EVOLUTION

1809 - Lamarck’s Theory

2 Major Principles:

• Use and Disuse

• The more an animal uses a body part, the more

developed it becomes (and vice-versa)

• Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics

• Characteristics an organism develops or acquires in

its lifetime can be passed on to its offspring
 I. What is Evolution?
• The slow, gradual change in a species over time.
• ‘Slow’ means thousands to millions of years (in most cases)...
• Species with short reproductive rates; like bacteria, evolve quickly.
Bacteria reproduce about every 20 minutes.

• Just in the last few millions of years, hundreds of species have

become extinct- while hundreds of others have developed.

• How do we know evolution is happening? Let’s look at the

evidence…
I. Evidence for Evolution
 II. Fossil Evidence
• Definition: Any trace or remains of an organism that has
been preserved by natural processes.

• Studying fossils allows scientists to compare the remains

of ancient organisms with present day species to determine
evolutionary relationships.
• Fossils form from amber, ice, tar, petrification, bones
buried under sedimentary rock.
• The older the fossil, the deeper it will be buried.
Fossil Evidence
III. How do we KNOW????
evolutionary relationships
Evidence can be:

Structural Molecular/ Biochemical

 Structural Evidence
Homologous Structures: Similar internal structure,
but different form and function.
 Structural Evidence
Analogous structures: Similar external form and
function, but different internal structure.
BOTH FLY- BUILT DIFFERENTLY
 Structural Evidence
Vestigial structures:
Structures that are
remnants of
structures that were
functional in
ancestral forms, but
are now reduced in
size and serve little
or no purpose.

• DO THE TOP “10”

 Structural Evidence
Embryological evidence: Comparing embryos at various
stages of development may show similarities not present
after birth.

WHO
DOES
THIS
GUY
LOOK
LIKE?
??
 IV. Molecular Evidence
Gel electrophoresis: Technique used to separate
DNA fragments according to their size.

- +
 Molecular Evidence
DNA sequencing:
A
A-G-C-T-A-G-G-C-C-A-T-G-T-A-T-A-A-T-G-G-C-C-T-C-A-T-A-T-A-G-G-C-C-G-C-T-A-T-C

B
A-G-C-T-A-G-G-C-C-A-T-G-T-A-T-A-A-C-G-G-C-C-T-C-A-T-A-T-A-G-G-C-A-G-C-C-A-T-C

C
A-G-C-T-A-G-G-C-C-A-T-G-T-A-T-A-A-T-G-G-C-C-T-C-T-T-A-T-A-G-G-C-G-G-C-T-A-T-C

How many differences are there between sequence A and B?

 Molecular Evidence
DNA sequencing
A
A-G-C-T-A-G-G-C-C-A-T-G-T-A-T-A-A-T-G-G-C-C-T-C-A-T-A-T-A-G-G-C-C-G-C-T-A-T-C

B
A-G-C-T-A-G-G-C-C-A-T-G-T-A-T-A-A-C-G-G-C-C-T-C-A-T-A-T-A-G-G-C-A-G-C-C-A-T-C

C
A-G-C-T-A-G-G-C-C-A-T-G-T-A-T-A-A-T-G-G-C-C-T-C-T-T-A-T-A-G-G-C-G-G-C-T-A-T-C

How many differences are there between sequence A and B?

 Molecular Evidence
DNA sequencing

A
A-G-C-T-A-G-G-C-C-A-T-G-T-A-T-A-A-T-G-G-C-C-T-C-A-T-A-T-A-G-G-C-C-G-C-T-A-T-C

B
A-G-C-T-A-G-G-C-C-A-T-G-T-A-T-A-A-C-G-G-C-C-T-C-A-T-A-T-A-G-G-C-A-G-C-C-A-T-C

C
A-G-C-T-A-G-G-C-C-A-T-G-T-A-T-A-A-T-G-G-C-C-T-C-T-T-A-T-A-G-G-C-G-G-C-T-A-T-C

Between B and C?
 Molecular Evidence
Protein analysis or Amino Acid Sequencing

Carp Bullfrog Alligator Mouse Human

Human 24 19 14 9 0
Mouse 19 10 9 0
Alligator 18 11 0
Bullfrog 19 0
Carp 0

The numbers represent the number of differences

between protein samples.
What next?
 V. Charles Darwin
The Father of Evolution
• Born February 12, 1809
• 1831- 1836 Served as
naturalist aboard the HMS
Beagle

• 1835 Arrived in the

Galapagos Islands

• 1859 Published On the

Origin of Species…

• 1882 Died and buried in

Westminster Abbey
 Charles Darwin
• Darwin’s thoughts on
Natural Selection
explained a lot about
evolution, but he
didn’t explain the
mechanism by which
traits change over
time.

