MODULE 1 formerly identified as surveying.
The principal reason that the name change is that
INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING
OBJECTIVE:
INTRODUCTION:
Surveying may be defining as the science, art, and technology of
determining the relative positions, in three dimensions of space (dimensions of
distances, directions and elevations), of natural and man-made features on or
beneath the surface of the Earth. These features may be represented in analogue
form as a contoured map, plan or chart, or in digital form.
Surveying requires management and decision making in deciding the
appropriate methods and instrumentation required to complete the task satisfactorily
to the specified accuracy and within the time limits available. This initial process
can only be properly executed after very careful and detailed reconnaissance of the
area to be surveyed.
The field work is the next step, involving the capture and storage of field
data using some instruments and techniques appropriate in the task. If the field data
is secured, processing of data is the next step in the operation by computing the
required data. Data presentation in analogue or digital form may now be carried out
by conventional cartographic plotting or through a totally automated computer-
based system leading to a paper- or screen-based plot.
Surveying is indispensable to the engineer when planning, designing and
constructing a project, so all engineers should have thorough understanding in
surveying so that they can enable to complete the project successfully in the most
economical and shortest possible time.
Today, surveying is also called as geomatics, this term is a relatively new
nowadays. It is commonly being applied to encompass the areas of practice
the manner and scope of practice in surveying has changed dramatically this recent
year. This has occurred in part because of recent technological developments in the
world of survey, new tools and equipment has been developed for measuring or
collecting information in the field of survey.
1.1. IMPORTANCE OF SURVEYING
Surveying is one of the world’s oldest and most important arts because from
the earliest times it has been necessary to mark boundaries and divided land.
Surveying continues to play an extremely important role in many branches of
engineering. For example, surveys are required to plan, construct, and maintain
highways, bridges, railways, tunnels, buildings, irrigations, dams, drainage works,
urban land subdivisions, water supply and water sewerage, and many others.
Surveying is important in many related tasks in agronomy, archeology, astronomy,
forestry, geography, geology, geophysics, landscape architecture, meteorology,
paleontology, and seismology, but particularly in military and civil engineering.
Surveyors and engineers must have a thorough understanding of the
methods and instruments used, including their capabilities and limitations. This
knowledge is best obtained by making observations with the kinds of equipment
used in practice to get a true concept of the theory of errors and the small but
recognizable differences that occur in observed quantities.
The used of survey are (1) map the Earth above and below sea level; (2)
prepare navigational charts/maps for use in the air, on land, and at sea; (3) establish
property boundaries of lands; (4) develop data banks of land use and natural
resource information; (5) determine the facts on the size, shape, gravity and
magnetic fields of the Earth; and (6) prepare charts of our moon and planets.
1.2. TYPES OF SURVEYS
The shape of the earth is that of an oblate spheroid of revolution. When
surveys are of such wide extent that the spheroidal shape of the earth is a matter of
importance, they are called geodetic surveys. When they are of such limited extent
that the exact shape of the earth may be disregard, they are called plane surveys.
Some types of surveys are described briefly.
Control Surveys establish network of horizontal and vertical monuments
that serves as a reference framework for initiating other surveys.
Topographic Surveys are those which are made for the purpose of
representing the three-dimensional relations of the earth’s surface on maps or
models.
Land Surveys are those which are made incident to the fixing of property
lines, the calculation of land areas, or the transfer of real property. This is the oldest
branch of surveying, having its origin in the beginnings of civilization.
Route Surveys are made of the purpose of the location and construction of
engineering projects which are built along fixed routes and gradients. This include,
highways, railways, canals, drainage ditches, levees, and transmission lines.
Hydrographic Survey comprise the operations necessary to map the shore
lines of bodies of water; to chart the bottom areas of streams, lakes, harbors, and
coastal waters; to measure the flow of streams, and to determine other factors
affecting navigation and the water resources.
Mine Surveys are necessary to determine the position of all underground
workings and surface structures of mines, to fix the positions and directions of
tunnels, shafts, and drifts, and to fix the surface boundaries of all claims, and
properties.
Cadastral Surveys are made to fix the boundaries of municipalities and of
state and federal jurisdictions.
Aerial Surveys are those which make use of photographs taken from
airplanes and which may be used in connection with any of the classes of surveys.
Construction Surveys provide line, grade, control elevations, horizontal
