EVOLUTION SESSION 1

EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION

VARIATION
LAMARCK
DARWIN
PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM
SPECIATION
What is evolution
 What is evolution?
• Biological evolution
Refers to the changes that life forms have undergone over long periods of
time – distinct from the evolution of the Earth itself.
All present-day forms of life …
 have descended from, and are related to, those that lived
in the
past
 may look different because they became modified from
one
generation to another
TERM DEFINITION
Hypothesis A testable statement about the
natural world that can be
used to build more complex
inferences and explanations.
Theory A well-substantiated explanation
of some aspect of the natural
world that can incorporate
facts, laws, inferences, and
tested hypotheses.
EXAMPLE
The high incidence of HIV-AIDS
is due to the lack of education
about the causes of the disease
The sun is the centre of the
universe, around which all the
planets revolve (Heliocentric
theory)
EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION
 FOSSILS

How do fossils provide evidence for evolution?

-Fossils provide evidence of life forms that
existed in the past/that are now extinct

-Intermediate forms of organisms have been

discovered that illustrate the changing forms of
plants/animals
 FOSSILS
Give ONE reason why there are gaps in the fossil records.

-Only a few of the ancient organisms are

preserved as fossils 
-because they need to be covered soon
after death otherwise they will be
decomposed by bacteria
-Only organisms with a solid and resistant
skeleton are easily preserved
-We have not found all the fossils that
exist in the earth
 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY
Comparison of homologous structures among organisms to show
similarities and differences e.g. homologous bone structures in the
front limbs of different vertebrates
 BIOGEOGRAPHY: ANIMALS
• State that different but closely related species in similar biomes across
the world have similar features in adapting to that biome, indicating
that they probably developed from a common ancestral species
• The face of the earth changed gradually over long periods of time and
living and plants and animals have also undergone change during this
time
• Similar organisms exist in places that are geographically isolated from
each other indicating that they probably arose from a common
ancestral species.
 GENETIC EVIDENCE
Scientists state that organisms are closely related
and are likely to have a common ancestor if they have:
–– Identical DNA structure
–– Similar sequence of genes
–– Similar portions of DNA with no functions and
–– Similar mutations (mitochondrial DNA)
Species that are closely related have a greater similarity
to each other than distant species.
VARIATION
 VARIATION

Population
A group of organisms of the same species that lives
together in a defined area at a given time
Biological Species
A group of organisms that have similar characteristics
and can interbreed to produce fertile offspring
 SOURCES OF VARIATION EXPLAINED
• Crossing over
in Prophase I of meiosis the exchange of genetic material, leads

to new combinations of maternal and paternal genetic material

in each new cell resulting from meiosis.

• Random arrangement of chromosomes

during metaphase allows different combinations
of chromosomes.

• Random fertilisation
between different egg cells and different sperm.
• Random mating
between organisms within a species.
• Mutation
CONTINUOUS AND DISCONTINUOUS VARIATION

Source: Figbiologyy.blogspot.com
Continuous variation
DISCONTINUOUS VARIATION

Human blood groups as percentage of

population

Graph that shows number of girls who

are tongue rollers and non-tongue rollers

Tongue Non-tongue
Rollers rollers
 ACTIVITY 1
CROSSWORD MAKER 30 minutes
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
Theories of evolution: de Lamarck
 Lamarck’s theory
Use and disuse of organs
• Changes in the environment create new needs that cause
organisms to modify their existing organs to meet the need.
• Repeated use of the organ would cause it to enlarge and
become more efficient.
• Disuse of a organ would cause it to degenerate

Inheritance of acquired characteristics

• The modification an organism acquired during its
life time could be pass on to its offspring.
Lamarck’s Theory Cont...

•Lamarck thought that if an

animal acquired a
characteristic during its
lifetime, it could pass it on to
its offspring.

• Hence giraffes got their long

necks through generations of
straining to reach high
branches.
 How did Lamarck explained the long necks of
giraffes?