• The field of Genetics

explains this…
MUTATIONS. (they are
not always bad!).
 Darwin’s and His Theory of
Evolution (summarized in 5 major points)
1. OVERPRODUCTION: Most
species produce far more offspring
than can survive. Those that die are
considered ‘weak.’ These weak
organisms do not live long enough to
reproduce. Therefore, weak traits are
weeded out of the species.
 Darwin’s Points…

2. COMPETITION: Since living space

and food are limited (limited
resources), offspring must compete for
resources. Those who are good at
competition survive long enough to
reproduce.
 Darwin’s Points…
3. VARIATIONS & ADAPTATIONS:
The characteristics of the individuals in
any species are not exactly alike. Those
individuals that have favorable
variations (adaptations), will have a
greater chance of living long enough to
reproduce.
 Darwin’s Points…

4. NATURAL SELECTION: Organisms

with variations that make them better
adapted to their environment survive
and reproduce; passing on these
favorable traits to their offspring.
 Types of Natural Selection

DIRECTIONAL- an extreme phenotype becomes favorable

ex… long neck giraffes

 
 Types of Natural Selection

STABILIZING- the average phenotype becomes

favorable and the extremes are unfavorable

Ex. Widow tail bird

 Types of Natural Selection

DISRUPTIVE- two opposite phenotypes become favorable and the average is

unfavorable

Ex. Bird beaks- small seeds and large seeds on an island.. What beaks work?
Medium beaked birds would have to compete with both large and small beaks.
 Darwin’s Points…

5. SPECIATION: Over many generations,

favorable adaptations gradually
accumulate in the species and bad traits
disappear. Eventually, the accumulated
changes become so big that the result is
a new species.
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 VI. The Rate of Evolution
How Fast is Evolution Occurring?

• There are TWO theories…

scientists cannot seem to
agree on which one is
correct.

• THEORY #1:
• GRADUALISM (based on
Darwin’s ideas)…species
arise through gradual
accumulation of small
variations… evolution is
slow and continuous over
millions of years.
 The Rate of Evolution
How Fast is Evolution Occurring?

• THEORY #2 (Steven
Gould)…

• PUNCTUATED
EQUILIBRIUM
species remain the
same (in equilibrium)
for extended periods
of time- evolution
occurs quickly for
short periods of time.
 VII. Sources of
Genetic Variation
• MUTATIONS: Random changes in the genetic makeup of an
organism. (Actually a rare event, but causes new traits to arise).

• GENETIC RECOMBINATION: Gametes uniting during

fertilization. (Included within this is concept are meiosis and crossing
over).

• MIGRATION: New traits being brought into a population or taking

traits out of a population. Has the greatest effect on small populations.

• GENETIC DRIFT: Affects small populations; changes in the gene

pool due to storms, a catastrophe, etc. Harmful because it tends to
decrease the gene pool. Not significant in large populations.
 Peppered Moth

CLICK ON THE PICTURE TO SEE AN

ANIMATION
 VIII. The Modern
Theory of Evolution
• Focuses on the population rather than the individual.
• Population Genetics: The study of changes in the genetic
makeup of populations.

• Frequencies: how often a particular allele (trait) is found

within a population.

• Gene Pool: the total of all the alleles present in a population.

• Mathematically explained by Hardy- Weinberg. See Packet.
 IX. ADAPTATIONS
• STRUCTURAL
ADAPTATIONS: Involves
parts of the body ( wings
for flying, fins for
swimming).

• PHYSIOLOGICAL
ADAPTATIONS: Involves
metabolism of the
organism (poison venom).

• Other adaptations are

mating, behavioral,
hibernation, etc.

• Bald eagle adaptations to

the right…
 X. ADAPTIVE RADIATION

• DEFINITION: The emergence of many species from

a common ancestor that was introduced to a new
environment.

• Example: Darwins Finches… 14 finch species

diverge from one common ancestor on the South
American Mainland. Each species became
specialized feeders for their particular environment.
ADAPTIVE RADIATION
Imagine these are beaks…
Some are great for big
seeds…
While others are best for little ones
Without the best beak for the
available food source…
Some finches
will not
survive to
pass their
unfavorable
traits on to
offspring.
 XI. Two more concepts…
1. Convergent Evolution:
Natural selection that
causes non- related
species to resemble one
another.

2. Coevolution: Two or
more species evolve in
response to each other
through competitive or
cooperative adaptations.
Example are flowers and
their pollinators.
GENE POOL- the total of all the alleles present in a
population