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Distribution of natural radionuclides and radiation level measurements in

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Distribution of natural radionuclides and
radiation level measurements in Karnataka
State, India: an overview

D. R. Rangaswamy & J. Sannappa

Journal of Radioanalytical and

Nuclear Chemistry
An International Journal Dealing with
All Aspects and Applications of Nuclear
Chemistry

ISSN 0236-5731

J Radioanal Nucl Chem

DOI 10.1007/s10967-016-4887-1

1 23
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1 23
 Author's personal copy
J Radioanal Nucl Chem
DOI 10.1007/s10967-016-4887-1
Distribution of natural radionuclides and radiation level
measurements in Karnataka State, India: an overview
D. R. Rangaswamy1 • J. Sannappa1
Received: 21 December 2015
 Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, Hungary 2016
Abstract The exposure of human beings to ionizing
radiation from natural sources is a continuing and ines-
capable feature of life on earth. A large number of natural
radioactivity measurements were conducted throughout
world, in order to know their distribution and to assess their
radiological health hazards. In this regard, considerable
studies have been conducted by different research groups
in Karnataka state and more data are reported. In this
article, all the studies of natural radioactivity measure-
ments have been combined and reviewed. The majority of
the reported articles are about monitoring, distribution and
assessment of the radiological health hazards of naturally
occurring radionuclides.
Keywords Natural Radionuclides
Environment

Karnataka
Health Hazards
Radioactivity
Introduction
Natural radioactivity is common in the rocks and soil that
constitute planet earth, in water and oceans, and in building
materials and homes. There is no place on earth that has no
natural radioactivity [1]. The global average annual ioniz-
ing radiation dose to the person from population is 2.8 mSv
in total. Over 85 % (2.4 mSv) of this total comes from
natural radiation exposure, which is mainly due to terres-
trial as well as cosmic sources [2]. Natural radioactivity in
& J. Sannappa
sannappaj2012@gmail.com
1 to be gathered and compiled for future reference. This
Department of Studies and Research in Physics, Kuvempu
University, Jnana Sahyadri, Shankaraghatta, Shimoga,
Karnataka 577451, India
environmental matrix is mainly due to 238U, 40K, 232Th and
226
Ra, which causes external and internal radiological
hazards due to emission of gamma rays and inhalation of
radon and its daughters. The natural environmental
radioactivity due to gamma radiation depends primarily on
the geological and geographical conditions, and appears at
different levels in the soils of each region in the world [1].
222
Rn is radioactive noble gas, formed by the decay of
226
Ra in the decay chain of 238U and it emits alpha parti-
cles, whereas 220Rn, so called thoron, is formed in the
decay chain of 232Th. Amongst the radon isotopes, 222Rn is
considered to be the most important because of its half-life
of 3.82 days [3], which is much longer than the half-lives
of 220Rn (55.6 s) and 219Rn (4.0 s) [4]. Under normal cir-
cumstances, 40K is the most abundant naturally occurring
radioactive element within the human body. The average
adult male contains about 140 g of potassium (K); but the
amount varies with body weight and muscle mass. The
daily ingestion rate of 40K is about 2.5 g per day and the
excretion rate is about the same [5]. Therefore, it is
important to assess the radiation hazards arising due to the
use of soil, sand and other building materials containing
high concentrations of naturally occurring radionuclides in
the construction of dwellings [6–8].
Due to increasing social health and hazardous awareness
concern, a large number of research groups are actively
engaged in the measurement of natural radioactivity at
national levels and worldwide [9–20]. In this regard, a
number of research groups have also been involved in the
measurement of natural, artificial radioactivity and natural
background radiation levels in Karnataka state, India.
However, the available reported data are scattered and need
article presents a brief review of the work reported so far in
entire Karnataka state, since from 1993 to 2014.
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 Author's personal copy
Summary of the studies conducted in Karnataka
state
Karnataka is a state in South West India. Karnataka lies
between 74 and 78 East longitudes and 11 and 18
North latitudes. The state covers an area of 191,976 km2
(74,122 sq mi), or 5.83 % of the total geographical area of
India. Figure 1 shows the map of the Karnataka state.
The research work related to natural radioactivity and
natural background radiation measurements in Karnataka
state is gained more attention and momentum in the early
1900s and a number of research articles are published in
international and national research journals. Tables 1, 2
and 3 provide a summary of the natural radioactivity
measurement studies carried out by different research
groups in Karnataka state, India. Figure 2 shows the
average activity of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K in Bq kg-1 in
different locations of the Karnataka state studied by dif-
ferent research groups.
Fig. 1 The map of the Karnataka state
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J Radioanal Nucl Chem
This section deals with the experimental results reported
by the various researchers in the entire Karnataka state
from 1993 to 2014. Radhakrishna et al. in 1993 conducted
an extensive survey on the measurement of ambient
gamma radiation in the environment of Mangalore, a major
industrial city of coastal Karnataka by using TLD and the
natural radioactivity levels in soil and sand samples were
carried out by using HPGe detector [21]. The study
revealed that, significantly high gamma dose rate in air was
observed in certain locations of Mangalore beach area.
They also reported that measured gamma dose in air at high
background area was found to be in the range of
44–2102 nGy h-1. The average activity concentration of
232
Th, 238U, and 40K in soil samples is 2971, 546 and
268 Bq kg-1 respectively. In sand samples, the respective
average activities are 1842, 374 and 158 Bq kg-1 respec-
tively. Narayana et al. in 1995 reported the activities of
226
Ra, 210Po, 210Pb, 228Ra, 137Cs and 90Sr in a number of
environmental samples by employing well established
 Author's personal copy
J Radioanal Nucl Chem