Lamarck
- All giraffes had short
necks originally
- Giraffes frequently
stretched/used their
necks to reach
4
- for leaves of tall trees 1 2 3
- necks become longer
- The long necks acquired
in this way
could be passed on to
the next generation
/were inherited
 Why Lamarck’s theory is not accepted by most life
scientists today:

Acquired characteristics are not inherited/do

not cause any change to the DNA of an organism's
gametes (sperms or ova)
OR
Organisms did not evolve because they want
to evolve
OR
Lamarck believed in determinism (internal drive of
organisms to change)
Other examples of Lamarck’s theory

Legs of snake
Long legs of heron Long, thin
body of snake
You decide that, when you have children, you want them to be big and strong.
You decide to go to the gym every day for a year. You ‘pump iron’ and develop
really big, impressive muscles so that your children will inherit big impressive
muscles.

Would this work? Discuss this with a partner and write down in one sentence the
main reason why this would not work.
 QUESTION

Fossil studies show that ancestral ducks had very

little skin between their toes. The diagram below
shows the foot of a present duck.

Webbed foot
(more skin between toes)

Describe how Lamarck would explain the evolution

of the webbed feet in ducks. (4)
 ANSWER

• Lamarck would have stated that ducks initially lived on

land√/used their
• feet only for walking
• As food became scarce √ on land
• the ducks were forced to search for food in the water √
• the ducks tried to stretch their toes apart in an attempt to
swim more
• efficiently √/ they wanted to swim better
• As a result the very little skin between their toes became
stretched and
• stretched to form webbed feet √
• This characteristic was then inherited by the future
generations √ Any (4)
Charles Darwin
 Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection

• Most species produce a large number of offspring in their life-times

• Variation: Offspring of the same species show a great deal of variation
• Competition: These offspring compete with each other for food,
shelter etc.
• Beneficial traits: some offspring will survive because of a trait that
makes them more suitable for environment
• Survival: Only a small number of offspring survive
• Genetics: Organisms pass genetic traits on to their offspring.
Later used the term survival of the fittest
• Natural selection : Those organisms with the most beneficial traits are
more likely to survive and reproduce.
Natural Selection from generation to generation caused the population
to gradually change …
leading to the evolution of new species
How would Darwin account for the long necks of the
giraffes?

• As a result of genetic variationin the giraffe

population
some giraffes have longer necks than others
• Environmental change/competition for resources
occurred causing those with shorter necks to die
• and those with longer necks to survive
• This is natural selection/survival of the fittest
• The genes/genotype for longer necks
• were passed on to offspring most of which now
have long necks
ACTIVITY 2: NATURAL SELECTION

Rock pocket mouse

ICT ACTIVITY
Punctuated Equilibrium
 Punctuated Equilibrium cont…

Evolution is not always gradual

as proposed by Lamarckism and Darwinism.

• Evolution involves long periods of time

where species do not change or change
very little (known as equilibrium).

This alternates with (is punctuated by) short

periods of time where rapid changes occur.

• New species are formed in a short period

of time, relative to the long periods of no/little
change.

• This is supported by the absence of

transitional fossils ‘missing links’ indicating
the period of rapid change.
 Punctuated equilibrium

http://anthro.palomar.edu/synthetic/images/graph_of_punctuated_equilibrium_2.gif
 ACTIVITY 3

PEAK AT THE PAST

1 HOUR
 ARTIFICIAL SELECTION

For ages, humans have been doing breeding

experiments to develop organisms with a
selected set of desirable characteristics. This is
called artificial selection.
 ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
• How would you make a chiquaqua out of a
wolf? (20minutes)
• H

CHIQUAQUA
MEXICAN WOLF
Differences between Natural Selection and Artificial
Selection
Natural Selection
The environment or nature is
the selective force.
Selection is in response to
suitability
to the environment.
Occurs within a species.
Artificial Selection
Humans represent the selective
force.
Selection is in response to
satisfying
human needs.
May involve one or more
species (as in cross breeding).
FORMATION OF NEW SPECIES
(SPECIATION)
 FORMATION OF NEW SPECIES

Species is a group of organisms that can interbreed and

produce fertile offspring.

Extinction: when a species die out.

