Biology 11 Notes

BIOMOLECULES
CLASS XI
Session Name – Metabolism and Secondary Metabolites

and Chapter Questions
Session Time – 8.15 pm daily
Dr. Manali Shah
1
What we are going to learn
● Metabolism
● Secondary Metabolites
● Chapter Questions
Biology - Metabolism and Secondary Metabolites and Chapter Questions 2

Metabolism
● Sum of the chemical reactions that take place within each cell of a living organism
● Energy for vital processes and for synthesizing new organic material
● Continuous process of breakdown and synthesis of biomolecules through chemical reactions
● Two types of pathways
○ Catabolic pathways – Formation of simpler structure from a complex biomolecules
○ Anabolic pathways – Biosynthetic pathway that involves formation of a more complex
biomolecules from a simpler structure

Biology - Metabolism and Secondary Metabolites and Chapter Questions Source: MH Board Textbook 4
Metabolic Pool
● Reservoir of biomolecules in the cell on which enzymes can act to produce useful products as
per the need of the cell

Secondary Metabolism
● Small organic molecules produced by organisms that are not essential for their growth,
development and reproductions
● Bacteria, fungi and plants produce secondary metabolism
● Terpenes
● Phenolics
● Nitrogen-containing compounds

Uses of Secondary Metabolism
● Drugs developed from secondary metabolites have been used to treat infectious diseases,
cancer, hypertension and inflammation
● Morphine was the first alkaloid isolated from plant Papaver somniferum
● Alkaloids nicotine and cocaine and the terpenes cannabinol
● Improve our food preference
● Tannins are added to wines and chocolate for improving astringency
● Antibiotic properties

Choose correct options
D. Lipids associated with cell membrane
are ------------.
A. Sugar, amino acids and nucleotides unite a. Sphingomyelin b. Isoprenoids
to their respective subunits to form-------- c. Phospholipids d. Cholesterol
a. bioelements b. micromolecules
c. macromolecules d. all of these E. Linoleic, Linolenic and --------------------
acids are referred as essential fatty acids
B. Glycosidic bond is found in ---------------. since they cannot be synthesized by the
a. Disaccharide b. Nucleosides body and hence must be included in daily
c. Polysaccharide d. all of theses diet.
a. Arachidonic b. Oleic
C. Amino acids in a polypeptide are joined c. Steric d. Palmitic
by ---------------bond.
a. Disulphide b. glycosidic F. Haemoglobin is a type of --------------
c. hydrogen bond d. none of these protein, which plays indispensable part in
respiration.
a. simple b. derived
c. conjugated d. complex
Choose correct options
G. When inorganic ions or metallo-organic
molecules bind to apoenzyme, they
together form------
a. isoenzyme b. holoenzyme
c. denatured enzyme d. none of these
H. In enzyme kinetics, Km= Vmax/2. If Km

value is lower, it indicates ----------------
a. Enzyme has less affinity for substrate
b. Enzyme has higher affinity towards
substrate
c. There will be no product formation
d. All active sites of enzyme are saturated.

Solve the following questions
Observe the following figure and name the type of bond shown by arrow in the structure.
Answer the following questions
A. What are building blocks of life?
B. Explain the peptide bond.
C. How many types of polysaccharides you know?
D. Enlist the significance of carbohydrates.
E. What is reducing sugar?
F. What is the basic difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acid?

Answer the following questions
G. Enlist the examples of simple protein and add their significance.
H. Explain the secondary structure of protein with examples.
I. Explain the induced fit model for mode of enzyme action.
J. What is RNA? Enlist types of RNA.
K. Describe the concept of metabolic pool.
L. How do secondary metabolites useful for mankind?

A. Complete the following chart
B. Answer the questions with
reference to the following figure
i. Name the type of bond formed

between two polypeptides.
ii. Which amino acid is involved in
the formation of such bond?
iii. Amongst I, II, III and IV structural
level of protein, which level of
structure includes such bond?
C. Match the following items given in column I and II
Long answer questions
A. What are biomolecules? Explain the building blocks of life.
B. Explain the classes of carbohydrates with examples.
C. Describe the types of lipids and mention their biological significance.
D. Explain the chemical nature, structure and role of phospholipids in biological membrane.
E. Describe classes of proteins with their importance.
F. What are enzymes? How are they classified? Mention example of each class.
G. Explain the properties of enzyme? Describe the models for enzyme actions.
H. Describe the factors affecting enzyme action.
I. What are nucleic acids? Enlist the point of differences among DNA and RNA.
J. What are the types of RNA? Mention the role of each class of RNA.
K. What is metabolism? How metabolic pool is formed in the cell.

If double stranded DNA has 14% C (cytosine) what percent A (adenine), T (thymine) and G
(guanine) would you expect?

Name
i. The term that describes all the chemical reactions taking place in an organism.
ii. The form in which carbohydrate is transported in a plant.
iii. The reagent used for testing for reducing sugar.

Thank You
Over the next three days, we are going to learn about:
● Cell cycle and mitosis
● Meiosis
● Practice test on chapters 5 , 6, 7
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BIOMOLECULES
CLASS XI
Session Name – Cell Cycle and Mitosis
Session Time – 7 PM daily
Dr. Manali Shah
1
● Cell division
● Mitosis
Grade 11-Biology - Cell Cycle and Mitosis 2

Three Types of Cell Division
● Amitosis
○ Simplest form
○ Nucleus elongates a constriction appears
○ Unicellular organisms, abnormal cells, old cells, foetal membrane cells
● Mitosis
○ Two daughter cells
○ Identical to parent cell
● Meiosis
○ Number of chromosomes is half
○ Four haploid daughter cells

Karyogram
● Karyotype
● Representation of condensed chromosomes in pairs
● Analysis indicates whether the individual has a normal set of chromosomes or abnormalities

Karyokinesis
● Prophase
● Metaphase
● Anaphase
● Telophase

Prophase
● Condensation of chromatin material,

migration of centrioles, appearance of
mitotic apparatus, disappearance of
nuclear membrane
● Chromosome with its sister chromatids
● Nucleolus starts to disappear
● Chromosome moves towards the
opposite poles
● Mitotic apparatus
Grade 11 -Biology - Cell Cycle and Mitosis Source: MH Board Textbook 6