positions, dimensions, and configurations for construction operations.
Solar Surveys map property boundaries, solar easements, obstructions
according to sun angles and meet other requirements of zoning boards and title
insurance companies.
Alignment Survey are made to plan, design, and construct highways,
railroads, pipelines, and other linear projects. They normally begin at one control
point and progress to another in the most direct manner permitted by field
conditions.
1.3. SURVEYING SAFETY
Surveyors (geomatic engineers) generally involved in both field and office
work. The fieldwork consists in making observations with various types of
instruments either (a) to determine the relative position of points or (b) to set out
stakes in accordance with planned locations to guide building and construction
operations. The office work involves (1) conducting research and analysis in
preparing for surveys, (2) computing and processing the data obtained from field
measurements, and (3) preparing maps, plats charts, reports, and other documents
needed.
Among the most dangerous of circumstances within which surveyors must
sometimes work are job sites. In this situation, whenever possible, the surveys
should be removed from the danger areas through careful planning. Safety vests of
fluorescent yellow color should always be worn, and flagging materials of the same
color can be attached to the survey equipment to make it more visible.
Certain tools can also be dangerous, such as chain saws, axes, and machetes
that are sometimes necessary for clearing line of sight. These must be always be
handled with care. Also, care must be exercised in handling certain surveying
instruments. It is essential to the survey party to bring first-aid kit and bring cell
phones or any other devices use for communication.
1.4. SURVEYING THEORY
Plane surveying makes use principally, of the mathematical theory of plane
and solid geometry, logarithms, and trigonometry. A thorough knowledge of these
subjects is expected of the student when he begins, or at least, before he completes
his study of surveying practice.
All surveying operations are subject to the imperfections of the instruments
used of their manipulation. Therefore, no surveying measurement is exact. Every
profession must be founded upon sound practice, in turn must be based upon proven
principles. Most of the principles below have an application at all stages of a survey
and it is an unwise and unprofessional surveyor who does not take them into
consideration when planning, executing, computing and presenting the results of
the survey work.
1.4.1. Control
A control network is the framework of survey stations whose coordinates
have been precisely determined and are often considered definitive. The stations are
the reference monuments, to which other survey work of a lesser quality is related.
1.4.2. Economy of Accuracy
Surveys are only ever undertaken for a specific purpose and so should be
as accurate as they need to be, but not more accurate. In spite of modern equipment,
automated systems, and statistical data processing the survey is still a manpower
intensive one and needs to be kept to an economic minimum. The estimation of
survey is based upon experience using knowledge of survey methods to be applied,
the instruments be used and the capabilities of the personnel involved.
1.4.3. Consistency
In survey consistency must be applied. For example, any product is only as
good as the most poorly executed part of it. It matters not whether that product is a
washing machine or any other equipment, an inconsistency in the endeavor could
cause a catastrophic failure. Consistency and economy of accuracy usually go hand
in hand in the production of control.
1.4.4. The Independent Check
The independent check is a technique of quality assurance. It is a means of
guarding against a blunder or gross error and the principle must be applied at all
stages of a survey. Checks should be applied to ensure that stations have been
properly occupied and the observations between them properly made. An
adjustment of these observations, especially by least squares, leads to misclosure or
error statistics, which in themselves are a manifestation of the independent check.
1.4.5. Safeguarding
Safeguarding is concerned with the protection of work. Observation which
are written down in the field must be in a permanent, legible, unambiguous and
easily understood form so that others may make good sense of the work.
1.5. SURVEYING MEASUREMENTS
A measurement is the process of determining the extent, size or dimensions
of a particular quantity in comparison to a given standard. In surveying,
measurements are usually concentrated on angles, elevations, times, lines, areas,
and volumes.
Any surveying measurement is always subject to the imperfections of the
instrument used and the different errors inherent in the process. There is no such
thing as a perfect measuring instrument nor is there a surveyor whose senses are
sufficiently perfect to measure any quantity exactly. Measurements are never exact
they will always be imperfect no matter how carefully made.
In surveying, measurements may be made directly or indirectly. it is the
fact that the best surveyor is not the one who makes the most accurate and precise
measurements, but the one who is able to choose and apply the required or
appropriate degree of precision.
1. Direct Measurements – a comparison of the measured quantity with a
standard measuring unit or units employed for measuring a quantity of that
kind.
Example: applying a wire or a tape to a line, determining a horizontal or
