CHAPTER 3 1.2.
DIRECTION OF LINES
ANGLEs, AZIMUTHS and bearings
Angles observed in surveying are classified as either horizontal or vertical,
depending on the plane in which they are measured. Horizontal angles are the basic
observations needed for determining bearings and azimuths. Vertical angles are
used in trigonometric leveling and for the reduction of distances to horizontal.
Angles are most often directly observed in the field with total station,
transits, compasses or theodolite instruments are used. They are three basic
requirements in determining an angle. First the reference or starting line, second,
the direction of turning and lastly the angular distance.
1.1. UNITS OF ANGLE MEASUREMENT
The sexagesimal system is based on degrees, minutes and seconds,
with the last unit further divided decimally. The following are the unit
measurement of angle:
1. Degree – the sexagesimal system is used in which the circumference of a
circle is divided into 360 parts or degrees. The angle of one degree is
defined as the angle which requires 1/360 of the rotation needed to obtain
one complete revolution.
2. Grad – is a unit of measure in the centesimal system. In this system the
circumference of a circle is divided into 400 parts. The grad is subdivided
into 100 centesimal minutes and a centesimal minute is further subdivided
into 100 centesimal seconds. The symbols g, c and cc are denoted as grads,
centesimal minutes and centesimal seconds, respectively. It will be noted
that 200 grads is equal to 180 degrees.
3. Mil – the circumference is divided into 6400 parts, or 1600 mils is equal to
90 degrees.
4. Radian – one radian is defined as the angle subtended at the center of a
circle by an arc length exactly equal to the radius of the circle.
The direction of a line is usually defined by the horizontal angle it makes
with a fixed reference line or direction. In surveying, this is done with reference to
a meridian which lies in a vertical plane passing through a fixed point of reference
and through the observer’s position. There are four types of meridian:
1. True Meridian – it is sometimes known as the astronomic or geographic
meridian. It is the generally adapted reference line in surveying practice.
This line passes through the geographic north and south pole of the earth
and the observer’s position. The direction of true meridian at a survey
station is invariable and any record of true directions taken remains
permanent and unchanged regardless of time.
2. Magnetic Meridian – is a fixed line of reference which lies parallel with
the magnetic lines of force of the earth. Its direction is defined by a freely
suspended magnetic needle of a compass held at the observer’s position.
Since the location of the magnetic poles changes constantly, the direction
of the magnetic meridian is not fixed.
3. Grid Meridian – is a fixed line of reference parallel to the central meridian
of a system of plane rectangular coordinates. The use of grid meridians is
applicable only to plane surveys of limited extent. In such types of survey,
it is assumed that all measurements are all projected to a horizontal plane
and that all meridians are parallel straight lines.
4. Assumed Meridian – is an arbitrarily chosen fixed line of reference which
is taken for convenience. It is used only on plane surveys of limited extent
since they are difficult or may be impossible to re-establish if the original
reference point is lost or obliterated.
There are various kinds of angles which can be used to describe the
direction of lines.
1. Interior Angles – the angles between adjacent lines in a closed polygon. It
should be remembered that for any closed polygon the sum of the interior
angles is equal to (𝑛 − 2)180°.
2. Exterior Angles – located outside a closed polygon and are referred to as
explements of interior angles. An explement is the difference between 360
degrees and any one angle.
 3. Deflection Angles – the angle between a line and the prolongation of the Solution:
preceding line. It may be turned to the right (clockwise) or to the left
(counterclockwise) and it is always necessary to append the letters R or L
to the numerical value to define the direction in which the angle has been
turned.
4. Angles to the Right – are measured clockwise from the preceding line to
the succeeding line. These angles are also referred to as azimuths from back
line.
5. Bearings – the acute horizontal angle between the reference meridian and
the line. The bearing of the line never exceeds 90 degrees. Either the letters
N or S precedes the bearing angle and the letters E or W follows indicated
value of the angle. 1.2. Compute the angles APB, CPD, and EPF from the following set of lines whose
6. Forward Bearing – when the bearing of a line is observed in the direction azimuths are given.
in which the survey progresses. a. AZIMN of line PA = 39°48’;AZIMN of line PB = 115°29’
7. Back Bearing – if the bearing of the same line is observed in an opposite b. AZIMS of line PC = 320°22’;AZIMS of line PD = 62°16’
direction. c. AZIMN of line PE = 219°02’;AZIMS of line PF = 154°16’
8. Azimuth – is its direction as given by the angle between the meridian and
the line measured in a clockwise direction from either the north or south Solution:
branch of the meridian. In the Philippines, South is usually used to
determine the azimuth.