Metaphase
● Condensed and short

● Centromere and sister
chromatids are prominent
● Equatorial plane of cell
● Divides horizontally into two,
each with a chromatid
Grade 11-Biology - Cell Cycle and Mitosis Source: MH Board Textbook 7

Anaphase
● Chromatids separate and form

two chromosomes
● Opposite direction by spindle
apparatus
● Opposite poles of the cell

Telophase
● Chromosomes lose their

identity and form
chromatin fibres
● Nucleoli and nuclear
membranes reappear
● Spindle fibers breakdown
● 2 nuclei formed

Cytokinesis
Plant cell Animal cell
Cell plate formation Cleavage furrow formation
Centrifugal Centripetal
Formed by middle lamellae

Importance of Mitosis
● Equational division
● DNA equally distribute
● Growth and development
● Replacement and repair
● Asexual reproduction

Thank You

● Meiosis
● Whittaker classification
● Acellular organisms
Grade 11 -Biology - Cell Cycle and Mitosis 12

CELL DIVISION
CLASS XI
Session Name – Meiosis
Dr. Manali Shah
1
● Cell division
● Meiosis
Grade 11-Biology - Meiosis 2

Meiosis
● Reductional division
● Number of chromosome is reduced to half

Phases of Heterotypic Division
● First meiotic division
● Diploid cell is divided into two haploid cells
● Phases
○ Prophase I
○ Metaphase I
○ Anaphase I
○ Telophase I

Prophase I
● Complicated and longest phase
● Five sub phases
○ Leptotene
○ Zygotene
○ Pachytene
○ Diplotene
○ Diakinesis
Grade 11 -Biology - Meiosis 5

Leptotene
● Chromosomes become long distinct

● Bouquet stage
● Ends of chromosomes converged towards the
side of nucleus where the centrosome lies
● Centriole duplicates into two
● Migrates to opposite poles
Grade 11-Biology – Meiosis Source: MH Board Textbook 6

Zygotene
● Pairing of non-sister chromatids

● Synaptonemal complex
● Synapsis
● Bivalents or tetrads

Pachytene
● Individual chromosome begins

to split
● Two similar chromatids
● Chiasmata
● Exchanged between non-sister
chromatids of homologous
chromosomes resulting in
recombination
Grade 11-Biology– Meiosis Source: MH Board Textbook 8

Diplotene
● Chiasmata visible in diplotene

● Repulsion between synapsed
homologous chromosomes
● Desynapsis
● Synaptonemal complex
disappear

Diakinesis
● Displacement of chiasmata
● Terminalization
● Nucleolus and nuclear
membrane disappear
● Spindle fibres appear

Metaphase I
● Spindle fibres well-developed

● Tetrads orient on equator

Anaphase I
● Homologous chromosomes towards
the opposite poles
● Disjunctions
● Two sister chromatids; do not
separate in meiosis; called
reductional division

Telophase I
● Haploid number of
chromosomes becomes uncoiled
and elongated
● Nuclear membrane and
nucleolus reappear
● Two daughter nuclei formed

Cytokinesis I
● Occurs after karyokinesis

● Two haploid cells are formed
● Daughter cells pass through
interkinesis

Phases of Homotypic Division
● Two haploid cells formed during first meiotic division
● Five phases
○ Prophase II
○ Metaphase II
○ Anaphase II
○ Telophase II
○ Cytokinesis II

Prophase II
● Condensation of chromatin material,

migration of centrioles, appearance of
mitotic apparatus, disappearance of
nuclear membrane
● Chromosome with its sister chromatids
● Nucleolus starts to disappear
● Chromosome moves towards the
opposite poles
● Mitotic apparatus

Metaphase II
● Condensed and short

● Centromere and sister
chromatids are prominent
● Equatorial plane of cell
● Divides horizontally into two,
each with a chromatid

Anaphase II
● Chromatids separate and form

two chromosomes
● Opposite direction by spindle
apparatus
● Opposite poles of the cell

Telophase II
● Chromosomes lose their

identity and form
chromatin fibres
● Nucleoli and nuclear
membranes reappear
● Spindle fibers breakdown
● 2 nuclei formed
Grade 11- Biology – Meiosis Source: MH Board Textbook 19

Cytokinesis II
Plant cell Animal cell
Cell plate formation Cleavage furrow formation
Centrifugal Centripetal
Formed by middle lamellae

Importance of Meiosis
● Produces gametes or spores

● If absent, number of chromosomes would double or quadruple
● Constant number of chromosomes in a given species across generations
● Exchange of genetic material takes place

Thank You
● Whittaker classification
● Cryptogams

SYSTEMATICS OF LIVING ORGANISMS
CLASS XI
Session Name – Whittaker Classification
Dr. Manali Shah
1
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● Kingdom Monera
● Kingdom Protista
● Kingdom Plantae
● Kingdom Fungi
● Kingdom Animalia
Grade 11 -Biology - Whittaker Classification 3

Kingdom Monera
● Microscopic, unicellular, prokaryotic
● Omnipresent
● No well defined nucleus, have nucleoid
● Have plasmid
● Cell wall – peptidoglycan / murein
● No membrane bound organelles
● Nutrition – heterotrophic, parasitic or saprophytic . Very few autotrophic either phototrophic
or chemoautotrophic
● Reproduction – binary fission or budding or sexual reproduction by conjugation method

● Coccus
● Coccobacillus
● Vibrio
● Bacillus
● Spirillum
● Spirochete

Archaebacteria
● Primitive
● Extremophiles – found in extreme environmental condition
● Halophiles – withstand high salinities
● Thermophiles – withstand extreme temperature
● Methanogenic bacteria - found in gut of ruminants , used in biogas

Eubacteria
● True bacteria
● Autotrophs – photosynthetic e.g. Chlorobium (green sulphur bacteria) and Chromatin
● - chemosynthetic bacteria e.g. sulphur bacteria
● Multicellular filaments
● Have mucilaginous sheath
● Photosynthetic pigments like chl –a, chl –b, carotent. Xanthophylls
● Cyanobacteria(Nostoc)