vertical angle with a transit
2. Indirect Measurements – when it is not possible to apply a measuring
instrument directly to a quantity to be measured. In this type of
measurement, the observed value is determined by its relationship to some
other known values.
Example: the total length of a line would be an indirectly observed distance if
it is determined by a summation of a series of directly measured short
segments.
1.6. ERRORS
No surveying measurement is exact; therefore, the surveyor is necessary
and continuously dealing with errors, and if his work is to be well done, he must
understand thoroughly the nature of the sources and behavior of the errors which
affect his results.
By definition, an error is the difference between an observed value for a
quantity and its true value,
𝐸 = 𝑋 − 𝑋̅
where 𝐸 is the error in an observation, 𝑋 the observed value, and 𝑋̅ its true value.
It should be apparent that position fixing simply involves the measurement
of angles and distances. However, all measurements, no matter how carefully
executed, there will always an error. The sources of error classified into three
categories:
1. Natural Errors – caused by variation in or adverse weather conditions,
refraction, etc.
2. Instrumental Errors – caused by imperfections, constructions, and
improper adjustments of the surveying instruments used.
3. Personal Errors – caused by the inability of the individual to make
exact observations due to the limitations of human sight, touch and
hearing.
1.7. CLASSIFICATION OF ERRORS
Systematic Error – also known as biases, can be constant or variable
throughout an operation and are generally attributable to known circumstances. A
systematic error is one which, for known changes in field conditions, undergoes
proportional changes in magnitude; and which, for unchanging conditions, remains
unchanged, both in sign and magnitude. The value of these errors may often be
calculated and applied as a correction to the measured quantity. They can be the
result of natural conditions, for example, for a given change in temperature causes
the proportional change in the length of the tape as the temperature rises the tape
expand and as the temperature decreases its contract.
Random Error – are those that remain in measured values after mistakes
and systematic errors have been eliminated. They are caused by factors beyond
control of the observer, obey the laws of probability, and are sometimes called
accidental errors.
Mistakes – the difference from the true value arising from confusion of the
surveyor. They are due to carelessness or inattention of the observer, often resulting
from fatigue or inexperience. Mistakes are the largest of the errors likely to arise,
and therefore great care must be taken to eliminate them.
Discrepancy – the difference between two measurements of a given
quantity. Usually, though not always, it indicates the precision with which the
measurements have been made.
1.8. PRECISION AND ACCURACY
Precision refers to the degree of refinement or consistency of a group of
observations and is evaluated on the basis of discrepancy size while Accuracy
denotes the absolute nearness of observed quantities to their true values. The
difference between precision and accuracy is illustrated in the figure.
Figure 1.1. Relationship of Accuracy and Precision
Figure (a), indicates that all five shots exist in a group indicating a precise
operation with a high degree of consistency. Figure (b) shows that five shots are
randomly scattered that neither precise nor accurate. Figure (c), the five shots are
closely spaced grouping in the target’s center, it represents both precision and
accuracy.
1.9. THEORY OF PROBABILITY
Probability may be defined as the ratio of the number of times a result
should occur to its total number of possibilities. For example, in the toss of a fair
die there is one-sixth probability that a 2 will come up. The theory of probability is
applicable in many sociological and scientific observations.
1.9.1. Most Probable Value
From the theory of probability, a basic assumption is that the most probable
value (mpv) of a group of repeated measurements made under similar conditions is
the arithmetic mean or the average. Most Probable Value refers to a quantity which,
based on available data, has more chances of being correct than has any other.
Since the true values of measured quantities must remain forever unknown,
it is possible to obtain by measurements only approximation of true values, it is
determined by the formula:
∑𝑥 𝑥 +𝑥 +𝑥 +⋯+𝑥𝑛
𝑚𝑝𝑣 = 𝑋̅ = 𝑛 = 1 2 𝑛3
Where ∑ 𝑥 is the sum of the individual measurements, and 𝑛 is the total number of
observations made.
INSTRUCTIVE PROBLEMS:
1.1. A surveying instructor sent out six groups of students measure a distance
between two points marked on the ground. The students came up with the
following six different values: 250.25; 250.15; 249.90; 250.50; and 251.22
meters. Assuming these values are equally reliable and that variations result
from accidental errors, determine the most probable value of the distance
measured.
Solution:
1.2. The angles about a point Q have the following observed values 130°15’20”, 1.9.2. Residuals
142°37’30”, and 87°07’40”. Determine the most probable value of each angle.
A residual is simply the difference between the most probable value and
Solution: any observed value and any observed value of a quantity, which in equation form
is
𝑣 = 𝑚𝑝𝑣
̅̅̅̅̅̅ − 𝑀
where 𝑣 is the residual in any observation 𝑀, and 𝑚𝑝𝑣
̅̅̅̅̅̅ is the most probable value
for the quantity.

