However, the roughly contemporary appearance of domesticates around the world

and the several millennia it took for hunting and gathering to give way to farming in most areas

make this scenario improbable( ), and several other hypotheses have been proposed.

D be popular A not an accurate one

A family of four or five could probably have collected a year’s supply of grain with only a few

weeks’ labor, and this would seem to suggest that the people who lived in the natural habitat of

wheat and barley had perhaps the least incentive to domesticate and farm it because they could

collect more than enough from wild stands. A

D A have

had to work???

? ?

Population growth has also been an important element in most accounts of agricultural

origins. Mark Cohen, for example, argues that “the nearly simultaneous adoption of agricultural

economies throughout the world could only be accounted for by assuming that hunting and

gathering populations had saturated the world approximately 10,000 years ago and had exhausted

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all possible (or palatable) strategies for increasing their food supply within the constraints of the

hunting-gathering life-style. The only possible reaction to further growth in population,

worldwide, was to begin artificial augmentation of the food supply.”

A B

10000 C same for D

A major problem in assessing any hypothesis based on ancient population densities is

the difficulty of estimating changes in these densities with any precision using archaeological

data.One has to locate all the relevant archaeological sites (of which many are certain to have been

destroyed or not found), then estimate the numbers of people at each site, and then develop a

chronology for these sites that is fine enough to reconstruct changes over fairly short periods of

time.Consequently, most population estimates based on archaeological data must be considered

extremely speculatively, and the relationship between agriculture and demographic change remains

complex and not well understood. 5

6 ......

In England, landlords aggressively pursued the possibilities for profit resulting from the

inflation of farm prices. This pursuit required far-reaching changes in ancient manorial agriculture,

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changes that are called enclosure. The open-field system was geared to providing subsistence for

the local village and, as such, prevented large-scale farming for a distant market. In the open-field

system, the commons could not be diverted to the production of crops for sale. Moreover, the

division of the arable land into strips reserved for each peasant made it difficult to engage in

profitable commercial agriculture. ......A

D C C B

hi?

English landlords in the sixteenth century launched a two-pronged attack against the open-

field system in an effort to transform their holdings into market-oriented, commercial ventures. First,

they denied their tenant peasantry the use of the commons, depriving poor tenants of critically

needed produce; then they changed the conditions of tenure from copyhold to leasehold. Whereas

copyhold was heritable and fixed, leasehold was not. When a lease came up for renewal, the

landlord could raise the rent beyond the tenant’s capacity to pay. Both acts of the landlord forced

peasants off the manor or into the landlord’s employ as farm laborers. With tenants gone, fields

could be incorporated into larger, more productive units. Landlords could hire labor at bargain

prices because of the swelling population and the large supply of peasants forced off the land by

enclosure. Subsistence farming gave way to commercial agriculture: the growing of a surplus for

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the marketplace. But rural poverty increased because of the mass eviction of tenant farmers.

56 6 Anyway

The key feature in the origin of the reptiles was the amniote egg, which is also employed by

modern reptiles and birds.This egg provides the embryo with a nutritious yolk and two sacs: one

(the amnion) to contain the embryo and the other to collect waste products.A durable outer shell

protects the developing embryo. The amniote egg allowed vertebrates for the first time to live

and reproduce away from bodies of water. The amniote egg apparently developed in

Carboniferous time, when reptiles evolved.emmmm seed plants but

anyway reptiles A C D (

4 ?

a ( )

b Eryops

Despite the origin of reptiles in Late Carboniferous time, amphibians continued to prosper into

Early Permian time. During the Permian Period (290 – 251 million years ago), however, reptiles

diversified and apparently began to replace amphibians in various ecologic roles, probably because

the reptiles had more advanced jaws and teeth as well as greater speed and agility. Permian rocks

of Texas have yielded large faunas of amphibians and reptiles that reveal this pattern. By Early

Permian time, the pelycosaurs, fin-backed reptiles and their relatives, had become the top

carnivores of widespread ecosystems. Their occurrence in the geological record suggests that

many lived in swamps and that some may have been semiaquatic. Dimetrodon, one such carnivore,

was about the size of a jaguar and had sharp, serrated teeth. Whereas even the Permian

carnivorous amphibians, such as the alligator-like Eryops, were forced to swallow prey whole,

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Dimetrodon could tear large animals to pieces.

(2.9 - 2.51 )

Eryops

Dimetrodon

A B

B C A

C )D

cold-blooded

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