Most types of surveys, but especially those that employ traversing, require
computation of azimuths or bearings. Many surveyors prefer azimuths to bearings
for directions of lines because they are easier to work with, especially when
calculating traverses with computers. Azimuth calculations are best made with the
aid of a sketch. The general process of adding or subtracting 180° to obtain the back
azimuth and then adding the angle to the right is repeated for each line until the
azimuth of the starting line is recomputed.
INSTRUCTIVE PROBLEMS:
1.1. Compute the angles AOB, COD, EOF and GOH from the following set of lines
whose magnetic bearings are given: 1.3. Convert the following bearings to equivalent azimuths.
a. OA, N 39°25’ E and OB, N75°50’ E a. AB, N 25°25’ W
b. OC, N 34°14’ E and OD, N 53°22’ W b. BC, Due East
c. OE, S 15°04’ E and OF, S 36°00’ W c. CD, S 50°10’ E
d. OG, N 70°15’ W and OH, S 52°05’W d. DE, S 45°50’ W
e. EF, N 66°30’ W
Solution: 1.3. THE COMPASS
Compass is used in determining angles before transits, theodolites, and total
station instruments were invented. In the figure shows the surveyor’s compass. The
compass is a hand-held instrument for determining the horizontal direction of a line
with reference to the magnetic meridian. It is constructed to allow a magnetized
needle to swing freely on a pivot at the center of a graduated circle and point toward
magnetic north. The instrument consists of a metal baseplate with two sight vanes
at the ends. The compass box and two small level vials are mounted on the
baseplate, the level vials being perpendicular to each other.

1.4. Convert the following azimuths to equivalent bearings.

a. AZIMS of line AB = 230°30’
b. AZIMN of line BC = 112°46’
c. AZIMS of line CD = 270°00’
d. AZIMN of line DE = 228°15’
e. AZIMS of line EF = 135°00’
Solution:

The compass box of the surveyor’s compass was covered with glass to protect the
magnetized steel needle inside. The needle was mounted on a pivot at the center of
a circle that was graduated in degrees.
In using the compass, the sight vanes and compass box could be revolved
to sight along a desired line, and then its magnetic bearing could be read directly.
Unless disturbed by local attraction (a local anomaly caused from such things as
power lines, railroad tracks, metallic belt buckles, and so on that affect the direction
a compass needle points at any location), a compass needle is free to spin and align
itself with the Earth’s magnetic field pointing in the direction of the magnetic
meridian (toward the magnetic north pole in the northern hemisphere).
1.3.1. Types of Compasses
 1. Brunton Compass – is one of the most versatile and widely used. It
combines the main features of a prismatic compass, sighting compass, hand
level and clinometer.
2. Lensatic Compass – consists of an aluminum case containing a magnetic
dial balance on a pivot, a hinged cover with a sighting wire, a hinged
eyepiece containing a magnifying lens for reading the dial graduations and
a sighting slot for viewing the distant object.
3. Surveyor’s Compass – it was popularly used earlier for running limited
plane surveys of reasonable accuracy. Its main parts sight vanes, a magnetic
needle, and two clamping screws.
4. Plain Pocket Compass – this type of compass is similar to the surveyor’s
compass, except that it has no sight vanes.
5. Prismatic Compass – the graduations are found on a rotating card instead
of being on the compass box. The card moves with the needle since both
are fastened together.
6. Forester’s Compass - is another type of a pocket compass which does not
affect the free movement and positioning of the magnetic needle.
7. Transit Compass – the engineer’s transit has a compass box which is
similar in construction to the surveyor’s compass.
1.3.2. Magnetic Declination
Magnetic declination is the horizontal angle observed from the geodetic
meridian to the magnetic meridian. Navigators call this angle variation of the
compass; the armed forces use the term deviation. East declination is considered
positive and west declinations negative. The relationship between geodetic north,
magnetic north, and magnetic declination is given by the expression
𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑧𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑡ℎ = 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑧𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑡ℎ + 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Metallic objects and direct-current electricity, both of which cause a local
attraction, affect the main magnetic field. If the source of an artificial disturbance
is fixed, all bearings from a given station will be in error by the same amount.
However, angles calculated from bearings taken at the station will be correct. Local
attraction is present if the forward and back bearings of a line differ by more than
the normal observation errors.
