• Designs for Waste Repositories
Have Been Proposed, but Yucca
Mountain future is not clear

9/13/2020 48
Closed fuel cycles are utilized abroad
• A closed fuel cycle is one that
allows for reprocessing
• “breeder reactors” turn depleted
uranium into plutonium
• Benefits include:
– Reduction of waste stream
– More efficient use of fuel.
• Negative attributes include:
– Increased potential for proliferation
– Additional infrastructure

9/13/2020 49
Main Points About Nuclear Power
• Nuclear is a major part of our fuel mix

• Nuclear has many advantages and disadvantages
• Nuclear power has improved with time
• Nuclear economics are tricky
• The future of nuclear power is unclear

9/13/2020 50
Nuclear Power Has Several Advantages and
Drawbacks
• Advantages
– Supreme energy density [energy output per unit mass of fuel]
– Minimal waste generation per kWh
• all waste is captured
– Excellent capacity factor, maintenance & safety records
– Domestic or friendly sources of uranium
• Disadvantages
– Waste is radioactive and long-lived
– Public safety (accidents, attacks)
– Concerns about weapons proliferation

9/13/2020 51
Nuclear Energy Density is Remarkable
Fuel Gravimetric Energy Density [MJ/kg]
Nuclear Fission 77,000,000
Hydrogen 120
Natural Gas 59
Gasoline 44
Ethanol 24
Wood 16

9/13/2020 52
What is the future of nuclear
power in the era of climate
change?

9/13/2020 53
If we were to replace our existing fleet of nuclear power
reactors with the average world power generation fleet,
emissions would rise significantly
Global: An IEA analysis concludes that without US-specific analysis: According to the
nuclear power, emissions from electricity EIA, US power-plant emissions are about
generation would have been almost 20% higher, 4% higher in a scenario where lots of
and total energy-related emissions 6% higher in nuclear plants have to retire.
the period spanning 1971–2018
Read more:
https://www.vox.com/2014/5/2/5671394
/nuclear-power-retirements-climate-change
Report:Kelly
https://www.iea.org/reports/nuclear-power-in-a-
T. Sanders, Ph.D.
9/13/2020
clean-energy-system
54
Public sentiment in US is all over the place
Figures (Top and Bottom, Right):“For the first time
since Gallup first asked the question in 1994, a
majority of Americans say they oppose nuclear
energy. The 54% opposing it is up significantly
from 43% a year ago, while the 44% who favor
using nuclear energy is down from 51%.”- March
2016, US Gallup Poll
Vox Poll below from 2019
https://www.vox.com/energy-and-
environment/2019/4/23/18507297/nuclear-energy-renewables-voters-
poll
9/13/2020 55
Nuclear Power is surrounded by ironies
• Nuclear power helps mitigate climate change
– Republicans like nuclear but don’t care about climate change
– Democrats care about climate change but don’t like nuclear
– Environmentalists hate nuclear. Environmentalists love nuclear.
• Nuclear power is compatible with strong government
– Democrats are ok with gov’t, but not nuclear power
– Republicans are ok with nuclear power, but not gov’t

9/13/2020 56
Globally, Fukushima disaster hurt public
perception in countries with nuclear power
Note BBC poll source: https://www.bbc.com/news/science-

environment-15864806

9/13/2020 57
Building new large nuclear power plants is not a
cost- effective way to tackle climate change
compared to other options
NON-NUCLEAR OPTIONS SAVE MORE CARBON PER DOLLAR
Source: https://www.worldnuclearreport.org/The-World-Nuclear-Industry-Status-
Kelly T. Sanders,
9/13/2020
Ph.D.
Report-2019-HTML.html#ccanp
58
…But operating existing nuclear power plants is
generally pretty cheap

9/13/2020 59
There have been improvements in nuclear power over
time, despite decreasing interest in the US over time
Gen III Reactors Prioritize Gen IV Reactors Prioritize
Safety Proliferation Resistance
• Hydrogen Production
• Breeding and Transmutation
• Proliferation Resistance
• Closed Fuel Cycle
• Simplification
• Increased safety

Source: Westinghouse
9/13/2020 Electric (via WSJ) 60
Most experts agree that small nuclear is the
future for the US
An SMR is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency as any
reactor with an output of 300 megawatts electric (“MWe”) or less,
comprised of components, or modules, that are factory-fabricated and
transported to a nuclear power plant location for on-site assembly.
Potential benefits of SMR technologies

[Functionality] [Economics]
• Carbon-free baseload power • Lower total capital
• Integration of renewable cost
• Can generate process heat • International export
• Modularity opportunities
• Scalability [Safety & Security]
• Siting flexibility • Improved energy
• Small land requirements security
• Enhanced safety
Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D. • Reduced fuel 61risk
9/13/2020
The End of Nuclear Power
• Belgium, Germany, Spain and Switzerland

are phasing-out nuclear power
• Germany has permanently shut down
eight of its 17 reactors and pledged
to close the rest by the end of 2022.
• Switzerland and Spain have banned
the construction of new reactors
• Have no nuclear power stations and
remain opposed to nuclear power:
Australia, Austria, Denmark, Greece,
Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein,
Luxembourg, Malaysia, Malta, New
Zealand, Norway, Philippines, and
Portugal (as of 2016)

9/13/2020 62
The Future of Nuclear Is Unclear
• Maybe our future looks nuclear rich?
– Dozens of nuclear plants are being
built
– Dozens are planned
– Hundreds are proposed
• But many countries are turning away
from nuclear, despite being more
concerned than ever about climate
change
– Many are being retired
• Not clear if industrialized nations will
– allow nuclear permits to expire?
– build more nuclear to mitigate CO2
emissions? And if it will be big or
small?

9/13/2020 63
Kelly T. Sanders
Assistant Professor
Sonny Astani Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering
ktsanders@usc.edu

FA2020 - ENE505 - L5 - Nuclear Power

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

FA2020 - ENE505 - L5 - Nuclear Power

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Nuclear Power

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

September 13, 2020

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

• Many more reactors

Annual Generation (million kWh)

60 Nuclear Generating Units, Total Operable Units (Number)

9 out of 10 highest generation US

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Source: EIA, AER (2009)

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

447 nuclear units, 390 GW of capacity, 11.5% of world electricity generation

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Average age of world

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Flue gas stacks Cooling Towers

Nuclear Power Plant Coal-Fired Power Plant

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

• Nuclear fission reactions vs chemical reactions: The ratio of energy released by

• Uranium is a nonrenewable energy source,

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

* Soft ores tend to have high percentages of uranium (10%

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Every time you spin a salad dryer, you

The same principle is operative in a

• Isotope separation is a physical process to concentrate

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Overhead of a nuclear reactor

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

• Nuclear is a major part of our fuel mix

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.

Kelly T. Sanders, Ph.D.