1.9.3. Measures of Precision

1.3. The observed interior angles of a triangle are A = 35°14’37”, B = 96°30’09”,
and C = 48°15’05”. Determine the discrepancy for the given observation and
the most probable value of each angle.
Solution:
The magnitude of dispersion is an indication of the relative precisions of
the observations. Other statistical terms more commonly used to express precisions
of groups of observations are standard deviation and variance. The equation for the
standard deviation is
∑ 𝑣2
𝜎 = ±√
𝑛−1
where 𝜎 is the standard deviation of a group of observations of the same quantity,
𝑣 the residual of an individual observation, ∑ 𝑣 2 the sum of squares of the individual
residuals, and 𝑛 the number of observations. Variance is equal to 𝜎 2 , the square of
the standard deviation.
Note that the standard deviation formula has both plus and minus values.
On the normal distribution curve, the numerical value of the standard deviation is
the abscissa at the inflection points (locations where the curvature changes from
concave downward to concave upward or visavis).

1.9.4. Probable Error and Relative Precision

Probable Error is a quantity which, when added to and subtracted from
the most probable value, defines a range within which there is a 50% chance that
the true value of the measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the limits thus set.
The value of the probable error is calculated with the use of the following formulae
which are derived from the least of squares.

∑ 𝑣2
𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±0.6745√
𝑛−1
∑ 𝑣2
𝑃𝐸𝑚 = ±0.6745√𝑛(𝑛−1)

Where: 𝑃𝐸𝑠 – probable error of any single measurement of a series

𝑃𝐸𝑚 - probable error of the mean
∑ 𝑣2 - summation of the squares of the residuals
𝑛 - number of observations
Relative Error or Relative Precision is expressed by a fraction having the
magnitude of the error in the numerator and the magnitude of a measured quantity
in the denominator. It is necessary to express both quantities in the same units, and
the numerator is reduced to unity or 1 in order to provide an easy comparison with
other measurements.

INSTRUCTIVE PROBLEMS:
1.9.4. Weighted Observations
1.4. The following values were determined in a series of tape measurements of a
The assignment of relative weight to different measurements is usually
line: 1000.58, 1000.40, 1000.38, 1000.48, 1000.40, and 1000.46 meters.
based upon the judgement of the surveyor, the number of measurements taken for
Determine the following:
a particular quantity and by assuming that the weights are inversely proportional to
a. Most probable value of the measured length.
the square of the probable errors.
b. Probable error of a single measurement and probable error of the mean
c. Final expression for the most probable length 1
d. Relative precision of the measurement 𝑊∝
𝜎2
Solution: In some instances, weights are assigned on the basis of weather conditions.
In the case of prepared measurements, if a quantity is measured, for example, in two
repetitions by group A and in four repetitions by group B, then the measurement
taken by group B should be given twice the weight of the measurement of group A.
This means that the measurement of group B is regarded as twice as reliable as that
of group A.
 In some cases, variances are unknown originally, and weights must be 1.7. Lines of levels to establish the elevation of a point are run over four different
assigned to observed values based on estimates of their relative precision. If a routes. The observed elevations of the point with probable errors are given
quantity is observed repeatedly and the individual observations have varying below. Determine the most probable value of the elevation of the point.
weights, the weighted mean can be computed from the expression Line Observed Elevation Probable Error (E)
(elev.)
∑ 𝑊𝑀 1 219.832 m ± 0.006 m
̅ =
𝑊
∑𝑊 2 219.930 m ± 0.012 m
̅ is the weighted mean, ∑ 𝑊𝑀is the sum of the individual weights times 3 219.701 m ± 0.018 m
where 𝑊
4 220.021 m ± 0.024 m
their corresponding observations, and ∑ 𝑊 the sum of the weights.
Solution:

INSTRUCTIVE PROBLEMS:
1.5. Four measurements of a distance were recorded as 284.18, 284.19, 284.22, and
284.20 meters and given weights of 1, 3, 2, and 4, respectively. Determine the
weighted mean.
Solution:

1.6. It is desired to determine the most probable value of an angle which has been
measured at different times by different observers with equal care. The values
observed were as follows: 74°39’45” (in two measurements), 74°39’27” (in
four measurements), and 74°39’35” (in six measurements).
Solution:

1.8. The interior angles A, B, and C of a triangular traverse were measured with
same precision. The results were as follows:
 Station Angles
A 39°
B 65°
C 75°
Determine the corrected angle of each station.
Solution:
No. of Measurements Product of Errors – for a measured quantity which is determined as the
3 product of two other independently measured quantities such as Q1 and Q2 (with
4 their corresponding probable errors), the probable error of the product is given by
2 the following equation
𝑃𝐸𝑝 = ±√(𝑄1 × 𝑃𝐸2 )2 + (𝑄2 × 𝑃𝐸1 )2

