EVOLUSI

Asal Usul Spesies

PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations for

Biology
Eighth Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece

Oleh : Elisabet
Lectures Siahaan,
by Chris Romero, S.Pd
updated by Erin Barley with contributions from Joan Sharp
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
 Charles Darwin : “Mystery of Mysteries”

Figure 24.1
Phalacrocorax harrisi
Spesiasi : proses pemisahan satu spesies menjadi dua spesies atau lebih
Mikroevolusi : perubahan frekuensi alel dari suatu populasi seiring waktu

Makroevolusi : pola yang luas dari evolusi melalui rentang waktu yang lama

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Microevolution

• The dog is another example of how

selection can change the frequency
of alleles in a population.

• Dogs have been artificially selected

for certain characteristics for many
years, and different breeds have
different alleles.

• All breeds of dog belong to the same

species, Canis lupus (the wolf) so this
is an example of Microevolution as no
Dogs are
new species has resulted.
wolveswww.puppy-training-solutions.com/image-files/dog-breed-information.jpg
Macroevolution

• However, if two populations of a

species become isolated from
one another for tens of thousands
of years, genetic difference may
become marked.

• If the two populations can no-longer

Galapagos finches
interbreed, new species are born.
This is called Macroevolution.

• Darwin’s Galapagos finches are

an example of this process in action.
www.ingala.gov.ec/galapagosislands/images/stories/ingala_images/galapagos_take_a_tour/small_pics/galapagos_map_2.jpg
Speciation Today?

• The mosquito was introduced to

the London Underground during
its construction around 1900.

• It became infamous in the War

for attacking people sheltering
London Underground Mosquito
from the Blitz.

• Studies indicate several genetic

differences from its above-ground
ancestors. Interbreeding between
populations is difficult suggesting
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Gb-lu-Angel-southbound.jpg
that speciation may be occurring.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culex
Konsep Spesies Biologi
• Menurut ahli biologi Ernest Mayr

– Spesies adalah suatu kelompok populasi yang

anggota-anggotanya memilki potensi untuk
saling mengawini (interbreed) di alam dan
menghasilkan keturunan yang viabel dan fertil.
 Keterbatasan konsep spesies biologis :
-Tidak ada cara mengevaluasi isolasi reproduktif dari fosil
-Tidak berlaku pada organisme aseksual
Definisi Lain Spesies
-Konsep spesies morfologis : Kesamaan bentuk dan
struktur tubuh
-Konsep spesies ekologis : Berdasarkan relung (niche)
ekologinya
-Konsep spesies filogenetik : memiliki nenek moyang yang
sama dan membentuk satu cabang pada pohon kehidupan
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(a) Kemiripan di antara spesies-spesies berbeda.
Meadowlark timur (Sturnella magna, kiri) dan
meadowlark barat (Sturnella neglecta, right) memiliki
bentuk tubuh dan watna bulu yang serupa. Meskipun
demikian, keduanya adalh spesies biologi yang
berbeda karena kicauan dan perilaku yang lain cukup
berbeda untuk menghalangi mereka saling mengawini
seandainya bertemu di alam.

(b) Keanekaragaman dalam satu spesies. Meskipun

penampilan kita tampak berbeda-beda, semua
manusia tergolong ke dalam satu spesies biologis
(Hoomo sapiens), yang didefinisikan menurut
kapasitas kita untuk saling mengawini.

Figure 24.3 A, B
Evidence (2): Similar Genes

HUMAN CCAAGGTCACGACTACTCCAATTGTCACAACTGTTCCAACCGTCACGACTGTTGAACGA
CHIMPANZEE CCAAGGTCACGACTACTCCAATTGTCACAACTGTTCCAACCGTCA TGACTGTTGAACGA
GORILLA CCAAGGTCACAACTACTCCAATTGTCACAACTGTTCCAACCGTCACGACTGTTGAACGA

Genetic code of chimps and gorillas is almost identical to humans

• If evolution is true then we might also expect that closely

related organisms will be more similar to one another than more
distantly related organisms.