1.3.3. Sources of Errors in Compass Work
When the compass traverse forms a closed figure, the interior angle at each
station is computed from the observed bearings at that particular point, the
computed value which is free from local attraction. The sum of the interior angles
of a closed polygon must be equal to (𝑛 − 2)180° in which 𝑛 is the number of sides
of the polygon. Since the error of observing a bearing is accidental, it is assumed to
be distributed equally at each interior angle. The bearings are then adjusted from a
line whose observed bearing is to be correct using the adjusted values of each
interior angle. The following are some sources of errors in compass work:
1. Needle Bent – if the needle is not perfectly straight, a constant error is
introduced in all observed bearings. The needle can be corrected by
using pliers.
2. Pivot Bent – if the point of the pivot supporting the needle is not at the
center of the graduated circle, there is introduced a variable
systematic error, the magnitude of which depends on the direction
in which the compass is sighted. The instrument can be corrected
by bending the pivot until the end readings of the needle are 180°
apart for any direction of pointing.
3. Plane of sight not vertical or graduated circle not horizontal.
4. Sluggish
5. Reading the Needle
6. Magnetic Variations
1.3.4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Compass
Advantages of Compass:
1. Compass is light and portable and it requires less time for setting-up,
sighting and reading.
2. An error in the direction of one line does not necessarily affect other
lines of the survey.
 3. The compass is especially adopted to running straight lines through 1.6. A field is in the form of a regular pentagon. If the true bearing of side AB is N
woods and other places where obstacles are likely to interfere with the 30°30’ E, determine the true azimuth from south of the following sides of the
line of sight. field: AB, BC, and CD. Assume that the corners of the field are labeled in a
clockwise direction.
Disadvantages of Compass:
Solution:
1. The compass reading is not very accurate.
2. The needle is unreliable especially with the presence of local
attractions, such as electric wires, metals, magnets that may render it
practically useless.

INSTRUCTIVE PROBLEMS:
1.5. The magnetic declination in a locality is 2°30’ E. Determine the true bearing
and true azimuths reckoned from the north and south of the following lines
whose magnetic bearings are given:
a. AB, N 25°40’ E
b. AC, S 50°12’ E 1.7. In a compass survey made fifty years ago the observed magnetic bearing of a
c. AD, S 62°18’ W reference line XY was S 50°18’ E when the magnetic declination was 8°15’
Solution: East. Lately in 1986, a new survey was made and the declination in the same
survey site changed to 12°10’ West. Determine the following descriptions of
line XY.
a. Its true bearing
b. The true azimuth from south
c. Its new magnetic bearing
d. The magnetic azimuth from south in 1986
Solution:
SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS TO INSTRUCTIVE PROBLEMS: 3.2. a. PA, AZIMN 39°48′
3.1. a. OA, N 39°25’ E PB, AZIMN 115°29′
OB, N 75°50’ E ∠𝐴𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝐵 − 𝑃𝐴
∠𝐴𝑂𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴 ∠𝐴𝑃𝐵 = 115°29′ − 39°48′
∠𝐴𝑂𝐵 = 75°50’ − 39°25’ ∠𝐴𝑃𝐵 = 𝟕𝟓°𝟒𝟏′
∠𝐴𝑂𝐵 = 𝟑𝟔°𝟐𝟓′ b. PC, AZIMS 320°22′
b. OC, N 34°14’ E PD, AZIMS 62°16′
OD, N 53°22’ W ∠𝐶𝑃𝐷 = 360° − 𝑃𝐶 + 𝑃𝐷
∠𝐶𝑂𝐷 = 𝑂𝐶 + 𝑂𝐷 ∠𝐶𝑃𝐷 = 360° − 320°22′ + 62°16′
∠𝐶𝑂𝐷 = 34°14’ + 53°22’ ∠𝐶𝑃𝐷 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏°𝟓𝟒′
∠𝐶𝑂𝐷 = 𝟖𝟕°𝟑𝟔′ c. PE, AZIMN 219°02′
c. OE, S 15°04’ E PF, AZIMS 154°16′
OF, S 36°00’ W ∠𝐸𝑃𝐹 = 𝑃𝐹 − (𝑃𝐸 − 180°)
∠𝐸𝑂𝐹 = 𝑂𝐸 + 𝑂𝐹 ∠𝐸𝑃𝐹 = 154°16 − (219°02′ − 180°00′ )
∠𝐸𝑂𝐹 = 15°04’ + 36°00’ ∠𝐸𝑃𝐹 = 𝟏𝟏𝟓°𝟏𝟒′
∠𝐸𝑂𝐹 = 𝟓𝟏°𝟎𝟒′
d. OG, N 70°15’ W 3.3. a. AB, N 25°25′ W AZIMN = 360° − 25°25′ = 𝟑𝟑𝟒°𝟑𝟓′
OH, S 52°05’ W AZIMS = 180° − 25°25′ = 𝟏𝟓𝟒°𝟑𝟓′
∠𝐺𝑂𝐻 = 180° − 𝑂𝐺 − 𝑂𝐻 b. BC, Due East AZIMN = 𝟗𝟎°𝟎𝟎′
∠𝐺𝑂𝐻 = 180°00′ − 70°15’ − 52°05’ AZIMS = 𝟐𝟕𝟎°𝟎𝟎′
∠𝐺𝑂𝐻 = 𝟓𝟕°𝟒𝟎′ c. CD, S 50°10′ E AZIMN = 180° − 50°10′ = 𝟏𝟐𝟗°𝟓𝟎′
AZIMS = 360° − 50°10′ = 𝟑𝟎𝟗°𝟓𝟎′
d. DE, S 45°50′ W AZIMN = 180° + 45°50′ = 𝟐𝟐𝟓°𝟓𝟎′
 AZIMS = 𝟐𝟐𝟓°𝟓𝟎′
e. EF, N 66°30′ W AZIMN = 360° − 66°30′ = 𝟐𝟗𝟑°𝟑𝟎′
AZIMS = 180° − 66°30′ = 𝟏𝟏𝟑°𝟑𝟎′
1.4. a. AB, AZIMS = 230°30′
b. BC, AZIMN = 112°36′
c. CD, AZIMS = 270°00′
d. DE, AZIMN = 228°15′
e. EF, AZIMS = 135°00′
3.5. a. AB, N 25°40′ E
True Bearing:
′ ′
∅ = 25°40 + 2°30 = 28°10′
AB, N 𝟐𝟖°𝟏𝟎′ E
AB, AZIMN = 𝟐𝟖°𝟏𝟎′
AB, AZIMS = 180° + 28°10′ = 𝟐𝟎𝟖°𝟏𝟎′
b. AC, S 50°12′ E
True Bearing:
∅ = 50°12′ − 2°30′ = 47°42′
AC, S 𝟒𝟕°𝟒𝟐′ E
AC, AZIMN = 180° − 47°42′ = 1𝟑𝟐°𝟏𝟖′
AC, AZIMS = 360° − 47°42′ = 𝟑𝟏𝟐°𝟏𝟖′
c. AD, S 62°18′ W
∅ = 230°30′ − 180° = 50°30′ True Bearing:
AB, N 𝟓𝟎°𝟑𝟎′ E
∅ = 62°18′ + 2°30′ = 64°48′
′
∅ = 180° − 112°36 = 67°24′
AD, S 𝟔𝟒°𝟒𝟖′ W
BC, S 𝟔𝟕°𝟐𝟒′ E
AD, AZIMN = 180° + 64°48 = 𝟐𝟒𝟒°𝟒𝟖′
∅ = 270°
AD, AZIMS = 𝟔𝟒°𝟒𝟖′
CD, Due East
3.6. Sum of Interior Angles = (𝑛 − 2)180°
′
∅ = 228°15 − 180° = 48°15′
Sum of Interior Angles = (5 − 2)180°
DE, S 𝟒𝟖°𝟏𝟓′ W
Sum of Interior Angles = 540°
∅ = 180° − 135°00′ = 45°00′
∅ = 540°/5 = 108°
EF, N 𝟒𝟓°𝟎𝟎′ W
True Bearing and True Azimuth of side AB:
AB, N 𝟑𝟎°𝟑𝟎′ E
AB, AZIMS = 180° + 30°30′ = 𝟐𝟏𝟎°𝟑𝟎′
True Bearing and True Azimuth of side BC:
𝛽 = 108° − 30°30′ = 77°30′
BC, S 𝟕𝟕°𝟑𝟎′ E
BC, AZIMS = 360° − 77°30′ = 𝟐𝟖𝟐°𝟑𝟎′
True Bearing and True Azimuth of side CD:
𝛽 = (108° + 77°30′ ) − 180° = 5°30′
CD, S 𝟓°𝟑𝟎′ E
CD, AZIMS = 360° − 5°30′ = 𝟑𝟓𝟒°𝟑𝟎′
3.7. a. True Bearing:
𝜆 = 50°18′ − 8°15′ = 42°03′
XY, S 𝟒𝟐°𝟎𝟑′ S
b. True Azimuth from South:
XY, AZIMS = 360° − 42°03′
XY, AZIMS = 𝟑𝟏𝟕°𝟓𝟕′
c. New Magnetic Bearing:
𝜌 = 42°03′ − 12°10′ = 29°53′
XY, S 𝟐𝟗°𝟓𝟑′ E
d. Magnetic Azimuth from South in 1986
XY, AZIMS = 360° − 29°53′
XY, AZIMS = 𝟑𝟑𝟎°𝟎𝟕′
REVIEW EXERCISES:
3.1. The observed compass bearing of a line in 1981 was S 37°30’ E and the
magnetic declination of the place then was known to be 3°10’ W. It has also
discovered that during the observation local attraction of the place at that
moment of 5° E existed. Fin the true azimuth of the line.