Table 1 List of studies for the measurement of natural radioactivity using gamma spectrometry in different types of soil samples and other
samples
Materials studied Area of sampling Reference

Soil and sand samples Environment of coastal Karnataka Radhakrishna et al. [21]
Soil and sand samples High Background Area in Ullal Narayana et al. [23]
Soil/biological samples Kaiga environment Joshi et al. [26]
Soil samples Coastal Karnataka Narayana et al. [9]
Soil samples Environment of Kaiga Karunakara et al. [28]
Soil and vegetation The environment of Kaiga Karunakara et al. [29]
Plant samples The environment of Kaiga Karunakara et al. [30]
Soil samples In and around Padubidri Prakash et al. [32]
Soil samples Bangalore region Prasad et al. [33]
Soil samples Udupi and Karkala taluks Gerald Pinto et al. [12]
Soil samples Gogi region- a proposed uranium mining region Yashodhara et al. [41]
Ore samples Iron and Manganese ore mining areas of Sandur of Bellary Kerur et al. [13]
Soil samples Mysore city Chandrashekara et al. [44]
Soil and rice Kaiga region Karunakara et al. [47]
Soil samples Bidar Rajeshwari et al. [48]
Soil samples Chamarajanagar district Chandrashekara et al. [49]
Soil samples Gogi Uranium mining area Karunakara et al. [50]
Soil samples Tumkur Jayasheelan et al. [51]
Soil samples Ramanagara and Tumkur district Srilatha et al. [52]

Table 2 List of studies for the measurement of natural radioactivity using gamma spectrometry in different types of Building materials and rock
samples
Materials studied Area of sampling Reference

Soil, building materials and ground water Mysore city Sannappa et al. [11]
Soil and rocks samples Kaiga environment Patra et al. [31]
Soil and rock samples Bangalore Rural district Ningappa et al. [10]
Soil and rock samples Granite regions of Karnataka state Sannappa et al. [35]
Granite samples North Karnataka Kerur et al. [36]
Rocks samples North Karnataka Kerur et al. [37]
Soil and rock samples Mysore city Shashikumar et al. [38]
Building materials Shahpur region of North Karnataka Kerur et al. [39]
Soil and rock samples Mandya district Shivakumara et al. [42]
Rocks samples In and around Chickmagalur Manjunatha et al. [46]

nuclear techniques and standard radiochemical methods
and the activity of 40K, by using HPGe detector [22]. The
geometric mean activity concentration of 226Ra for soil,
sand, rice, fish and vegetable samples are 41.3, 20.3, 0.09,
0.105 and 0.05 Bq kg-1. The geometric mean activity
concentration values of 210Pb in soil, rice, fish and veg-
etable samples are 25.42, 0.12, 1.02 and 0.17 Bq kg-1.
Similarly the geometric mean activity concentration values
of 210Po in soil, sand, rice, fish and vegetable samples are
18.0, 2.62, 0.17, 2.58 and 0.06 Bq kg-1 respectively. The
geometric mean activity concentration values of 228Ra in
soil, sand, rice, fish and vegetable samples are 19.76, 4.82,
0.24, 0.58 and 0.28 Bq kg-1. The geometric mean activity
concentration of 40K in soil, rice, fish and vegetable sam-
ples are 122.0, 43.9, 64.3 and 58.3 Bq kg-1, the activity
concentration of 90Sr in soil, rice, fish and vegetable sam-
ples are 0.62, 0.14, 0.04 and 0.095 Bq kg-1, similrly the
activity concentration of 137Cs in soil, rice, fish and

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J Radioanal Nucl Chem

Table 3 List of studies for the measurement of natural radioactivity using different measurement techniques
Materials studied Area of sampling Techniques used Reference

Soil, sand, rice, fish and vegetables
Soil, sand, milk and fish
Soil and plant samples
Soil and biological samples
Soil samples
Bore well water
Drinking water samples
Drinking water samples
Coastal Karnataka
Mangalore Environment
The environment of Kaiga
Kaiga environment
Chickmagalore
Mysore city
Mandya region
Chamarajanagar district
Emanometry Method Narayana et al. [22]
Radiochemical procedure
Electrochemical deposition and c-
ray spectrometry method
Emanometry Method Radhakrishna et al. [24]
Radiochemical procedure
Electrochemical deposition and c-
ray spectrometry method
Electrochemical deposition method Karunakara et al. [25]
Radiochemical procedure Joshi et al. [26]
Electroplating alpha count method Manjunatha et al. [40]
Emanometry method
Chemical method Chandrashekara et al. [44]
Co-precipitation method Shivakumara et al. [53]
fluorometry method Nagaraju et al. [55]

Fig. 2 The average activity of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K in Bq kg-1 in different locations of the Karnataka state studied by different research groups

vegetable samples are 12.58, 0.17, 0.18 and 0.17 Bq kg-1
respectively. They also estimated the corresponding soil-
to-plant transfer coefficients. The transfer coefficient of
226
Ra was found to be 1 9 10-3 for vegetables and
2 9 10-3 for rice. The transfer coefficients of 210Pb for
rice and vegetables were found to be 5 9 10-3 and
7 9 10-3. Narayana et al. in 1995 conducted an extensive
work on the measurement of primordial radionuclide con-
centration in soil and sand samples of different depth by
using HPGe detector and they concluded that the activity of
232
Th and 238U in soil and sand were observed to be
maximum at 0–10 cm top layer. They also studied the
activity of primordial radionuclides for the different size
fractions of soil and sand to study the enrichment pattern
and the maximum radioactivity concentration were found
to be at 125–250 lm fraction size [23]. Radhakrishna et al.
in 1996 reported the activity concentration of 226Ra, 210Po,
210Pb, 228Ra, 137Cs and 90Sr in a number of environmental
samples by employing well established nuclear techniques
and standard radiochemical methods and the activity of