• Comparison of the human genetic code with that of other

organisms show that chimpanzees are nearly genetically identical
(differ by less than 1.2%) whereas the mouse differs by ≈15%.
Konsep spesies biologis menekankan pada isolasi
reproduksi

 Isolasi reproduksi : Faktor-faktor penghalang 2

spesies berbeda untuk menghasilkan keturunan
yang viabel dan fertil
 Mencegah aliran gen di antara spesies-spesies
dan membatasi pembentukan hibrida,
keturunan yang dihasilan dari perkawinan
antar spesies.
 Penghalang prazigotik : menghalangi fertilisasi

 Penghalang pascazigotik : isolasi reproduksi

setelah zigot terbentuk

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 Penghalang Prazigotik

Isolasi Isolasi Isolasi Isolasi Isolasi

Habitat Temporal Tingkah Laku Mekanis Gametik

Individu dari
spesies yang Percobaan
berbeda Kawin FERTILISASI

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 Penghalang Pascazigotik
Pengurangan Viabilitas Pengurangan Fertilitas Pemecahan
Hibrida Hibrida Hibrida

Keturunan viabel
FERTILISASI dan fertil

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Spesiasi dapat berlangsung dengan atau tanpa pemisahan
geografis
Dua Moda Utama Spesiasi

Spesiasi alopatrik Spesiasi simpatrik

(“Negeri Lain”) (“Negeri yang Sama”)
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Spesiasi Alopatrik
Proses spesiasi alopatrik
Saat pemisahan geografis berlangsung, lungkang gen yang
terpisah berdivergensi
Ammospermophilus harrisii Ammospermophilus leucurus

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• Dapatkah divergensi populasi-populasi alopatrik
menyebabkan isolasi reproduktif?

– Reproductive isolation must have been

established
EXPERIMENT
Diane Dodd, of Yale University, divided a fruit-fly population, raising some
populations on a starch medium and others on a maltose medium. After many generations,
natural selection resulted in divergent evolution: Populations raised on starch digested starch
more efficiently, while those raised on maltose digested maltose more efficiently.
Dodd then put flies from the same or different populations in mating cages and measured
mating frequencies.

Initial population
of fruit flies
(Drosphila
Pseudoobscura)
Some flies Some flies
raised on raised on
starch medium maltose medium
Mating experiments
Figure 24.7 after several generations
 RESULTS
When flies from “starch populations” were mixed with flies from “maltose populations,”
the flies tended to mate with like partners. In the control group, flies taken from different
populations that were adapted to the same medium were about as likely to mate with each
other as with flies from their own populations.
Female
Female Same Different
Starch Maltose population populations

populations population
Same
Starch

22 9 18 15

Male
Male
Maltose

Different
8 20 12 15

Mating frequencies Mating frequencies

in experimental group in control group

CONCLUSION
The strong preference of “starch flies” and “maltose flies” to mate with
like-adapted flies, even if they were from different populations, indicates that a reproductive
barrier is forming between the divergent populations of flies. The barrier is not absolute
(some mating between starch flies and maltose flies did occur) but appears to be under way
after several generations of divergence resulting from the separation of these allopatric
populations into different environments.
Spesiasi Simpatrik

-Lebih jarang terjadi dibandingkan spesiasi alopatrik.

-Akan terjadi bila aliran gen berkurang, disebabkan oleh :

1. Poliploidi
Muncul suatu spesies karena kecelakaan selama pembelahan
sel yang memunculkan set ekstra kromosom

Ada dua bentuk poliploidi :

1. Autopoliploid : individu memiliki lebih dari dua set kromosom
yang semuanya berasal dari satu spesies
2. Alopoliploid : Hibrida steril menjadi poliploid yang fertil.

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 • An autopolyploid

– Is an individual that has more than two

chromosome sets, all derived from a single
species
Failure of cell division
in a cell of a growing
diploid plant after Offspring with tetraploid
chromosome duplication Gametes produced karyotypes may be viable
gives rise to a tetraploid by flowers on this and fertile—a new
branch or other tissue. branch will be diploid. biological species.

2n
2n = 6
4n = 12 4n
Figure 24.8
 Kegagalan pembelahan sel

Sel tetraploid
2n=6
4n=12

2n

2n
Spesies baru
Gamet yang dihasilkan dari = 4n
pembelahan sel tetraploid

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 • An autopolyploid

– Is an individual that has more than two

chromosome sets, all derived from a single
species
Failure of cell division
in a cell of a growing
diploid plant after Offspring with tetraploid
chromosome duplication Gametes produced karyotypes may be viable
gives rise to a tetraploid by flowers on this and fertile—a new
branch or other tissue. branch will be diploid. biological species.