3.2. The bearing of a line from A to B was measured as S 16°30’ W. It was found
that there was local attraction at both A and B and therefore a forward and a
backward bearing were taken between A and a point C at which there was no
local attraction. If the bearing of AC was S 30°10’ E and that of CA was N
28°20’ W, what is the corrected bearing of AB?
3.3. The interior angles of a five-side traverse are as follows: A = 117°30’, B =
96°32’, C = 142°54’, and D = 132°18’. The angle at E is not measured.
3.3.1. Compute the deflection angles.
3.3.2. Calculate the bearings of the lines assuming AB due North.
3.4. A triangular lot for one of its boundaries a line 1500 m long which runs due
East and West. The eastern boundary is 900 m long and the western boundary
is 1200 m long. A straight line cutes the wester boundary at the middle point
and meets the easterly boundary 600 m from SE corner. Find the bearings and
length of the line of the south portion of this triangular lot and give its technical
description starting from the SW corner going counter clockwise.
3.5. The side AB of an equilateral field ABC with an area of 692.80 sq.m. has a
magnetic bearing of N 48°45’ E in 1930 when the magnetic declination was
0°52’ E. Find the length and true bearing of the side AB. Find also the length
and true bearing of line AD connecting corner A and point D on the line BC
and making the area of the triangle ABD one third of the whole area.
3.6. The following are bearings taken on a closed compass traverse. Compute the
interior angles and correct them for observational errors. Assuming the
observed bearing of line AB to be correct, adjust the bearings of the remaining
sides.
Line Forward Bearing Backward Bearing
AB S 37°30’ E N 37°30’ W
BC S 43°15’ W N 44°15’ E
CD N 73°00’ W S 72°15’ E
DE N 12°45’ E S 13°15’ W
EA N 60°00’ E S 59°00’ W
3.7. Given the following deflection angles of a closed traverse. Compute the bearing 3.15. The magnetic bearings of the sides of a field have been observed as follows:
of all the lines if the bearing of AB is S 40° E. AB = S 25°30’ E; BC = S 12°00’ W; CD = S 68°15’ W; DA = N 18°45’ E. Find
the interior angles.
STATION DEFLECTION ANGLES 3.16. The interior angles of a field are as follows: A = 73°08’; B = 132°22’; C =
A 85°20’ L
88°47’; and D = 65°43’. The magnetic bearing of AB = N 65°30’ E. If the
B 10°11’ R
direction of the courses is taken to be clockwise, what are the calculated
C 83°32’ L
bearings of the other sides of the field?
D 63°27’ L
E 34°18’ L
F 72°56’ L
G 30°45’ L FEEDBACK:
3.8. In 1925, the magnetic bearing of a line OA was N 15°45’ W, the magnetic
For self-evaluation: How many problems in Instructive Problems did you
declination at that time is 1°15’ E. The secular variation per year is 03’ E. What
get? How many problems in Review Exercises did you get? What problems did you
will be the declination of the needle and the magnetic bearing of the line in
not easily get?
1938?
3.9. A field is in the form of a regular pentagon. The direction of the bounding sides
was surveyed with an assumed meridian 5° to the right of the true north and
south meridian. As surveyed with an assumed meridian, the bearing of one side
AB is N 33°20’ W. Find the true bearing and azimuth of all sides of the field.
3.10. From the given data of a compass survey, compute the corrected bearings of
all the lines.
Line Forward Bearing Backward Bearing
AB N 30°30’ W S 32°15’ E
BC S 80°45’ W N 82°45’ E
CD S 53°00’ W N 50°15’ E
DE S 13°00’ W N 11°30’ E
EA N 66°30’ E S 69°30’ W
3.11. Given the magnetic bearing AB = N 72° E, and the magnetic declination 3°
W. Find the true bearing of AB.
3.12. Given the bearings, OA = N 62°15’ E, and OB = N 81°30’ W. Find the angle
AOB.
3.13. Given the bearing of OC = S 10°14’ W and the clockwise angle COD =
83°17’. Find the calculated bearing of OD.
3.14. At a given place in 1875 the magnetic bearing of a line was N 89°15’ W,
and the declination of the needle 5° W. At the present time the declination is
2°30’ W. What is the present magnetic bearing of the line? What is the true
bearing of the line?