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J Radioanal Nucl Chem
40
K, by using NaI(Tl) detector [24]. The reported geo-
metric mean activity concentration of 226Ra in soil, sand,
milk, fish, rice and vegetable samples are 11.1, 3.6, 0.03,
0.12, 0.08 and 0.04 Bq kg-1. The geometric mean activity
concentration values of 210Pb in soil, sand, milk, fish, rice
and vegetable samples are 13.3, 3.8, 0.04, 1.05, 0.16 and
0.09 Bq kg-1. Similarly the geometric mean activity con-
centration values of 210Po in soil, sand, milk, fish, rice and
vegetable samples are 9.5, 1.7, 0.01, 2.0, 0.16 and
0.06 Bq kg-1 respectively. For 228Ra, the geometric mean
activity concentration values in soil, sand, milk, fish, rice
and vegetable samples are 8.9, 5.6, 0.19, 0.50, 0.25 and
0.15 Bq kg-1 respectively. The geometric mean activity
concentration values of 40K, 90Sr and 137Cs in soil, rice,
milk, fish and vegetable samples are 108 ± 22.6,
59.6 ± 0.6, 71.9 ± 0.7, 79.2 ± 0.6 and 70.9 ± 0.5 Bq kg-1,
0.4, 0.08, 0.05, 0.03 and 0.03 Bq kg-1 respectively,
and 1.66, 0.093, 0.06, 0.14 and 0.18 Bq kg-1 respectively.
Finally they concluded that the annual internal effective
dose for the population is found to be 341 lSv y-1, which
was mainly arises from 40K and 210Pb. Karunakara et al. in
2000 carried out a vertical profile, particle-size distribution,
seasonal variation and the dry deposition rate of 210Po in
the environment of Kaiga nuclear power plant site in the
south western region of India, by using the chemical
method and a alpha counting technique [25]. The reported
210
Po activity concentration in soil and vegetation samples
varies from 17.1 to 228.2 Bq kg-1 with a mean value of
83.3 and 4.5 ± 0.1–2724 ± 13 Bq kg-1 respectively.
They also pointed out that, the activity of 210Po is higher in
the surface soil (0–5 cm) and decreases as depth increases
up to 20 cm and remains nearly constant thereafter. The
seasonal variation studies revelas that the elevated levels of
210
Po in vegetation was observed during winter season.
Joshi et al. in 2001 studied the 137Cs activity concentration
in soil and biological samples by the standard radiochem-
ical method and the 40K activity concentration by using
NaI (Tl) detector [26]. The 40K values in soil samples
varies from 55 ± 17 to 377 ± 17 Bq kg-1, similarly 137Cs
activity levels in the soils of Kaiga, varying between 4.7
and 21.4 Bq kg-1. They also reported that the 137Cs and
40
K activity levels for plant samples such as, Colocassia
esculenta, Piper nigrum, Chromolaena odorata, Artocorpus
heterophyllus and Mangifera indica. The 137Cs and 40K
activity concentration was varied from 1.5 ± 0.3 to
7.1 ± 1.0 and 910 ± 7 to 1587 ± 16 Bq kg-1 for Colo-
cassia esculenta, 4.4 ± 0.8 to 7.6 ± 2.1 and 873 ± 30 to
1114 ± 36 Bq kg-1 for Piper nigrum, 2.5 ± 0.5 to
5.8 ± 1.1 and 355 ± 7 to 683 ± 22 Bq kg-1 for Chro-
molaena odorata, 0.5 ± 0.1 to 5.3 ± 0.5 and
222 ± 9 Bq kg-1 for Artocorpus heterophyllus and
0.4 ± 0.2 to 2.8 ± 0.2 and 81 ± 8 to 296 ± 11 Bq kg-1
for Mangifera indica respectively. They are also estimated
the transfer factor from soil to different parts of Colocassia
esculenta Scott and Chromolaena odorata King and
Robinson. Narayana et al. in 2001 studied the radiation
levels and radionuclide distribution in soil in the region of
Coastal Karnataka, India by using a sensitive plastic scin-
tillometer and HPGe gamma ray spectrometry [27]. The
gamma dose rates in air varied from 26 to 174 nGy h-1
with a median value of 74 nGy h-1. The reported activity
concentration of 40K in soil samples varied between 61.0
and 316.7 Bq kg-1 with median of 117.5 Bq kg-1, simi-
larly for 226Ra the activity concentrations varied between
20.1 and 62.3 Bq kg-1 with a median of 35.0 Bq kg-1 and
the activity concentrations of 232Th in soil samples varied
between 14.3 and 48.6 Bq kg-1 with a median of
29.8 Bq kg-1 respectively. Karunakara et al. in 2001 car-
ried out an extensive study on the measurement of back-
ground radiation levels and the distribution of
radionuclides in the environment of Kaiga, in the south
west coast ofIndia by using portable plastic scintillometer
and gamma spectrometry employing an HPGe detector
[28]. For the 0–5 cm soil profile of the region, the activity
concentration of 226Ra in soil samples varied between 15.5
and 61.2 Bq kg-1 with a mean value of 31.3 Bq kg-1, that
of 232Th varied between 11.4 and 41.9 Bq kg-1 with a
mean value of 27.5 Bq kg-1 and of 40K varied between
78.3 and 254.8 Bq kg-1 with a mean value of
159.9 Bq kg-1 and they concluded that the contributions of
238
U, 232Th, and 40K to the total gamma absorbed dose rate
were 39.9, 40.7, and 16.0 %, respectively. Karunakara
et al. in 2001 reported the 137Cs activity concentration in
the soil samples in environment of Kaiga by using gamma
spectrometry method employing a 90 cc HPGe detector
and a 3 9 3-inch well type NaI(Tl) detector [29]. The
137
Cs activity in soil samples ranged from BDL (below
detection level)—65.4 Bq kg-1. The depth profile studies
show that the 137Cs activity decreases with the increasing
soil depth, and it is below detection limit for depths more
than 25 cm and the mean value of effective dose com-
mitment due to the presence of 137Cs in soil was
167.2 lSv y-1. Finally they concluded that the vegetation
samples of the region show elevated levels of 137Cs con-