2n
2n = 6
4n = 12 4n
Figure 24.8
 Spesies A Spesies B
2n=6 2n=4

Kesalahan meiosis : jumlah

kromosom tidak dikurangi dari 2n
menjadi n

Gamet Gamet yang tidak tereduksi

normal dengan 4 kromosom
n=3

Hibrida dengan 7
kromosom

Gamet normal Gamet yang tidak tereduksi

n=3 dengan 7 kromosom

Alopoliploid
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• An allopolyploid

– Is a species with multiple sets of chromosomes

derived from different species

Unreduced gamete Unreduced gamete

with 4 chromosomes with 7 chromosomes Viable fertile hybrid
Hybrid with
7 chromosomes (allopolyploid)
Meiotic error;
Species A chromosome
2n = 4 number not
reduced from
2n to n

2n = 10

Normal gamete Normal gamete

n=3 n=3

Species B
2n = 6
Figure 24.9
Spesiasi Simpatrik
Spesiasi Simpatrik
 Diferensiasi habitat : suatu subpopulasi mengeksploitasi
habitat atau sumber daya yang tidak digunakan oleh
populasi induk

Seleksi seksual : seleksi interseksual atau intraseksual

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Zona hibrida menyediakan kesempatan untuk mempelajari
faktor-faktor yang menyebabkan isolasi reproduktif

Zona hibrida : Daerah tempat anggota spesies yang berbeda

dapat bertemu dan kawin, menghasilkan setidaknya beberapa
keturunan campuran

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 Kelompok 1 Pola dalam zona hibrida

Eropa

Wilayah bangkong perut api

Bangkong perut-api
Zona hibrida Bombina bombina
Wilayah bangkong
perut-kuning
0.99

Frekuensi alel (skala logaritmik)

0.9

0.5

0.1
Bangkong perut-kuning
0.01
Bombina variegata
40 30 20 10 0 10 20

Zona hibrida sempit untuk B. Variegata dan B. bombina

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 Kelompok 2

Zona hibrida seiring waktu

Zona hibrida
Pengukuhan

Penyatuan
Aliran gen
Populasi Hibrida

Penghalang terhadap
aliran gen
Stabilitas

Proses pembentukan dan akibat dari zona hibrida

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 Kelompok 3
(1) Pengukuhan : Penguatan Penghalang Reproduktif

28 Burung sikatan belang

24 Burung sikatan berkerah

20
Jumlah betina

16

12

4
(Tidak ada)
0
Spesiesnya Spesies Spesiesnya Spesies
sendiri lain sendiri lain
Jantan simpatrik Jantan alopatrik

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Kelompok 4 (2) Penyatuan : Pelemahan Penghalang Reproduktif

Pundamilia nyererei Pundamilia pundamilia

Pundamilia “air keruh,”

Keturunan hibrida dari suatu lokasi dengan air yang keruh

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Kelompok 5

(3) Stabilitas : Pembentukan Terus-menerus dari individu Hibrida

-Individu hibrida terus dihasilkan

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Kelompok 6

Spesiasi dapat terjadi secara cepat atau lambat dan bisa merupakan akibat
dari perubahan pada sedikit atau banyak gen

Perkembangan Spesiasi dalam waktu

Pola tersela

waktu

Pola bertahap

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Laju spesiasi
Interval waktu pembentukan spesies baru sangat bervariasi,
mulai dari ribuan tahun sampai puluhan juta tahun.

Mempelajari genetika spesiasi

Spesiasi dapat didorong oleh segelintir atau banyak gen.

Dari spesiasi ke makroevolusi

Akibat peristiwa yang terjadi berkali-kali, perbedaan-perbedaan
kecil di antara organisme-organisme dapat terakumulasi, dan
terbentuklah kelompok baru

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• Spesiasi gen tunggal. Mutasi pada satu gen menyebabkan cangkang siput darat
Jepang (Euhadra) mengulir ke arah berlawanan dari cangkang siput lain. Arah
uliran yang berlawanan tidak dapat kawin menyebabkan isolasi reproduktif.