Biological

Evolution
Greek
philosophers
such as
Anaximander
proposed that “life
changes over
time”,
2600 years ago!
In many textbooks, there is confusion
about some terminology.

Many elementary and high school

textbooks use the word “Development”
instead of “Evolution”.

These two terms mean

completely different
things.
Development addresses the changes that
occur within an individual’s lifetime.
Evolution addresses the changes
that occur in species over time.
 And… “What is a Species?”

For organisms that reproduce sexually…which is by far most

animals…
Dr. Ernst Mayr proposed the Biological Species Concept:

A species is:

“a group of interbreeding natural populations that

are reproductively isolated from other such groups.”
 What are we speaking about, when we talk about
“Evolution”?
Fact - That evolution occurs…
•That life has changed over time,
•That life continues to change over time, and
•That all life has a common ancestry.

Course / Ancestry - Who gave rise to whom and who is

most closely related to who…are matters of ancestry and
are still greatly explored & debated. “the family tree”

Mechanism - Darwin & Wallace proposed Natural Selection

as the mechanism. Although Natural Selection clearly
occurs, it is still debated in science whether or not there are
other mechanisms of evolution working too.
Jean-Baptiste Lamark-
1809

1. Organisms strive to improve themselves

2. Most used body structures develop
▪ “Use it or lose it”
3. Used modification is inherited by offspring

Ex: giraffe necks & muscle builders

August Weisman- 1883
▪ Uses mice to disprove Lamark
▪ Cuts tails off of mice, didn’t lead to
tailless mice

▪ “cut off the tails of 901 young white mice

in 19 successive generations, yet each
new generation was born with a full-
length tail. The final generation, he
reported, had tails as long as those
originally measured on the first”
 Now on with the story of
Charles Darwin
and his contributions to
science.

-Entered & left medical school

-Entered & left ministry
-Cambridge-meets John Henslow
Studies geology & biology
15-1
At the age of 22, Darwin began a
5 year voyage around the world on HMS Beagle
-5 year, global voyage
-Goal was to make maps of S.
America
Galapagos Islands- Darwin notices
that many groups of animals
represent variations on a theme.
Similar by DESIGN….
Similar because of shared ancestry.
Similar because of shared ancestry.
For more than 2500 years,
people noticed natural groups
Was all of life related…and thus similar
because of shared ancestry?
Into this world Darwin offered
5 theories,
in his major work,
On the Origin of Species…
1) Evolution occurs:
The world is not
constant.
- Instead, it is
changing, and
organisms change
over time.
2) Common Descent:
Every group of organisms is
descended from a common
ancestor.
3. Natural Selection:
Evolution occurs through
1) the production of
genetic variety and
2) the subsequent advantages
that result from certain
combinations.
4. Gradualism: Evolution occurs through gradual
change instead of the sudden appearance of new
forms.

Gradualism as proposed by Punctuated Equilibrium -

Charles Darwin proposed by scientists
working after Darwin
 5) Multiplication of species:
a) Species multiply by splitting into
daughter species or
b) by geographic isolation of a founder
population.

Darwin titled his book “On the Origin of Species…”

because he saw this part of his idea as one of the most
important contributions of his ideas.

HOW SPECIES FORM.

Summarizing Darwin’s main ideas: Natural Selection

1. There is variation within populations

2. Some variations are favorable
3. More offspring are produced than can
survive
4. Favorable variations = survival
5. Change over time leads to population
change
Lamark vs Darwin

▪ Both theorized that:

▪ Life changed gradually over time and
was still changing
▪ that living things change to be better
suited and adapted to their environments
▪ all organisms are related
15-3 Publication

▪ Alfred Russel Wallace-makes similar

voyage, but his notes were destroyed
▪ Wants to publish findings

▪ So…..Darwin publishes 1858

“On the Origin of Species”
EVIDENCE
FOR
EVOLUTION
▪ Multiple Lines of
Evidence Increases
Confidence

▪ http://learn.genetics.
utah.edu/content/var
iation/related/
Anatomical Studies
1. Homologous- modified structure seen
among different groups
▪ Similar in structure & function
▪ Ex: forelimbs-reptiles, mammals, birds
2. Analogous- similar in
function, different
structure
ex: insect vs bird
wing

3. Vestigial- structure
once used but not now
ex: appendix in humans
eyes of sightless
species
Mechanisms of
Evolution
The Galapagos Islands:
Darwin notes:
▪ Island species varied from the
mainland species, and island-to-island
▪ Each island had either long or short
necked tortoises depending on the
island's vegetation
The Galapagos Islands:
▪ Darwin noted:
▪ Finches: Bill shapes are adaptations
to different means of gathering food.
▪ Galapagos finch species varied by
nesting site, beak size, and eating habits
Outine: 4 Mechanisms of
Evolution
1. Natural Selection
2. Mutation
3. Migration/Gene Flow
4. Genetic Drift, Founder effect, and
Bottlenecking
#1 Natural Selection:
Natural Selection –
A gradual, non-random process by
which biological traits become either
more or less common in a population
 Genetic Variation: Genetic
differences within a population.