centration. The Epiphytic plants Cymbidium aloifolium
(Lo.) Swartz and Petrobryopsis tumida (Hook.) Dix, have
been identified as bio-indicators to monitor the fallout of
this radionuclide in the environment of Kaiga. Karunakara
et al. in 2003 reported the activity concentrations of natu-
rally occurring radionuclides namely 226Ra, 40K and 7Be in
leaves, stem and bark samples from several plant species
from tropical forest of Kaiga, in the west coast of India,
were analyzed by using HPGe detector [30]. The activity
concentration of 226Ra, 40K and 7Be in plants samples,
ranged from BDL to 13.2, 12.0 to 797.3 and 72.5 to
1060.8 Bq kg-1 respectively, and the soil-to-plant transfer
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 Author's personal copy
factor for 226Ra and 40K ranged from BDL to 0.37 and 0.09
to 5.61 respectively for different plants. They also reported
that, the stem and bark of plants show higher levels of
226
Ra and 40K when compared to leaves. Finally they
concluded that, the concentration of 226Ra and 40K in
leaves depends on the age of the leaves. Sannappa et al. in
2003 reported the background radiation level and activity
of primordial radionuclides in soil and building materials in
Mysore city by using scintillometer and HPGe coaxial
detector [11]. The geometric mean activity concentration
values in soil samples, as 13.67, 21.26 and 220 Bq kg-1 for
226
Ra, 232Th and 40K, respectively. The geometric mean
activity concentration values of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K in
building materials as 19.07, 30.4 and 360 Bq kg-1
respectively and the annual average values of indoor and
outdoor effective equivalent dose in different parts of
Mysore city and its population weighted average exposure
for Mysore city is 0.09 mSv y-1 for outdoor and
0.53 mSv y-1 for indoor with an average indoor to outdoor
ratio 5.9 and the total ambient gamma dose is
0.62 mSv y-1. They also reported that the average activity
concentration value of 226Ra in ground water as
13.67 Bq kg-1 respectively. Patra et al. in 2006 reported
the activity and absorbed dose rate of the naturally occur-
ring radionuclides in soil and rock samples collected
around Kaiga site by using high purity germanium detector
(HPGe) [31]. The activity concentration of 232Th in rock
samples ranged from 1.2 to 14.2 Bq kg-1 with a mean
value of 8.1 Bq kg-1. For 238U, activity concentration
values ranged from 0.5 to 11.5 Bq kg-1 with a mean value
of 4.3 Bq kg-1. Similarly in case of 40K, the activity
concentration values varied from 14.8 to 866.2 Bq kg-1
with a mean value of 349.6 Bq kg-1. They also reported
that the activity concentration of 232Th, 238U and 40K in
soil samples and are varies from 19.8 to 45.3 Bq kg-1 with
a mean value of 31.7 Bq kg-1, 12.8–42.2 Bq kg-1 with a
mean value of 24.0 Bq kg-1 and 135.8–344.6 Bq kg-1 with
a mean value of 201.4 Bq kg-1 respectively. The absorbed
dose rate in outdoor air varied from 20 to 58 nGy h-1 with
a mean of 33.3 nGy h-1, which is well below the world
average of 60 nGy h-1. Prakash et al. in 2007 reported the
activity concentrations of natural radionuclides in soil
samples of Padubidri on the coastal Karnataka by using
5 9 5 NaI(Tl) detector [32]. The activity concentrations of
40
K, 226Ra and 232Th in the soil samples varied from 307.5
to 550.9 Bq kg-1 with a mean value of 419.3 Bq kg-1,
35.3–72.5 Bq kg-1 with a mean value of 53.5 Bq kg-1 and
38.5–115.5 Bq kg-1 with a mean value of 66.0 Bq kg-1
respectively. The radium equivalent activity varied in the
range of 140.0–242.9 Bq kg-1 with a mean value of
180.2 Bq kg-1. The calculated dose rates in air due to
these naturally occurring radionuclides varied in the range
of 66.0–10.0 nGy h-1 with a mean dose rate of
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J Radioanal Nucl Chem
83.1 nGy h-1. Prasad et al. in 2008 reported the activity
concentration of primordial radionuclides in soil samples
of Bangalore region by using gamma ray spectrometry
(HPGe detector) [33]. The measured activity concentra-
tions of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K in soil samples varied from
7.7 to 111.6 Bq kg-1 with a mean value of 26.2 Bq kg-1,
16.7–98.7 Bq kg-1 with a mean value of 53.1 Bq kg-1 and
151.8–1424.2 Bq kg-1 with a mean value of 635.1 Bq kg-1
and the measured gamma dose rates were found to
varies from 61.4 to 201.7 nGy h-1 with a mean of
117.2 nGy h-1, respectively. They also estimated the
radium equivalent activity, external and internal hazards
indexes. Ningappa et al. in 2008 reported the higher
activity concentrations of natural radionuclides in rock and
soil samples around Bangalore rural district by using an
HPGe gamma-ray spectrometer and the gamma exposure
rate in air was measured by using an environmental
dosemeter [10]. The activity concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th
and 40K in rocks samples varied from 32.2–163.6,
128.3–548.6 and 757.4–1418.4 Bq kg-1, respectively, with
corresponding arithmetic mean values of 93.2, 306.2 and
1074.4 Bq kg-1. The activity concentrations of 226Ra,
232
Th and 40K in soil samples varied from 32.4 to 55.2,
39.9 to 214.3 and 485.4 to 1150.2 Bq kg-1, respectively,
with corresponding arithmetic mean values of 40.7, 93.1
and 750.4 Bq kg-1. The measured indoor and outdoor
gamma dose rates varied in the range of 140.6–623.4 nGy h-1