Useful bacteria
Bacteria Use
Lactobacillus Milk curdling
Azotobacter Nitrogen fixation
Streptomyces Antibiotic production
Methanogens Biogas
Pseudomonas sp Clear oil spills
Grade 11 -Biology - Whittaker Classification Source: MH Board Textbook 8

Harmful bacteria
Bacteria Disease
Salmonella typhi Typhoid
Vibrio cholera Cholera
Mycobacterium tuberculosis Tuberculosis
Clostridium tetani Tetanus

Mycoplasma
● Smallest cells
● Lack cell wall
● Pathogenic
● Resistant to common antibiotics because they lack cell wall

Kingdom Protista
● Unicellular eukaryotic

Plant like Protists / Chrysophytes
● Phytoplanktons
● Microscopic
● Photosynthetic
● Major producers in oceans
● Diatoms – body wall like soap box of silica
● Diatomaceous earth
● Use -polishing and filtration

Animal like protista / Protozoans
● No cell wall
● Heterotrophs
Protozoans Feature
Amoeba Pseudopodia , free living
Entamoeba Has pseudopodia, endoparasite
Trypanosoma Fhas flagella, causes sleeping

sickness
Paramoecium Ciliated
Plasmodium Sporozoan, causes malaria

Dinoflagellates
● Aquatic
● Photosynthetic
● Stiff cellulosic plates
● Pair of flagella
● Photosynthetic pigment – yellow, red, blue, brown
● Gonyaulax – makes red tide

Euglenoids
● Lack cell wall

● Tough covering of proteinaceous pellicle
● 2 flagella – one short and one long
● Heterotrophs in absence of light
● Can do photosynthesis in presence of light

Fungi like protista / Myxomycetes
● Saprophytes
● Plasmodium – cell aggregation
● Spores - tough

Kingdom Fungi
● Eukaryotic
● Heterotrophic with extracellular organisms
● Uninucleate or multinucleate
● Mycelium – body of fungi
● Hyphae – thread or fibre like structures
● Coenocytic hyphae – nonseptate multinucleated hyphae
● Cell wall – chitin
● Cell organelles- all except chloroplasts
● Nutrition – saprophytic
● Reproduction – sexual or asexual

● Symbiotic with algae (Lichens) or with plant roots (Mycorrhiza)
● Unicellular fungi – Yeast
● Unicellular multinucleated fungi – Rhizopus, Saccharomyces
● Penicillium – antibiotic production
● Yeast- bakeries and breweries
● Puccinia – fungal disease in plants and animals

Phycomycetes Ascomycetes Basidiomycetes Deuteromycetes
Other name Algal fungi Sac fungi Club fungi Imperfect fungi
Hyphae coenocytic Branched septate Branched septate -
Examples Mucor, Rhizopus ( Neurospora.Asper Mushroom, Alternaria

bread mould), gillus, Penicillium Puccinia(rusts),
Albugo ( parasitic Ustilago(smut)
fungus on
mustard)

Reproduction Phycomycetes Ascomycetes Basidiomycetes Deuteromycetes
Asexual Motile zoospores, Conidia produced Generally, not Conidia

reproduction non-motile exogenously on found
aplanospores conidiophores.
produced Conidia on
endogenously in germination
sporangium produce
mycelium

Reproduction Phycomycetes Ascomycetes Basidiomycetes Deuteromycetes
Sexual Zygospore Ascospores are Plasmogamy Either absent or

reproduction formation occurs produced in sac occurs -> fusion of not known
due to isogamy like asci (sing. two vegetative
(similar gametes ascus) cells -> give rise to
fuse) or endogenously. basidium ->
anisogamy Asci are arranged karyogamy and
(dissimilar in fruiting bodies meiosis occurs in
gametes fuse) or called ascocarps basidium to
oogamy (small produce four
flagellated male basidiospores
gamete and
non-flagellated
large female
gamete fuse)

Characters Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
Cell wall Peptidoglycan Only in some Chitin Cellulose Absent
Nuclear Absent present present present present

membrane

Characters Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
Body Unicellular Unicellular Multicellular / Tissue / organ Tissue / organ
organization loose tissue system
Mode of Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic

nutrition (saprophytic/p photosynthetic (saprophytic/p (photosyntheti (holozoic)
arasitic) , heterotrophic arasitic) c)
Autotrophic
(photoautotro
phic/chemoau
totrophic)
Ecological role Decomposers Producers and Decomposers Producers Consumers
consumers

Thank You
● Cryptogams
● Pteridophyta and Gymnosperms

Systematics of Living Organisms
CLASS XI
Session Name – Acellular Organisms
Dr. Manali Shah
1
● Viruses
● Viroids
● Prions
● Lichens
Grade 11-Biology - Acellular Organisms 2

Viruses
● Acellular, highly infectious, ultramicroscopic
● DNA or RNA; never both
● Covered by a protein coat (capsid); called nucleoprotein
○ Made up of capsomers
● No activity outside the body of host
● Uses the cellular machinery

Plant Virus Animal Virus Bacteriophage
Shape Rod or Polyhedral Tadpole

cylindrical
Genetic RNA DNA or RNA Double stranded
DNA; head
collar, tail
Disease Tobacco Mosaic Influenza
Virus

Viruses Viroids
High molecular weight Low molecular weight
larger Smaller
Infect plants, animals and Infect plants
bacteria
ss-RNA, ds-RNA, or DNA Single stranded circular RNA
Protein coat is present Protein coat is absent
Leaf mosaic disease Tomato chloric dwarf

Lichens
● Symbiotic association between algae and fungi

● Algae – phycobiont
● Fungi - Mycobiont

Types of Lichens
Fungal component Group of fungi
Ascolichens Ascomycetes
Basidiolichens Basidiomycetes
Deuterolichens Deuteromycetes

Types of lichens
Crustose Foliose Fructose
structure Crust like Dry forked leaf Hair like growth
Found in On rocks and barks of On dry trees On branches,

trees cylindrical and
pendulous
eg Graphis Parmelia Usnea

Lichen Use
Parmelia Curry powder
Cladonia , Parmelia fodder
Usnea Antibiotics
Dyes, tanning,soaps, cosmetics
Lasallia Litmus indicator