Geographical isolation and reproductive isolation

mechanisms, isolate the gene pool of a species resulting
with formation of new species.
 GEOGRAPHIC ISOLATION
• In geographic isolation, species diverge because of a
geographical barrier like, mountain , river, volcano,
crack etc. Evolution of
reproductive
isolation, no gene New distinct
Original Initial step to flow between two species
population speciation populations
Describe how speciation occurs when a population
becomes separated by a geographical barrier.
• If a population of a single species is
• Divided by a geographical barrier river/mountain(compulsory mark)
• The population will split up into two groups 
• there is no gene flow 
• between the two groups as they could not interbreed 
• Each pop exposed to different environmental conditions/selection
pressure
• each group undergoes natural selection independently,
• and each group adapts to the new environmental factors/
• develops separately
• Develops differently, each group may become genotypically
and phenotypically different 
• leading to the formation of a new species
• which might prevent them from interbreeding/become
reproductively isolated
Finches of Galapagos
 Finches of Galapagos

Buds and fruit

Leaves

Ancestral
seed-
eating species
from
Insects the mainland Larvae/worms
 GALAPAGOS TORTOISE SPECIATION

Explain how Darwin would have used the example of the tortoises to
explain speciation.
 ANSWER

• During continental drift

• the tortoise populations were isolated/separated into different groups from the
original population
• on different islands *
• No gene flow took place between different populations 
• living under different environmental conditions/ selection pressures
• and through natural selection 
• developed into new species
• That are genotypically and phenotypically different 
• not able to interbreed after a period of time
 Geographical isolation
BOABAB TREES
Madagascar South
Africa
 GEOGRAPHICAL ISOLATION
PROTEAS

AUSTRALIA SOUTH AFRICA

SPECIATION: ACTIVITY 4

ZEEBO
40 minutes
Type of Example 1 Example 2
barrier
Adaptation to Two species of orchid
different pollinators have different length
nectar tubes and are
pollinated by different
species of moths.

Breeding at Two species of mayflies

different times of emerge during different
the year weeks in springtime.
Type of Example 1 Example 2
barrier
Species-specific Two similar species of birds
courtship have different mating
behaviour rituals.

Infertile offspring Two species of frogs are

mated in the lab and infertile
produce viable, but sterile,
offspring.

Prevention of Lack of fit between sexual

fertilisation organs. The species will have
spesialised genitalia for mating
and when it is not the correct
size, mating will not be
possible. Insects have variable
shaped genitalia, which
prevents mating
Evolution in present times
 EVOLUTION IN PRESENT TIMES
• Malaria mosquitoes became resistant to
insecticide
• Small finches on Galapagos died out during
drought because plants with small seeds
died, big finches survived because plants
with big seeds still around.
• Tuberculosis bacteria became resistant to TB
drugs because of mutations.
• HIV virus became resistant to ARV
 ACTIVITY 5

EVOLUTION CARDS

30 MINUTES
 QUESTION
The diagram below represents two possible models that show the changes of the beaks in finch species based on
their feeding habits over a period of time.

1. Which model, A or B represents punctuated equilibrium? (1)

2. Explain your answer in QUESTION 1 above. (2)
3. Explain how Darwin would have explained the changes in the beak size over time. (6)
 ANSWER

1. B  (1)
2 New species were formed in a shorter period of time   (2)
3
• There was variation in the species 
• Different food types were available 
• Those birds with beaks not suited  to food types
• died 
• Some birds with beaks suited  to the food types
• survived 
• Birds with a favourable beak shape/size reproduced 
• to pass favourable characteristics to their offspring 
• increasing the proportion  of birds with beaks suited to a
• particular food source (Any 6) (6)
(9)
 QUESTION
The diagram below represents a timeline for the introduction and use of antibiotics and the
development of resistance to these antibiotics by bacteria. The names of the antibiotics are
shown in bold print.

1. How long did it take on average for resistance to penicillin, methicillin and dalfopristin to
develop?
(1)
2. Which antibiotic remained effective against bacteria for the longest period of time. (1)
3. Suggest one possible reason why the antibiotic named in question 2 remained effective for
much longer than the other antibiotics.
(1)
 ANSWER
1. 1 year
2. Vancomycin 
3. - Originally very few of the bacteria had resistance to the antibiotic
- The medication was not prescribed often/not over-prescribed
- People completed their prescription
- It took long to develop resistance
(Mark first ONE only) (Any 1)

4. - There was variation  within the bacteria population

- where some bacteria were less resistant  to the antibiotic
- and other bacteria were more resistant  to the antibiotic
- When using the antibiotic the less resistant bacteria are immediately
killed 
- and the more resistant bacteria survive 
- If the person does not complete the course of antibiotics 
- These resistant bacteria reproduce 
- and the whole population consists of resistant bacteria 
in subsequent generations (Any 6)