with a geometric mean of 351.9 and 150.7–690.1 nGy h-1
with a geometric mean of 372.6 nGy h-1, respectively.
Sriharsha et al. in 2008 studied the gamma exposure rate in
Mysore and Chamaraj Nagar district by using Environ-
mental radiation dosimeter [34]. The reported gamma
absorbed rate inside the temples varied from 122.7 to
231.4 nGy h-1 with a median of 130.1 nGy h-1, outside-
the temples it varied from 141.8 to 340.2 nGy h-1 with a
median of 216.2 nGy h-1. Sannappa et al. in 2010 reported
the higher activity concentration of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K in
soil and rocks in granite regions of Karnataka state by
using HPGe gamma ray spectrometry [35]. The activity
concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K in soil samples
varies from 28.4 ± 1.0 to 60.0 ± 1.4, 26.0 ± 1.0 to
121.4 ± 1.9 and 257.0 ± 5.8 to 1100.0 ± 9.8 Bq kg-1
and in rock samples, the activity varied from 32.4 ± 1.0 to
165.0 ± 1.9, 32.4 ± 1 to 530.0 ± 3.0 and 400.0 ± 6.8 to
1250.0 ± 12.4 Bq kg-1, respectively. The measured
gamma dose rates varied from 85.0 to 326 nGy h-1 with a
geometric mean of 150.4 nGy h-1. Kerur et al. in 2010
reported the higher activity concentrations of 232Th, 238U
and 40K in granite rocks from different regions of north
Karnataka by using HPGe detector [36]. For Gadag region
the mean activity concentration of 232Th, 238U and 40K as
71.51 ± 13.22, 52.76 ± 10.41 and 1035 ± 64 Bq kg-1.
For Bagalkot region its value as 179.3 ± 13.9, 166.0 ± 9.8
 Author's personal copy
J Radioanal Nucl Chem
and 1058 ± 3 Bq kg-1, for Lingasur region its value as
85.98 ± 8.38, 88.38 ± 23.25 and 1123 ± 74 Bq kg-1, for
Shahpur regions, the activity concentration values as,
108.1 ± 12.4, 72.11 ± 16.24 and 1192 ± 14 Bq kg-1.
Similarly for Koppal region, the average activity concen-
tration values as, 214.8 ± 55.4, 107.7 ± 22.9 and
1446 ± 48 Bq kg-1 respectively. Kerur et al. in 2010
reported the higher mean activity concentrations of 232Th,
238
U and 40K in different rock samples from different
regions of North Karnataka by using HPGe detector [37].
For Gadag region the mean activity concentration value of
232
Th, 238U and 40K as 73.27 ± 13.74, 47.05 ± 12.72 and
1061.99 ± 110.45 Bq kg-1. For Gulbarga region its value
as 7.25 ± 0.75, 4.89 ± 0.95 and 120.66 ± 20.36 Bq kg-1
and for Kottur region its value as, 20.86 ± 2.93,
45.91 ± 11.96 and 874.92 ± 175.47 Bq kg-1. The calcu-
lated mean absorbed dose rate for Gadag, Gulbarga and
Kottur regions are found to be 110.28, 11.65 and
70.30 nGy h-1 respectively. Gerald Pinto et al. in 2010
reported the gamma radiation levels and activity of 226Ra,
232
Th and 40K, in soil samples of Karkala and Udupi taluks
of coastal Karnataka region by using GM portable survey
meter and HPGe gamma ray spectrometry [12]. The
activity concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K, in soil
samples varied from 2.6 to 78.0 Bq kg-1 with a mean
value of 34.4 Bq kg-1, 2.3–166.2 Bq kg-1 with a mean of
45.3 and 72.9–493.5 Bq kg-1 with a mean of
198.6 Bq kg-1 respectively. The absorbed dose rate varied
between 70 and 123 nGy h-1, with a mean value of
97 nGy h-1 respectively. Shashikumar et al. in 2011
reported the activity concentration of 226 Ra, 232Th and 40K
in soil and rock samples around Mysore city by using
HPGe detector [38]. The geometric median activity con-
centration of 226 Ra, 232Th and 40K in soil and rock samples
are found to be 20.3, 64.0 and 396.7 Bq kg-1 and 46.4,
68.7 and 634.9 Bq kg-1 respectively. Kerur et al. in 2011
reported the 226 Ra, 232Th and 40K activity concentration in
soil and building materials of Sahapura regions of North
Karnataka by using HPGe detector [39]. The average
activity concentration of 232Th, 226Ra and 40K in soil and
building material as 38.86 and 67.67 ± 13.0 Bq kg-1,
18.94 and 45.28 ± 9.3 Bq kg-1, 546.3 and 806.6 ±
113.0 Bq kg-1, respectively. The total effective dose rate
due to natural radioactivity of soil varied from 223 to
572 lSv y-1. Manjunatha et al. in 2011 reported the
activity concentration of 226Ra, 228Ra, 210Po and 210Pb in
cultivated soil Chickmagalore district by using Emanom-
etry and wet ashing silver planchet electroplating alpha
count method [40]. The activity concentration of 226Ra,
228
Ra 210Po and 210Pb in the cultivated soil samples varied
from 6.1 to 47.7, 5.6 to 29.6, 12.9 to 71.2 and 20.6 to
120.5 Bq kg-1 with a mean value of 13.8, 19.2, 28.6 and
1.8 Bq kg-1 respectively. The mean ratios of 210Po and
210
Pb in cultivated and uncultivated land were found to be
0.53 and 1.06 respectively. They concluded that, the con-
centrations of 226Ra, 228Ra and 210Po in cultivated land
found to be lower than that of undisturbed land but reverse
in case of 210Pb. Yashodhara et al. in 2011 reported the
ambient gamma absorbed dose rate and the activity con-
centrations of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K in the soil samples of
the Gogi region by using portable gamma dosimeters and
HPGe gamma spectrometry method [41]. The activity
concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K in the soil varied
from 5 to 176, 9 to 687, and 81 to 1493 Bq kg-1, with the
corresponding median values of 36, 85 and 859 Bq kg-1
and the ambient gamma absorbed dose rate varied in the
range of 126–428 nGy h-1, with a median value of
143 nGy h-1, respectively. Shivakumara et al. in 2012
reported the slightly higher activity concentrations of