A. Which of the following shows single
stranded RNA and lacks protein coat?
a. Bacteriophage b. Plant virus
c. Viroid d. Animal virus
B. Causative agent of red tide is

_____________.
a. Dinoflagellate b. Euglenoid
c. Chrysophyte d. Lichen
Grade 11-Biology - Acellular Organisms Source: MH Board Textbook 10

● C. Select odd one out for Heterotrophic
bacteria.
a. Nitrogen fixing bacteria
b. Lactobacilli
c. Methanogens
d. Antibiotic production
● Paramoecium : Ciliated Protist

Plasmodium : ____________
a. Amoeboid protozoan b. Ciliophora
c. Flagellate protozoan d. Sporozoan
Match the following
Kingdom Examples
Monera Lichen
Protista Cyanobacteria
Plantae Rhizopus
Fungi Spirogyra

● The connecting link between Meiosis-I
and Meiosis-II is ...............
a. interphase-I b. interphase-II
c. interkinesis d. anaphase-I
B. Synapsis is pairing of .............
a. any two chromosomes
b. non-homologous chromosomes
c. sister chromatids
d. homologous chromosomes

● Spindle apparatus is formed during which
stage of mitosis?
a. Prophase. b. Metaphase.
c. Anaphase. d. Telophase.
D. Chromosome number of a cell is almost
doubled up during ...............
a. G
1-phase b. S-phase
c. G
2-phase d. G0-phase

● How many meiotic divisions are
necessary for formation of 80 sperms?
a. 80 b. 40 c. 20 d. 10
F. How many chromatids are present in
anaphase-I of meiosis-I of a diploid cell
having 20 chromosomes?
a. 4 b. 6 c. 20 d. 40

● Histone proteins are synthesized during
......
a. G
1 phase b. S-phase
c. G
2 phase d. Interphase

● While observing a slide, student observed many cells with nuclei. But some of the
nuclei were bigger as compared to others but their nuclear membrane was not so
clear. Teacher inferred it as one of the phase in the cell division. Which phase
may be inferred by teacher?

● Students prepared a slide of onion root tip. There were many cells seen under
microscope. There was a cell with two groups of chromosomes at opposite ends
of the cell. This cell is in which phase of mitosis?




Phases Events
Leptotene Crossing over
Zygotene Desynapsis
Pachytene Synapsis
Diplotene Bouquet stage

● If an onion has 16 chromosomes in its leaf cell, how many chromosomes will be there
in its root cell and pollen grain.

Thank You
● Cryptogams
● Competition

KINGDOM PLANTAE
CLASS XI
Session Name – Cryptogams
Dr. Manali Shah
1
● Thallophyta
● Bryophyta
Grade 11 -Biology - Cryptogams 2

Kingdom Plantae
● Multicellular
● Eukaryotic
● Autotrophic
● Have cell wall of cellulose
● Have chloroplasts

Cryptogamae Phanerogamae
Sex organs concealed Visible
seed Not produced Produced
Ovule absent Present
flowers never May or may not
types Thallophyta, Bryophyta, Gymnosperms and

Pteridophyta Angiosperms

Thallophyta / Algae
● Aquatic
● Thalloid – undifferentiated into root, stem and leaves
● Cell wall – polysaccharides / cellulose
● Reserve food material - starch
● Photosynthetic pigments - Chl- a, chl –b, chl – c, chl – d, carotene, xanthophyll
● Reproduction – vegetative, asexual, sexual
● Life cycle – alternation of generation , dominant haploid and dependent reduced diploid

Algae importance
Chlorella Unicellular. Non-motile
Chlamydomonas Unicellular, Motile
Spirogyra Multicellular unbranched
Chara, Spirogyra Multicellular, branched

Chlorophyceae Phaeophyceae Rhodophyceae
colour Red algae Brown algae Brown algae
Found in fresh water marine Both,brackish
Plant body Unicellular, colonial, Branched filamentous (has Thalloid

filamentous holdfast and stipe, frond)
Cell wall cellulose Cellulose, algin, fucan Cellulose, pectin
Reserve food Starch Mannitol, laminarin Floridean starch
Pigments Chlorophyll- a and b Chl-a, chl-c, fucoxanthin Chl-a, chl-d, phycoerythrin
eg Spirogyra, Chara, Chlorella, Ectocarpus, Fucus, Laminaria, Porphyra, Gracillia,

Chlamydomonas, Sargassum

Type Importance
Chlorophyceae Rich in food, as protein source by space travellers
Phaecophyceae As food or production of hydrocolloids
Rhodophyceae To make agar-agar

Economic Importance of Algae
Chlorella, Sargassum, Porphyra Food
Alginic acid Kelps
Hydrocolloids Brown algae
Agar Gracillaria
Fodder Brown algae like seaweeds

Role of Algae in Environment
● Photosynthetic – So algae increase level of dissolved oxygen in aquatic environment

● Primary producers for aquatic environment

Bryophyta
● Amphibians of plant kingdom – they survive on land but need water for fertilization and
completion of their life cycle
● Show alternation of generations – gametophyte and saprophyte
● Plant body –gametophyte - thalloid or leafy
● sporophyte – capsule which producing spores
● Rhizoids – root like structure which absorbs water and minerals
○ Fixation of thallus on the substratum

Liverworts / hepaticae
● Primitive
● Gametophyte – thallus (flat body)
● Thallus – dorsoventrally flattened , green prostrate, unicellular rhizoids
○ For example, Riccia, Marchantia
● Hornworts – flattened thalluses which produce horned structures as sporophytes eg.,
Anthoceros

Mosses / Musci
● Advanced
● Posses erect plant body
● Gametophytic phase – 2 stages
● Protonema - prostrate , green, branched, filamentous, has buds
● Leafy stage – erect slender stem (Cauloid) bearing spiral leaf like (Phylloid)
○ Fixed in soil with multicellular branched rhizoids
○ It bears sex organs
● Vegetative reproduction – fragmentation and budding
● Eg – Funaria,