The genetic variation in this scenario are

the genes that code for the color of the
beetle.
The logic of natural
selection on graphic form
▪ In these next few slides:
▪ Red=before natural selection
▪ Blue=after natural selection
3 Types of Natural Selection
that Act on Variation:
1. Stabilizing – natural selection that
favors average individuals
3 Types of Natural Selection
that Act on Variation:
2. Directional selection – natural
selection that favors an extreme form of
a trait
3 Types of Natural Selection
that Act on Variation:
3. Disruptive selection – individuals w/
either extreme form of a trait
What is the bird going to
eat?
Which butterflies will be
selected against?
Summary:
Deep in the ocean there are many sea
horses being hunted by dangerous
fish with a strong hunger for large sea
horses. Small seahorses are also
being consumed by the thousands.
What would the natural selection
graph look like for this scenario?

a. What size organism is being favored as the

most fit for this enviornment?
b. Draw the natural selection graph for this
scenario?
c. What type of natural selection is this
considered?
 #2 Mutation

▪ Mutation: change in a gene; alteration of

a nucleotide sequence.

EX: A mutation causes two green

beetle parents to have a brown
beetle
 #3 Migration

▪ Migration: Movement of some individuals

to another population
Gene Flow – transfer of
alleles from one
population to another.
This increases genetic
variation within
populations
 #4 Genetic Drift

▪ Genetic Drift: some individuals may by

chance (random) and not because of
“fitness” leave more descendants and
therefore pass on their genes.
Bottle Necking: quick reduction
of a population that can affect gene
frequency.
Founder effect: loss of genetic
variation when a new population is
started.
 Genetic Drift
some individuals may by chance, and not because of “fitness,”
leave more descendants and therefore pass on their genes

FOUNDER EFFECT BOTTLENECK

• a new colony is formed by • having an event that kills
a few members of the off members of a species
original population randomly by chance.
So how do new
species come
about?
 The Evolution of Species:
▪ Species – group of organisms that can
interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
▪ Speciation – evolution of a new species.
*NOTE: Organisms within the same species have reproductive success (ability to
pass genes onto the next generation in a way that they too can pass on those
genes.)

Mule He can not

Donkey Horse
have
offspring
because
+ = his parents
are two
different
species 
EVIDENCE
FOR
EVOLUTION
▪ Multiple Lines of
Evidence Increases
Confidence

▪ http://learn.genetics.
utah.edu/content/var
iation/related/
Anatomical Studies
1. Homologous- modified structure seen
among different groups
▪ Similar in structure & function
▪ Ex: forelimbs-reptiles, mammals, birds
Physical Barriers Cause Speciation:
1. Allopatric Speciation aka Geographic Isolation
– a physical barrier divides a population
Geographic Isolation
▪ Common ancestor of all canines (wolves, dogs, foxes)
believed to have been part of a single population on
Pangaea.
▪ After the continents split, isolated populations adapted in
various ways that coincided with their habitats.
▪ This process known as geographic isolation can lead to
new evolved species (or speciation!)
2. Sympatric Speciation aka Reproductive
Isolation – developing different mating seasons,
mating rituals, and reproductive structures

These Bowerbirds have different mating seasons and

rituals. These 2 factors contribute to Reproductive
Isolation
 Rate of Speciation
▪ Gradualism: – idea that
species originate through a
gradual change of adaptations
▪ Punctuated Equilibrium :
things staying the same for a
period of time then rapidly
changing due to a
catastrophic event
▪ Punctuated Equilibrium
Gradualism
Genetics Determines
Evolution:
▪ Gene Pool – All the alleles in a
populations genes. In other words every
form of a trait
▪ Genetic Equilibrium – allele frequency
remains the same over generations
▪ Populations in genetic equilibrium
are not evolving
▪ Factors that affects genes can affect
equilibrium
1. Mutations [negative, positive]
▪ Negative more than likely causes
death
▪ Positive may be beneficial
Trait Variations –
differences in Organisms
▪ Increases or decreases an organisms
chance of survival
▪ Inherited and controlled by alleles
▪ Allelic frequencies in a populations gene
pool will change due to natural selection
Patterns of Evolution
 Patterns of Evolution

▪ Divergent Evolution: one

species turns into many
new species in a relatively
short time

▪ Ex: Adaptive Radiation:

ancestral species
evolves into different
species due to their
different environments
(niches).
Patterns of Evolution
▪ 2. Convergent Evolution – distant related
organisms evolve and share similar traits due
to similar environments.
Patterns of Evolution

▪ 2. Convergent Evolution – distant related

organisms evolve and share similar traits.