INSTRUCTIVE PROBLEMS:
1.9. The three sides of a triangular – shaped of land is given by the following
measurements and corresponding probable errors: a = 162.54 ± 0.03 m, b =
234.26 ± 0.05 m, and c = 195.70 ± 0.04 m. Determine the probable error of the
sum and the most probable value of the perimeter.
Solution:

1.9.5. Interrelationship of Errors

Two commonly applied principles of the theory of errors involves the
summation of errors and the product of errors. These principles are given to provide
the student a better understanding of the propagation of errors.
Summation of Errors – if several measured quantities are added, each of
which is affected by accidental errors, the probable error of the sum is given by the
square root of the sum of the squares of the separate probable errors arising from
the several sources or

𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±√𝑃𝐸1 2 + 𝑃𝐸2 2 + 𝑃𝐸3 2 + ⋯ + 𝑃𝐸𝑛 2

1.10. The two sides of a rectangular lot were measured with certain estimated SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS TO INSTRUCTIVE PROBLEMS:
probable errors as follows: W = 253.36 ± 0.06 m and L = 624.15 ± 0.08 m. ∑𝑥
Determine the area of the lot and the probable error in the resulting 1.1. 𝑚𝑝𝑣 = 𝑛
calculation.
250.25+250.15+249.90+250.50+251.22
𝑚𝑝𝑣 = 5
Solution:
𝑚𝑝𝑣 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝟒 meters
1.2. First sum up the angles.
∑ 𝑥 = ∠1 + ∠2 + ∠3
∑ 𝑥 = 130°15′ 20"+142°37'30" + 87°07′40"
∑ 𝑥 = 360°00′30"

Since the summation of the angles is equal to

360°00′30" which is greater than 360°, there is an error
of 30’’. To determine the most probable error of each angle, divide the error to the
number of angles. (Since the error is positive, we must subtract the error at each
angle.)
30"
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 3
= 10"

Most Probable Value at each angle:

𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 − 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
∠1 = 130°15′20" − 10" = 𝟏𝟑𝟎°𝟏𝟓′𝟏𝟎"
∠2 = 142°37′ 30" − 10" = 𝟏𝟒𝟐°𝟑𝟕′𝟐𝟎"
∠3 = 87°07′40" − 10" = 𝟖𝟕°𝟎𝟕′𝟑𝟎"
To check, sum up the adjusted angle, it must be equal to 360°.
∑ 𝑥 = 130°15′ 10"+142°37'20" + 87°07′30" = 360°00′00" correct
1.3. The total interior angle of a 𝑣3 = (𝑥3 − 𝑥̅ ) = 1000.38 − 1000.45 = −0.07
triangle is equal to 180°, sum up the
given interior angles if it is equal to 𝑣4 = (𝑥4 − 𝑥̅ ) = 1000.48 − 1000.45 = +0.03
180°. 𝑣5 = (𝑥5 − 𝑥̅ ) = 1000.40 − 1000.45 = −0.05
∑ 𝑥 = ∠𝐴 + ∠𝐵 + ∠𝐶 𝑣6 = (𝑥6 − 𝑥̅ ) = 1000.46 − 1000.45 = +0.01
∑ 𝑥 = 35°14′ 37"+96°30'09" + 48°15′05" 𝑣1 2 = (+0.13)2 = 0.0169 𝑣2 2 = (−0.05)2 = 0.0025
∑ 𝑥 = 179°59′51" 𝑣3 2 = (−0.07)2 = 0.0049 𝑣4 2 = (+0.03)2 = 0.0009
Since the total interior angles is 179°59′51" which is not equal to 180° there is a 𝑣4 2 = (−0.05)2 = 0.0025 𝑣2 2 = (+0.01)2 = 0.0001
total error of −9" (180° − 179°59′51" = −9"). Determine the error at each angle
by dividing the total error to the number of angles. ∑ 𝑣 2 = 𝑣1 2 + 𝑣2 2 + 𝑣3 2 + 𝑣4 2 + 𝑣5 2 + 𝑣6 2

𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 =

−9"
= −3" ∑ 𝑣 2 = 0.0169 + 0.0025 + 0.0049 + 0.0009 + 0.0025 + 0.0001
3
∑ 𝑣 2 = 0.0278
Most Probable Value at each angle:
∑ 𝑣2 0.0278
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 − 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±0.6745√𝑛−1 = ±0.6745√ (6−1)
∠1 = 35°14′37" − (−3") = 𝟑𝟓°𝟏𝟒′𝟒𝟎"
𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝒎 (probable error of a single measurement)
∠2 = 96°30′ 09" − (−3") = 𝟗𝟔°𝟑𝟎′𝟏𝟐"
∑ 𝑣2 0.0278
𝑃𝐸𝑚 = ±0.6745√𝑛(𝑛−1) = ±0.6745√6(6−1)
∠3 = 48°15′05" − (−3") = 𝟒𝟖°𝟏𝟓′𝟎𝟖"
To check, sum up the adjusted angle, it must be equal to 180°. 𝑃𝐸𝑚 = ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝒎 (probable error of the mean)
∑ 𝑥 = 35°14′ 40"+96°30'12" + 48°15′08" = 180°00′00" correct c. Therefore the length of the measured line may be expressed as 1000.45 ±
0.02 m. This means that there is a 50 percent chance that the true distance measured
1.4.
∑𝑥
probably falls between 1000.43 m and 1000.47 m, and that its most probable value
a. 𝑚𝑝𝑣 = 𝑥̅ = 𝑛 is 1000.45 m. There is also, however; a 50 percent chance that the true distance lies
1000.58+1000.40+1000.38+1000.48+1000.40+1000.46
outside this range.
𝑚𝑝𝑣 = 𝑥̅ = 6 𝑃𝐸 0.05 𝟏
𝑚𝑝𝑣 = 𝑥̅ = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟓 meters d. 𝑅𝑃𝑠 = 𝑚𝑝𝑣𝑠 = 1000.45 = 𝟐𝟎,𝟎𝟎𝟎 (relative precision of a single measurement)

b. 𝑣1 = (𝑥1 − 𝑥̅ ) = 1000.58 − 1000.45 = +0.13 𝑃𝐸

𝑚 0.02 𝟏
𝑅𝑃𝑚 = 𝑚𝑝𝑣 = 1000.45 = 𝟓𝟎,𝟎𝟎𝟎 (relative precision of the mean)
𝑣2 = (𝑥2 − 𝑥̅ ) = 1000.40 − 1000.45 = −0.05
1.5. ∑𝑃 5,056.45 m
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 = ∑ 𝑅𝑊 = 23
= 𝟐𝟏𝟗. 𝟖𝟒𝟔 𝒎
Measured Length (x) Assigned Weight (w) Product = x(w)
284.18 m 1 284.18 m 1.8.
284.19 m 3 852.57 m No. of
284.22 m 2 568.44 m Angles Relative Weight Adjusted Angle
Measurement
284.20 m 4 1136.80 m 1⁄ 4
Sum 10 2841.99 m 3 39° 1° ( 3 )= 4 ° 39° + °
1 1 1 13 13
′
3+4+2 = 𝟑𝟗°𝟏𝟖 𝟐𝟕. 𝟔𝟗"
∑𝑃 2841.99 1⁄ 3
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 = ∑ 𝑊 = 10
= 𝟐𝟖𝟒. 𝟏𝟗𝟗 𝒎 4 )= 3 ° 65° + °
4 65° 1° ( 13
1 1 1 13 ′
1.6. 3+4+2 = 𝟔𝟓°𝟏𝟑 𝟓𝟎. 𝟕𝟕"
1⁄ 6
Measured Angle (x) Weight (w) Product, P = xw
2 75° 1° ( 2 )= 6 ° 75° + °
74°39’45” 2 149°19’30” 1 1 1 13 13
+ + ′
3 4 2 = 𝟕𝟓°𝟐𝟕 𝟒𝟏. 𝟓𝟒"
74°39’27” 4 298°37’48”
74°39’35” 6 447°57’30” Sum 179° 180°00′00"
Sum 12 895°54’48”
Error = 180° − 179° = 1°
∑𝑃 895°54’48” 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 = ∑ 𝑊 = 12
= 𝟕𝟒°𝟑𝟗′𝟑𝟒" Relative Weight = 𝑆𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

1.7. 1.9. Perimeter = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 162.54 + 234.26 + 195.70