226
Ra, 232Th, and 40K in soil and rock samples around
Mandya district by using HPGe detector [42]. The average
activity concentrations of 226Ra in soil and rock samples as
40.2 ± 1.28 and 30.5 ± 1.21 Bq kg-1 respectively, for
232
Th, 62.3 ± 1.86 and 34.4 ± 1.03 Bq kg-1 and for 40K,
317.5 ± 9.52 and 700.2 ± 20.9 Bq kg-1 respectively. The
average radium equivalent activity value of soil and rock
samples was found to be 156.3 and 133.7 Bq kg-1.
Nagaraju et al. in 2012 studied the natural background
gamma radiation in Chamaraja Nagar district by using
environmental dosimeter technique. The reported absorbed
dose rate varied from 98.3 ± 7.1 to 708.2 ± 59.3 nGy h-1
with an average of 291.8 ± 23.4 nGy h-1, whereas in
temples its values varied from 71.4 ± 5.2 to
589.0 ± 46.3 nGy h-1 with an average of 240.5 ±
19.2 nGy h-1, respectively, and they concluded that the
higher dose rate was seen inside the temples compare to
outside and the higher dose rate was observed during the
winter season as compared to rainy season [43]. Kerur et al.
in 2012 reported the activity concentrations of 238U, 232Th
and 40K in the ore samples collected from the Sandur
regions of Bellary by using HPGe detector [13]. The mean
activity concentrations of the 238U, 232Th and 40K in the ore
samples as 14.59, 16.54 and 25.29 Bq kg-1 respectively
and the outdoor absorbed dose rates due to gamma radia-
tion was found to be in the range of 0–50.71 nGy h-1 with
a mean of 18.97 nGy h-1 for the ore samples respectively,
and the estimated mean radium equivalent activity for the
mines ore samples is found to be45.94 Bq kg-1, which is
very much less than the recommended value of
370 Bq kg-1. Chandrashekara et al. in 2012 reported the
concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K in soil samples
around Mysore city by using HPGe detector and the
activity of 226Ra in groundwater was measured by using
chemical method [44]. The activity concentrations of
226
Ra, 232Th and 40K in soil samples varied from 11.9 to
95.2, 50.2 to 156.2 and 51.1 to 1138 Bq kg-1 with
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geometric median of 30.9, 61.0 and 374 Bq kg-1. The
226
Ra activity concentration in bore well water varied from
0.28 to 189 mBq l-1 with a geometric mean value of
4.75 mBq l-1 respectively. The measured gamma dose
rates in air varied from 32 to 128 nGy h-1 with a geo-
metric mean of 85.4 nGy h-1. Sathish et al. in 2012 studied
the component of background gamma radiation levels in
Bangalore Metropolitan city by using environmental radi-
ation survey meter [45]. They reported that, the back-
ground gamma dose rates in the environment of Bangalore
city varied from 1.1 to 1.7 mSv y-1 with a mean as
1.32 ± 0.01 mSv y-1. Manjunatha et al. in 2013 reported
the activity concentration of primordial radionuclides in
igneous rocks (granites) and metamorphic rocks in
Chickmagalore by using HPGe (GMX-10190) detector
[46]. The activity concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K
in Igneous Rocks (Granites) varies from 28.0 to
43.0 Bq kg-1, 48.4 to 93.4 Bq kg-1 and 820.2 to
1196.0 Bq kg-1, with a mean value of 36.6, 73.2 and
992.3 Bq kg-1 respectively, similarly for metamorphic
rocks, the 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K concentration ranged
between 7.5 and 36.7, 14.0 and 79.4 and BDL and
869.7 Bq kg-1, with a mean value of 17.2, 28.1 and
617.8 Bq kg-1 respectively. Karunakara et al. in 2013
reported the soil to rice transfer factors for natural (226Ra,
228
Ra, 40K, and 210Pb) and artificial (137Cs) radionuclides
for rice grown in natural field conditions on the West Coast
of India by using HPGe detector [47]. The 226Ra, 228Ra and
40
K activity concentration in the soil samples varied from,
13.7 to 33.6 Bq kg-1 with a mean value of 22.1,
12.9–32.0 Bq kg-1 with a mean value of 20.0 and
57.8–227.2 Bq kg-1 with a mean value of 116.6 Bq kg-1.
The mean activity concentration value of 210Pb in grain as
4.0 Bq kg-1 and that of 137Cs as 1.3 Bq kg-1. The average
activity concentrations of 210Pb, 226Ra, 228Ra, 40K, and
137
Cs in organic manure was used for the cultivation of rice
in the experimental field as, 31.4 ± 2.6, 10.0 ± 0.8,
14.7 ± 1.1, 1333 ± 50.2, and 3.2 ± 0.4 Bq kg-1, respec-
tively. The estimated transfer factors for these radionu-
clides as \4.1 9 10-2 and \5.0 9 10-2 for 228Ra and
226
Ra, respectively, the 40K transfer factor for soil to un-
hulled rice grain varied in the range of 6.5 9 10-1 to 2.9
with a mean of 0.15 9 10-1, and of 210Pb varied in the
range of \1.2 9 10-2–8.1 9 10-1 with a mean of
1.4 9 10-1, and of 137Cs varied in the range of
6.6 9 10-2–3.4 9 10-1 with a mean of 2.1 9 10-1
respectively. Rajeshwari et al. in 2014 reported the activity
concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K in Bidar soil sam-
ples by using HPGe detector [48]. The activity concen-
tration of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K varied from BDL to 47.68,
7.65 to 59.08 and BDL to 260.65 Bq kg-1 respectively and
the mean gamma absorbed dose rate in air above 1 m from
ground is estimated to be 34.47 nGy h-1. The radium
123
J Radioanal Nucl Chem
equivalent activity concentration varied between 21.90 and
151.53 Bq kg-1 with an average value of 84.08 Bq kg-1
and this value is well below the recommended limit.
Chandrashekara et al. in 2014 reported the activity con-