Economic Importance
● Food for herbivorous mammals, birds

● Sphagnum – provides peat as fuel
● Mosses - packaging transport material for transport of living materials because they have
significant water holding capacity
● Mosses and lichens – help in weathering of rocks
● Prevent soil erosion and act as soil binders

Thallophyta Bryophyta
aquatic Terrestrial and need water for
fertilization
Thallus – unicellular/multicellular Multicellular
Motile and nonmotile gametes Non Motile gametes except male
gametes
Rhizoids absent Rhizoids present

Thank You
● Cryptogams
● Competition

KINGDOM PLANTAE
CLASS XI
Session Name – Pteridophyta and Gymnosperms
Dr. Manali Shah
1
● Pteridophyta
● Gymnospermae
Grade 11-Biology – Pteridophyta and Gymnosperms 2

Pteridophyta
● First vascular and true land plants
● Habitat –
in moist and shady places Ferns

Aquatic Azolla
Xerophytic Equisetum
Epiphytic Lycopodium

● Plant body – root, stem and leaves
● Primary root- short lived, replaced by adventitious roots
● Stem –aerial or underground
● Leaves
Pinnate
Scaly Equisetum
Simple and sessile Lycopodium
Microphylls Selaginella
Macrophylls
Pinnately compound Ferns

● Vascular tissue – imperfect
● Xylem has only tracheids and phloem consists of only sieve cells
● Secondary growth – absent (no cambium)
● Alternation of generations - heteromorphic alternation–
o sporophyte – diploid, dominant, autotrophic and independent
o gametophyte – haploid, multicellular, autotrophic, short lived

Phanerogams
● Seed bearing plants

Gymnosperms
● Evergreen, woody
● Imperfect vascular tissues- xylem with tracheids and phloem with sieve cells
● No flower
● Naked seeds
● Body – sporophyte , with root, stem and leaves
● Root- tap root system
● Stem – aerial , erect, solid, unbranched, cylindrical
● Secondary growth present (due to cambium)

● Leaves - dimorphic
o Foliage leaves – green, simple needle like or pinnately compound
o Scale leaves – small , membranous, brown
● Spores – produced by Microsporophyll (male) and megasporophyll(female)
● Symbiotic association
o between Cycas and blue green algae
o between Pinus and endophytic fungi called mycorrhizae
● Single fertilization

Example Importance
Cycas Ornamental plant
Pinus Source of pine wood, pine oil, resin
Zamia pygmaea Smallest gymnosperm
Sequoia sempervirens Coast redwood of California
Ginkgo biloba Living fossil

Angiosperms
● Highly evolved
● Flower present
● Seeds enclosed in fruit
● Flower has essential and accessory whorls
● Heterosporous
o Microspores / pollen - formed in anther
o Megaspores / ovules – formed in ovary

● Double fertilization
● Alternation of generation – heteromorphic
● Sporophyte – diploid, dominant, autotrophic , independent
● Gametophyte – haploid, reduced and concealed

Point Dicotyledonae Monocotyledonae
cotyledons two One
Roots tap Adventitious
Venation Reticulate Parallel
Flower symmetry Tetramerous/ Pentamerous Trimerous
Vascular bundles Conjoint, collateral, open Conjoint, collateral, closed
Cambium present Absent
Secondary growth present absent

Alternation of Generation
Grade 11-Biology – Pteridophyta and Gymnosperms Source: MH Board Textbook 13

Grade 11-Biology – Pteridophyta and Gymnosperms Source: MH Board Textbook 14
Points Bryophyta Pteridophyta
vessels Non-vascular Vascular
Plant body thalloid Root, stem, leaves present
Dominant phase gametophyte Sporophyte

Thank You
● Competition
● Kingdom Animalia – first 5 phyla
● Kingdom Animalia – next 5 phyla

KINGDOM ANIMALIA
CLASS XI
Session Name – First 4 Phyla
Session Time – 7.30 PM daily
Dr. Manali Shah
1
● Criteria for classification

● Phylum porifera
● Phylum Cnidaria
● Phylum Ctenophora
● Phylum Aschelminthes
Grade 11 – Biology – First 4 phyla 2

Kingdom Animalia
● Multicellular and Eukaryotic

● Habitat – aquatic, amphibian, terrestrial, aerial
● No cell wall, no plastids, no central vacuole
● Centrosome and centrioles present
● Locomotory organs present except in sponges
● Reproduction – mainly sexually but can be asexually
● Nutrition – heterotrophic , mainly holozoic
● Growth is determinate

Criteria used for classification
● Grades of organization
● Animal body plan
● Body symmetry
● Body cavity
● Germ layers
● Segmentation

Cellular organization
● Cellular
● Cell- tissue
● Tissue-organ

Animal Body plan
Type Description Example

Cell aggregate plan Minimal differentiation and Porifera
division of labor
Bind sac Single opening for ingestion Cnidaria
and egestion
Tube within tube 2 separate openings, one Annelida onwards
mouth and other anus

Germ layers
Diploblastic Cnidaria, Ctenophora

Triploblastic Platyhelminthes onwards

Body cavity
● Acoelomates
● Pseudocoelomates
● Coelomates

Body symmetry
Asymmetrical Porifera
Radial symmetry Cnidaria , Echinodermata
Bilateral symmetry All others

Points Non-chordates Chordates
Notochord absent Present
Neural tube Solid and ventral Has canal and dorsal
Heart Dorsal Ventral
Pharyngeal gills Absent present

Phylum Porifera
● Sponges
● Habitat - Aquatic , mostly marine, some fresh water
● Forms – sedentary
● Body plan – cell aggregate
● Symmetry – asymmetrical
● Cavity – spongocoel

● Body surface – minute pores ostia( water enters), one major opening called osculum ( water
exits)
● Circulation – water canal system
● Endoskeleton – made up of calcareous or siliceous spicules or proteinaceous spongin fibres
● Speciality – has flagellated choanocytes/ collar cells, flagella creates water current.
● Reproduction – asexual – fragmentation and gemmule formation
● - sexual - formation of gametes
● Fertilization – Internal
● Indirect larval stage
● Eg – Sycha, Euspongia, Euplectella
Phylum - Cnidaria
● Habitat - Aquatic , mostly marine, some fresh water
● Forms – sessile or free swimming
● Body plan – blind sac
● Symmetry – radial symmetry
● Cavity – coelenteron , helps for digestion and circulation
● Body form – cylindrical polyp and umbrella shaped medusa