Observed Probable Weight (w) Relative Weight Product (P) Perimeter = 592.50 m
Elev. (x) Error (E) 𝑤 = 1⁄ 2 (RW) P = x(RW)
𝐸
27,777.78 𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±√(𝑃𝐸1 )2 + (𝑃𝐸2 )2 + (𝑃𝐸2 )2
219.832 m ±0.006 m 27,777.78 = 16 3,517.31 m
1,736.11
6,944.44 𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±√(0.03)2 + (0.05)2 + (0.04)2
219.930 m ±0.012 m 6,944.44 =4 879.72 m
1,736.11 𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±0.07 (probable error for the sum of the three measurements)
3,086.42
219.701 m ±0.018 m 3,086.42 =2 439.40 m
1,736.11 Note: Therefore, the perimeter would be expressed as 592.50 ± 0.07 m. This means
1,736.11 that the true length of the perimeter probably falls between 592.43 m and 592.57 m.
220.021 m ±0.024 m 1,736.11 =1 220.02 m
1,736.11
Sum 23 5,056.45 m 1.10. Area = 𝐿 × 𝑊 = 253.36 × 624.15
 Area = 158,134.64 sq.m. 571.180 571.189
571.183 571.182
𝑃𝐸𝑝 = ±√(𝐿 × 𝑃𝐸𝑤 )2 + (𝑊 × 𝑃𝐸𝐿 )2 a. What are the most probable values under each set and their corresponding
probable errors?
𝑃𝐸𝑝 = ±√(253.36 × 0.08)2 + (624.15 × 0.06)2 b. What is the most probable value of the two sets and the probable error of
the general mean?
𝑃𝐸𝑝 = ±42.58 sq.m. (probable error of the calculated area)
1.4. Two angles AOB and BOC and a single angle AOC are measured at the same
Note: Therefore, the area of the lot would be expressed as 158,134.64 ± 42.58 sq.m. point O. Determine the most probable value.
This means that the true area of the lot probably falls between 158,092.06 sq.m. and Angle Observed Value No. of Measurement
158,177.22 sq.m. AOB 33°46’00” 1
BOC 63°14’00” 3
AOC 97°00’30” 6
REVIEW EXERCISES: 1.5. Three independent line of level are run from BM1 to BM2. Route A is 6 km
long, route B is 4 km long and route C is 8 km long. By route A, BM2 is 82.27
1.1. Determine the most probable value of the measurements having different values m above BM1, by route B, BM2 is 82.40 m above BM1 and by route C, BM2 is
based on the number of measurements as tabulated in the table shown below. 82.10 m above BM1. If the elevation of BM1 is 30.69 m, compute the elevation
Distance No. of Measurement of BM2 by weighted mean.
520.14 1 Route Distance Diff. in Elev. Weight
520.20 3 A 6 82.27 4
520.18 6 B 4 82.40 6
520.24 8 C 8 82.10 3
1.2. The following data are the observed elevation of a point by running a line of 1.6. From the measured values shown determine if the measurements are within the
levels over four different routes. It is required to determine the most probable required precision. Show all computations. Allowable precision is 1/5000.
value of the elevation. Trials Length (m)
1 106.87
Route Elevations Probable Error
2 106.90
1 340.22 ±02
3 106.93
2 340.30 ±04
4 106.89
3 340.26 ±06
5 106.81
4 340.32 ±08
1.7. Given the following data in measuring a distance of a certain line.
1.3. A baseline measured with an invar tape, and with a steel tape as follows:
Distance No. of Measurements
Invar Tape Steel Tape
740.53 4
571.185 571.193
740.59 3
571.186 571.190
740.57 6
571.179 571.185
740.53 7
 a. Determine the most probable value of the measurement. FEEDBACK:
b. Calculate the standard deviation of any single observation.
For self-evaluation: How many problems in Instructive Problems did you
c. Calculate the standard error of the mean.
get? How many problems in Review Exercises did you get? What problems did you
d. Calculate the probable error of any single measurement.
not easily get?
e. Calculate the probable error of the mean.
f. Calculate the relative error or precision of the mean.
1.8. The following data are the observed elevation of a point by running a line of
levels over four different routes.