centrations of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K in soil samples of
Chamarajanagara district by using HPGe detector [49]. The
activity concentrations of radionuclides in the soil samples
varied from 4.85 to 14.15 Bq kg-1, 21.59 to 47.27 Bq kg-1
and 19.87 to 47.79 Bq kg-1, respectively and the
calculated absorbed gamma dose rate in soil varied from
19.87 to 47.79 nGy h-1 with an average value of
33.23 nGy h-1 which is lower than the world average of
55 nGy h-1. The estimated radium equivalent, activities
(Raeq) varied from 45.14 to 105.11 Bq kg-1 with a median
of 75.47 Bq kg-1. Karunakara et al. in 2014 reported the
activity concentration of natural radionuclides in prospec-
tive uranium mining region Gogi, south India by using
HPGe gamma spectrometry, gamma dose rates were
measured by using a GM based gamma dose survey meter
and integrated measurement days using CaSO4:Dy based
TLD [50]. The indoor gamma dose rate measured using the
survey meter varied in the range of 40–230 nGy h-1 with
the geometric mean value of 104 nGy h-1, and outdoor
gamma dose varied in the range of 45–320 nGy h-1 with
the geometric mean value of 97 nGy h-1 considering the
entire study region (0–30 km). Similarly, the geometric
mean values of the indoor and outdoor doses measured
using TLDs were 120 and 119 nGy h-1, respectively.
These results show that the indoor and outdoor dose rates
were comparable to each other and the difference between
them is \10 %. The concentration of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K
in the soil samples varied in the range of 5.8–154.8,
10.2–576.9 and 56.2–1371.1 Bq kg-1, respectively, with
the corresponding geometric mean values of 34.3, 78.4,
and 609.9 Bq kg-1. Jayasheelan et al. in 2014 reported the
226
Ra, 232Th and 40K activity concentration in soil of
Tumkur district by using HPGe detector and radiation level
was measured by using in situ portable survey meter [51].
The activity concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K, in soil
samples varied from 9.6 to 71.6, 12.3 to 333.3 and 194.3 to
1527.7 Bq kg-1 with an average value of 33.15, 123.01
and 877.76 Bq kg-1 and the outdoor absorbed doses were
varied between 36.42 and 258.98 nGy h-1, respectively.
The external hazard index ranged from 0.21 to 1.58 with an
average of 0.75. Srilatha et al. in 2014 reported the activity
concentration of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K in soil samples of
Ramanagara and Tumkur districts by using HPGe detector
based gamma spectrometry [52]. The average activity
concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K in soil samples as
33.78 ± 1.99, 77.44 ± 2.37 and 791.58 ± 5.78 Bq kg-1
respectively. The Raeq due to radionuclides varied from
136.12 to 265.95 Bq kg-1 with an average value of
205.47 Bq kg-1. The outdoor absorbed dose rates range
 Author's personal copy
J Radioanal Nucl Chem
from 65.39 to 119.71 nGy h-1 with an average value of
95.07 nGy h-1,which is higher than the population weighted
average value of global primordial radiation of 59 nGy h-1.
Shivakumara et al. in 2014 reported 226Ra activity concen-
tration in drinking water samples in Mandya region by using
co-precipitation or evaporation method [53]. 226Ra concen-
tration varied from 14.26 ± 0.32 to 81.06 ± 0.99 mBq l-1
with geometric mean 27.61 ± 0.43 mBq l-1 respectively.
Shivakumara et al. in 2014 conducted an extensive study on
the activity concentrations of 40K, 226Ra and 232Th in host
rock and the surrounding soil of Mandya district by using
HPGe detector [54]. In rock samples the reported geometric
mean activity concentrations of 40K, 226Ra and 232Th are
1143.8, 77.14 and 142.22 Bq kg-1, respectively and in the
soil, the geometric mean values were 639.92, 40.57 and
72.76 Bq kg-1 respectively. In rock samples Radium
equivalent activity (Raeq), varied from 216.27 to 745.37
Bq kg-1 with a geometric value of 396.77 Bq kg-1. In soil
samples Radium equivalent activity (Raeq), varied from
138.31 to 376.63 Bq kg-1, with a geometric value of
216.56 Bq kg-1. Nagaraju et al. in 2014 reported activity
concentration of uranium in water samples of Chamara-
janagar district by using fluorimetry method [55]. The con-
centration of uranium in water samples varied from, 0.75 to
115.66 mBq l-1, with a median of 13.67 mBq l-1. The
annual ingestion dose due to 238U in the water samples varied
from 0.05 to 7.598 lSv y-1, with a median of 0.9 lSv y-1.
Discussion
From the foregoing review concerning the natural
radioactivity and natural background radiation level mea-
surements studies in Karnataka state, India, it is obvious
that most of the earlier research work is about the mea-
surement of natural radioactivity levels in soil, rock,
building materials, vegetables and drinking water. In the
published work, the emphasis has been placed only on the
health hazards associated with the natural radioactivity
levels in soils, vegetables, drinking water, rock and other
building materials. There is no data available in Karnataka
state concerning the use of natural radioactivity in explo-
ration of uranium. Most of the studies related to natural
radioactivity measurement in environmental samples have
been conducted by using high purity germanium detector
(HPGe). However, in some reported studies, a relatively
low resolution NaI (Tl) detector has been used, together