● Digestion – internal and external
● Speciality – has tentacles, which bear cnidoblasts or stinging cells for anchorage, offence and
defence
● Reproduction – asexual – fragmentation and budding
● Metagenesis - alternation of generation between polypoid and medusoid generation
● Polyps reproduce asexually, medusa reproduces sexually
● Eg – Hydra , Aurelia, Obelia , Sea anemone

Phylum Ctenophora
● Comb jellies or sea walnuts
● Habitat - Aquatic marine
● Forms –free swimming
● Organization – tissue level
● Symmetry – radial symmetry
● Germ cells - diploblastic

● Digestion – intracellular
● Speciality – bioluminescence
● Reproduction – sexual with indirect development
● Have colloblasts to capture prey
● Eg – Ctenoplana, Pleurobrachia

Phylum Platyhelminthes
● Flatworms
● Habitat –endoparasite mostly, some free living
● Organization - organ system
● Symmetry – bilateral symmetry
● Germ cells – triploblastic
● Cavity - acoelomate

● Digestion absent
● Speciality have suckers or hooks for attachment of to the body of host
● Exoskeleton – thick cuticle for endoparasites, cilia for free living
● Excretion / osmoregulation – flame cells/ protonephridia
● Reproduction – hermaphrodites, self fertilization
● Have high power of regeneration and polyembryony
● Eg Planaria m Taenia, liver fluke

Thank You
● Kingdom Animalia – first 4 phyla
● Kingdom Animalia – next 6 phyla
● Phylum Chordata

KINGDOM ANIMALIA
CLASS XI
Session Name – Last 2 Phyla, Urochordata and Cephalochordata
Dr. Manali Shah
1
● Phylum Echinodermata
● Phylum Hemichordata
Grade 11 – Biology – Last 4 Phyla, Urochordata and Cephalochordata 2

Phylum Echinodermata
● Habitat – marine
● Forms – solitary, free living or sedentary , benthic or gregarious
● Body plan – tube within tube , soft bodied
● Symmetry – radial symmetry with pentamerous symmetry
● Shape – spherical, elongated or star-shaped

● Body parts - lacks definite division, has 2 sides oral and aboral, mouth is ventral and anus
aboral
● Speciality –Water vascular system - have Madreporite is opening of water vascular system
through which water enters
● Water is needed for locomotion, food capturing, respiration
● Digestion - complete system
● Endoskeleton – calcareous ossicles
● Exoskeleton – spines on the body
● Excretion / osmoregulation absent

● Nervous system - nerve ring around mouth and radial nerves in arms
● Circulation – absent
● Respiration- peristomial gills, respiratory tree

● Reproduction – separate sexes
● Fertilization – external
● Development – indirect through larval stages
● High power of regeneration
● For example, Sea lily, Sea urchin, Star fish

Phylum Hemichordata
● Habitat – marine , live in burrows at the bottom of sea

● Forms – free living ,( sedentary – Rhabdopleura)
● Body plan – soft, unsegmented, vermiform
● Body parts- proboscis , collar trunk
● Symmetry – bilateral symmetry

● Speciality –connecting link between non-chordates and chordates
● Digestion - U shaped, complete , buccal cavity has buccal diverticulum
● Nervous system - in epidermis on both sides
● Circulation – open
● Respiration- pharyngeal gills with gill slits

● Reproduction – separate sexes
● Fertilization – external
● Development – indirect through larval stages
● For example, Balanoglossus

Phylum Chordata
● Notochord present in atleast in embryonic stage
● Nerve cord –single, dorsal, non-ganglionated
● Ventral heart
● Pharyngeal gill slits
● Post-anal tail

Sub-phylum Urochordata
● Habitat – marine
● Body covering – tunic made up of tunicine
● Notochord- present in tail in larval state, which is lost during metamorphosis
● Respiration - pharyngeal gill slits
● Circulation – closed
● Reproduction – indirect
● For example, Herdmania, Doliolum

Sub-phylum Cephalochordata
● Lancelets
● Small fish like animals , maximum 5 cm size
● Notochord – in entire body , persists throughout life
● Post anal tail
● Circulatory system – close, blood laks pigment
● For example, Branchiostoma

Sub-phylum - Vertebrata
● The notochord is replaced by cartilaginous or bony vertebral column
● Divided into –
○ Agnatha – lacks jaws
■ has only one class Cyclostomata
○ Gnathostomata – has jaw
■ divided into 2 superclasses – Pisces and Tetrapoda

Class Cyclostomata
● Jawless eel –like organisms
● Skin – devoid of scales, soft, smooth, contains unicellular mucus glands
● Median fin present, but paired fins absent
● Ectoparasites on fishes
● Sucking circular mouth, no jaws
● Cranium and vertebral column – made up of cartilage

Class Cyclostomata
● Lacks stomach in digestive system
● Respiration - 6 – 15 gill slits
● Heart – 2 chambered, 1 auricle and 1 ventricle
● Single large gonad, no gonoduct
● External fertilization
● Petromyzon (Lamprey), Myxine(Hagfish)

Thank You
● Phylum Chordata
● Chapter revision and questions
● Epithelial tissue

KINGDOM ANIMALIA
CLASS XI
Session Name – Phylum Chordata
Dr. Manali Shah
1
● Phylum Chordata
Grade 11 – Biology – Phylum Chordata 2

Chondrichthyes (Cartilaginous fishes) Osteichthyes (Bony fishes)
Endoskeleton is made of cartilage Made of bones
Exoskeleton – minute scales called placoid scales Large, flat, overlapping cycloid or ctenoid scales
Mouth is ventral Terminal
5-7 pairs of gill slits w/o operculum 4 pairs covered by operculum
Caudal fin is heterocercal Homocercal
Males have claspers Lack claspers
Air bladder is absent Present to maintain buoyancy; no need to constantly swim
Fertilization is internal External
Viviparous animals Oviparous
Scoliodon (dogfish), pristis (sawfish) Exocoetus (flying fish), hippocampus (sea horse)

Tetrapods
● Group of vertebrates
● Includes amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals
● Two pairs of appendages

Amphibians
● Live on land as well as water (fresh water only)

● Poikilothermic
● Neck and tail absent
● Two pairs of limbs arise from the pectoral and pelvic girdles
● Skin is moist and glandular with mucous glands
● Exoskeleton absent
● Eyelids are present
● Tympanum represents ear

Amphibians
● Excretory products, digestive products and gametes released through common chamber
cloaca
● Closed circulatory system
● Heart three chambered and ventral
● RBCs are biconvex and nucleated
● Oviparous
● Exhibit metamorphosis
● Rana (frog), bufo (toad), Salamandra (salamander)
● Ichthyophis is limbless

Reptilia
● Habitat
○ Crawling animals
○ First true terrestrial vertebrates
● Locomotion
○ Limbs are pentadactyl with clawed digits
○ Snakes are limbless
● Poikilotherms
● Exoskeleton
○ Dry, non-glandular
○ Spidermal scales or scutes
○ Lizards and snakes shed

● Tympanum is present
● Circulatory system
○ Two complete auricles
○ Ventricles are incompletely partitioned
○ Heart not perfectly four chambered, except crocodile
● Nervous system
○ Olfactory lobes are cerebellum better developed
● Reproduction
○ Fertilization is internal
○ Oviparous, except viper which is viviparous
● Naja naja (cobra), testudo (tortoise)

Aves
● Habitat
○ aerial
● Locomotion
○ Forelimbs - Modified to wings for flying
○ Hindlimbs – for walking, running,
○ In aquatic birds – webbed toes, helps in swimming eg, Duck
● Homeotherms
● Exoskeleton- feathers, scale are present on hind limbs
● Skin is dry, scaly and non glandular

● Body shape – streamlined
● Endoskeleton - hollow bones
● Digestion – jaws modified to beaks. Teeth absent . They have crop and gizzard .
● Circulatory system – double circulation, red due to biconvex and nucleated RBCs.
● Respiratory system – lungs , presence of air cavities
● Nervous system – cerebellum fro equilibrium
● Reproduction – separate sexes, female has only left ovary and left oviduct
● Oviparous
● Well developed parental care
● Eg – Pigeon, Crow

Mammals
● Habitat
○ omnipresent
● Locomotion - 2 pairs of limbs
● Homeotherms
● Exoskeleton- hair, fur, nails, hooves ,
● Skin is sweta , sebaceous glands
● Mouth - heterodont

● Circulation – ventral heart, 4 chambered, enucleated RBC(except camel)
● Respiration – lungs
● Nervous system – corpus callosum
● Reproduction –
● Oviparous -= duck billed platypus
● Marsupials – has pouches fro development of immature young ones
● Placental and viviparous
● Eg – human , kangaroo, etx

Thank You
● Chapter revision and questions
● Quiz and Competition

ANIMAL TISSUE
CLASS XI
Session Name – Epithelial Tissue
Dr. Manali Shah
1
● Cell Junctions
Grade 11 – Biology – Epithelial Tissue 2

Epithelial Tissue
● Covering on inner and outer surface
● Intercellular matrix
● Cells rest on non-cellular basement membrane
● Polygonal, cuboidal, or columnar in shape
● Single nucleus is present
● Tissue is avascular
● Good regeneration capacity
● Function
○ Protection
○ Helps in absorption, transport, filtration and secretion

Types of Epithelial Tissue
● Simple epithelium
○ Single layer of cells
● Compound epithelium
○ Composed of several layers

Squamous epithelial
● Flat, thin, polygonal with serrated margin.

● Fit together like tiles of footpath. Called
pavement epithelium.
● Prominent spherical or oval nucleus is
present at the centre of the cell.
● In blood vessels, alveoli, coelom, etc.
● Functions
○ Protection, absorption, transport,
filtration, secretion
Grade 11 – Biology – Epithelial Tissue Source: MH Board Textbook 5

Cuboidal epithelial
● In the lining of pancreatic ducts,

salivary duct, proximal and distal
convoluted tubules of nephron
● Cuboidal
● Centrally placed, spherical nucleus
● Functions
○ Absorption and secretion

Columnar epithelium
● In inner lining of intestine,

gallbladder, gastric glands, intestinal
glands
● Tall, pillar like
● Nucleus is oval or elliptical in the
lower half
● Large number of microvilli
● Function
○ Secretion and absorption

Ciliated epithelium
● In inner lining of buccal cavity of frog, nasal cavity,

trachea, oviduct of vertebrates
● Cuboidal or columnar
● Broad while narrow ends rest on a basement membrane
● Hair-like cilia
● Nucleus is oval and at basal end of the cell
● Function
○ Prevention of entry of foreign particles in the
trachea, pushing of the ovum through the oviduct

Glandular epithelium
● Columnar, cuboidal, pyramidal
● Secretory granules
● Glands
● Unicellular (goblet cells of intestine), multicellular
(salivary gland)
● Exocrine gland
● Endocrine gland
● Function
○ Secrets mucus, lubricate inner surface of
respiratory and digestive tracts
○ Secrete enzymes and hormones
Sensory epithelium
● Modified form of columnar cells and

elongated neurosensory cells
● Sensory hair
● In nose (olfactory), ear (auditory hair
cells), eye (photoreceptors)
● Function
○ Perceives external as well as
internal stimuli

Germinal epithelial
● Epithelium divide meiotically to produce haploid gametes

● Lining of seminiferous tubules, inner lining of ovary

Compound Epithelium
● Many layers of cells
● Stratified
○ Nucleus in stratum germinativum (basal layer)
○ Cells at free surface become flat and lack nucleus called stratum corneum
○ Function
○ Protection – epidermis of skin, oesophagus, cornea
● Transitional
○ Structure same as stratified
○ Cells undergo change in shape and structure depending on degree of stretch
○ Function
○ Distension of order – urinary bladder