with spectrum acquisition technique. An Emanometry
method has also been used to measure naturally occurring
radium in soil, rocks and water samples. The standard
radiochemical method of separation has been used to
measure the activity of 228Ra and 210Pb in soil and rock
samples. A wet ashing silver planchet electroplating alpha
count method has been used to measure the concentrations
of 210Po and 210Pb in the soil samples. A radiochemical
method has been employed to measure 137Cs and 90Sr in
soil, sand, fish and vegetable samples. An electrochemical
deposition method has been employed to measure 210Po
activity concentration in soil and vegetation samples.
A Co-precipitation method or Evaporation method has
been used measure 226Ra activity concentration in drinking
water. A fluorometry method has been employed to
determine the activity concentration of Uranium in drink-
ing water. The NaI (Tl) portable dosimeter, Survey meters
and Thermolumniscent dosimeter (TLD) are used for nat-
ural gamma radiation measurement.
According to reported data, the natural radioactivity
values show a wide variation in the activity concentrations
of the radionuclides of interest in different types of soil,
sand, fish, vegetables, rocks, bricks and other building
materials. Wide variation in the data about natural
radioactivity has been found, which may be the reflection
of geological formations, geographical conditions, soil
types, climatic conditions and climatic distinctiveness [56–
59]. The highest reported average activity concentration for
226
Ra, 232Th and 40K are 546, 2971 and 268 Bq kg-1,
where as the lowest are 13.67, 21.26 and 220 Bq kg-1 for
soil samples respectively. Naturally occurring radioactivity
levels has also been reported in the land used for the cul-
tivation. However, the studied area represents a very small
portion of the cultivated land of Karnataka state and
therefore, further research work on this topic would be of
much interest.
According to the reported data, natural radioactivity
levels in building materials shows relatively low concen-
trations and is within the permissible limits and thus does
not pose a serious threat to the general public. The highest
average reported concentrations for 226Ra, 232Th and 40K
are as 93.2, 306.2 and 1074.4 Bq kg-1, whereas the lowest
are 4.3, 8.1 and 349.6 Bq kg-1, respectively. The highest
activities have been reported for granite rocks. In Kar-
nataka state there was a limited attention has been paid to
the measurement of natural radioactivity in building
materials, and very few papers are available in the open
literature in this regard. The reported range of uranium
concentrations in water samples is varied between 0.75 and
115.66 mBq l-1, with a median of 13.67 mBq l-1
respectively. Similarly the reported range of 226Ra activity
concentration in drinking water samples varied between
0.28 and 189 mBq l-1 respectively. Karnataka state has 30
districts and having 74,051 m2 area. The natural radioac-
tivity measurement studies were concentrate only for south
and north Karnataka region and covering very few districts
and limited measurements were done in the middle Kar-
nataka region. In this regard, in order to know the natural
radioactivity levels and the radiological hazards in whole
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 Author's personal copy
Karnataka state, researchers will give great attention to
conduct further research work in the middle Karnataka
region for measuring and analysis of the natural radioactivity
levels in soil, sand, rocks, drinking water, vegetables and
other building materials. The studies conducted so far are
scattered, and need to be gathered for future reference and
planning. This article will help to researchers in the planning
of future natural radioactivity and natural gamma radiation
measurements studies in Karnataka state, India.
Conclusion
To conclude, reported data about the natural radioactivity
and natural gamma radiation level measurements in Kar-
nataka state, India have been compiled and reviewed in this
article.
• The reported studies have placed more emphasis on the
health hazards associated with the natural radioactivity
levels in soils, vegetables, drinking water, rock and
other building materials.
• The amount of natural background radiation is different
in terms of height, the amount of the radionuclides
present in the samples and the geographical conditions
of different regions.
• Most of the reported studies used a high purity
germanium detector, where as in some of studies used
NaI (Tl) detectors for the measurements. The electro-
chemical deposition technique is used for the measure-
ment of 210Po activity concentration.
• Highest average natural radioactivity concentration was
observed in environment of coastal Karnataka south
India, where as lowest activity concentration was
observed in Mysore city.
• Natural radioactivity levels in building materials
(rocks) show low activity concentrations and are within
the permissible limits and thus does not pose a serious
threat to the general public.
Acknowledgments The authors express their deep sense of gratitude
to University Grants Commission (UGC), New Delhi for providing
the financial support under Major Research Project [F. NO. 41-876/
2012 (SR)] to carry out this research work.
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