Cell Junctions
● The epithelial cells are connected to each other laterally as well as to the basement
membrane by junctional complexes called cell junctions
● Types
○ Gap Junctions (GJs)
○ Adherens Junctions (AJs)
○ Desmosomes (Ds)
○ Hemidesmosomes (HDs)
○ Tight Junctions (TJs)

● Gap Junctions
○ Intercellular connections that allow the passage of ions and small molecules between
cells as well as exchange of chemical messages between cells
● Adherens Junctions
○ Involved in various signalling pathways and transcriptional regulations
● Desmosomes
○ Provide mechanical strength to epithelial tissue, cardiac muscles and meninges

● Hemidesmosomes
○ Allow the cells to strongly adhere to the underlying basement membrane. Help
maintain tissue homeostasis by signaling
● Tight Junctions
○ Maintain cell polarity, prevent lateral diffusion of proteins and ions

Thank You
● Quiz and Competition
● Connective Tissue and Supporting Connective tissue
● Muscular tissue

ANIMAL TISSUE
CLASS XI
Session Name – Connective Tissue and Supporting Connective Tissue
Dr. Manali Shah
1
● Connective tissue
● Supporting connective tissue
Grade 11 – Biology – Connective Tissue and Supporting Connective Tissue 2

Areolar Connective Tissue
Grade 11 – Biology – Connective Tissue and Supporting Connective Tissue Source: MH Board Textbook 3
● White fibres
● Yellow fibres
● Fibroblast
● Mast cells
● Macrophages
● Adipocytes (fat cells)
● Functions
○ Packing material
○ Helps in healing process
○ Connects different organs and layers of tissues

Adipose Tissue
● With areolar
● Beneath the skin, around the kidneys, between internal organs
● Structure
● Large number of adipocytes
● Rounded or polygonal
● Fats in form of droplets in adipocytes, so nucleus shifts towards periphery
● Matrix less, fibres and blood vessels few
○ White adipose tissue
○ Brown adipose tissue
● Good insulator, shock absorber, source of energy

● Two types of dense connective tissue
○ Dense regular connective tissue
○ Dense irregular connective tissue
● Tendons

Ligaments
Supportive Connective Tissue
● Presence of hard matrix

○ Cartilage
○ Bone

● Calcified cartilage
Cartilage Bone
Matrix covered by perichondrium Surrounded by periosteum
Flexible Rigid
Haversian absent Present in mammalian bones
Matrix made up of chondrin Made up of ossein

Bone Structure
Thank You
● Muscular tissue
● Nervous tissue
● Excretion and excretory products

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BIOMOLECULES

Session Name – Metabolism and Secondary Metabolites

Session Time – 8.15 pm daily

Dr. Manali Shah

Biology - Metabolism and Secondary Metabolites and Chapter Questions 2

Biology - Metabolism and Secondary Metabolites and Chapter Questions 3

Biology - Metabolism and Secondary Metabolites and Chapter Questions 5

Biology - Metabolism and Secondary Metabolites and Chapter Questions 6

Biology - Metabolism and Secondary Metabolites and Chapter Questions 7

H. In enzyme kinetics, Km= Vmax/2. If Km

Biology - Metabolism and Secondary Metabolites and Chapter Questions 9

Biology - Metabolism and Secondary Metabolites and Chapter Questions 11

Biology - Metabolism and Secondary Metabolites and Chapter Questions 12

i. Name the type of bond formed

Biology - Metabolism and Secondary Metabolites and Chapter Questions 16

Biology - Metabolism and Secondary Metabolites and Chapter Questions 17

Biology - Metabolism and Secondary Metabolites and Chapter Questions 18

Biology - Metabolism and Secondary Metabolites and Chapter Questions 19

Session Name – Cell Cycle and Mitosis

Session Time – 7 PM daily

Dr. Manali Shah

Grade 11-Biology - Cell Cycle and Mitosis 2

Grade 11-Biology - Cell Cycle and Mitosis 3

Grade 11-Biology - Cell Cycle and Mitosis 4

Grade 11-Biology - Cell Cycle and Mitosis 5

● Condensation of chromatin material,

Grade 11 -Biology - Cell Cycle and Mitosis Source: MH Board Textbook 6

● Condensed and short

Grade 11-Biology - Cell Cycle and Mitosis Source: MH Board Textbook 7

● Chromatids separate and form

Grade 11-Biology - Cell Cycle and Mitosis Source: MH Board Textbook 8

● Chromosomes lose their

Grade 11-Biology - Cell Cycle and Mitosis Source: MH Board Textbook 9

Plant cell Animal cell

Cell plate formation Cleavage furrow formation

Formed by middle lamellae

Grade 11-Biology - Cell Cycle and Mitosis 10

Grade 11-Biology - Cell Cycle and Mitosis 11

Over the next three days, we are going to learn about:

Grade 11 -Biology - Cell Cycle and Mitosis 12

Session Name – Meiosis

Session Time – 7 PM daily

Dr. Manali Shah

Grade 11-Biology - Meiosis 2

Grade 11-Biology - Meiosis 3

Grade 11-Biology - Meiosis 4

Grade 11 -Biology - Meiosis 5

● Chromosomes become long distinct

Grade 11-Biology – Meiosis Source: MH Board Textbook 6

● Pairing of non-sister chromatids

Grade 11-Biology – Meiosis Source: MH Board Textbook 7

● Individual chromosome begins

Grade 11-Biology– Meiosis Source: MH Board Textbook 8

● Chiasmata visible in diplotene

Grade 11-Biology – Meiosis Source: MH Board Textbook 9

Grade 11-Biology – Meiosis Source: MH Board Textbook 10

● Spindle fibres well-developed

Grade 11-Biology – Meiosis Source: MH Board Textbook 11

Grade 11-Biology – Meiosis Source: MH Board Textbook 12

Grade 11-Biology - Meiosis 13

● Occurs after karyokinesis

Grade 11-Biology – Meiosis Source: MH Board Textbook 14

Grade 11-Biology - Meiosis 15

● Condensation of chromatin material,