Route Elevation Probable Error

1 521.22 m ±0.01
2 520.80 m ±0.02
3 521.36 m ±0.03
4 521.32 m ±0.06
a. Using the method of least square, determine the weight of elevation
taken from route 4.
b. Determine the corresponding relative weight of the elevation taken
from route 2 if the relative weight of route 4 is set as 1.0.
c. Determine the most probable value of the elevation of the observed
point.
1.9. The two sides of a rectangular lot were measured with certain estimated
probable errors as follows: W = 312.755 ±0.050 m and L = 721.550 ±0.025 m.
Calculate the probable error in the area of the rectangle.
1.10. The sides of a container in a form of a rectangular prism were measured
with certain estimated probable errors as follows: L = 23.575 ±0.030 m, W =
12.455 ±0.015 m and H = 5.025 ±0.010 m. Calculate the probable error in the
volume of the container.
1.11. For the rectangular lot observations of sides, A and B with their 95% errors
are (252.46, ±0.053) and (605.08, ±0.072) ft, respectively. Calculate the parcel
area and the estimated error in the area.
1.12. Assume that a line is observed in three sections, with the individual parts
equal to (753.81, ±0.012), (1238.40, ±0.028), and (1062.95, ±0.020) ft,
respectively. Determine the line’s total length and its anticipated standard
deviation.
REVIEW EXERCISES SOLUTIONS: 𝒎𝒑𝒗 = 𝟑𝟒𝟎. 𝟐𝟒 𝒎
1.1. Determine the most probable value of the measurements having different values 1.3. A baseline measured with an invar tape, and with a steel tape as follows:
based on the number of measurements as tabulated in the table shown below.
a. What are the most probable values under each set and their corresponding
Distance No. of Measurement X probable errors?
(𝑑) (𝑛) (𝑑 × 𝑛) b. What is the most probable value of the two sets and the probable error of the
520.14 1 520.14 general mean?
520.20 3 1560.60
520.18 6 3121.08 Solution:
520.24 8 4161.92 a.
Total 18 9363.74
Solution: Invar Tape Steel Tape
Residual Residual
∑𝑥 9363.74 Distance 𝑣2 Distance 𝑣2
𝑚𝑝𝑣 = ∑ 𝑛 = (𝑣) (𝑣)
18
571.185 +0.002 0.000004 571.193 +0.005 0.000025
𝒎𝒑𝒗 = 𝟓𝟐𝟎. 𝟐𝟏 𝒎 571.186 +0.003 0.000009 571.190 +0.002 0.000004
571.179 -0.004 0.000016 571.185 -0.003 0.000009
1.2. The following data are the observed elevation of a point by running a line of 571.180 -0.003 0.000009 571.189 +0.001 0.000001
levels over four different routes. It is required to determine the most probable value 571.183 0 0 571.182 -0.006 0.000036
of the elevation. Total 0.000038 Total 0.000075
Elevations Probable Weight (w) Relative Weight Product (P)
Error 𝑤 = 1⁄ 2 (RW) P = x(RW) For Invar Tape:
𝐸
340.22 ±02 0.2500 571.185+571.186+571.179+571.180+571.183
0.2500 = 16 5,443.52 m 𝑚𝑝𝑣 = = 𝟓𝟕𝟏. 𝟏𝟖𝟑
0.0156 5
340.30 ±04 0.0625
0.0625 =4 1,361.20 m 𝑣 = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 − 𝑚𝑝𝑣
0.0156
340.26 ±06 0.0278
0.0278 =2 680.52 m For Steel Tape:
0.0156
340.32 ±08 0.0156 571.193+571.190+571.185+571.189+571.182
0.0156 =1 340.32 m 𝑚𝑝𝑣 = 5
= 𝟓𝟕𝟏. 𝟏𝟖𝟖
0.0156
Total 23 7,825.56 m 𝑣 = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 − 𝑚𝑝𝑣
Solution:
∑𝑃 7,825.56
𝑚𝑝𝑣 = ∑ =
𝑅𝑊 23
For Invar Tape: For Steel Tape: m above BM1, by route B, BM2 is 82.40 m above BM1 and by route C, BM2 is
82.10 m above BM1. If the elevation of BM1 is 30.69 m, compute the elevation
∑ 𝑣2 ∑ 𝑣2
𝑃𝐸 = ±0.6745√𝑛(𝑛−1) 𝑃𝐸 = ±0.6745√𝑛(𝑛−1) of BM2 by weighted mean.
Route Distance Diff. in Elev. Weight
0.000038 0.000075 A 6 82.27 4
𝑃𝐸 = ±0.6745√ 𝑃𝐸 = ±0.6745√ B 4 82.40 6
5(5−1) 5(5−1)
C 8 82.10 3
𝑷𝑬 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟑 𝑷𝑬 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟏 1.14. From the measured values shown determine if the measurements are within
the required precision. Show all computations. Allowable precision is 1/5000.
b.
Trials Length (m)
Relative 1 106.87
Probable Probable Weight (w) Product (P)
Weight 2 106.90
Value Error 𝑤 = 1⁄ 2 P = x(RW)
𝐸 (RW) 3 106.93
Invar 4 106.89
571.183 0.00093 1156203.029 2 1142.366 5 106.81
Tape
Steel 1.15. Given the following data in measuring a distance of a certain line.
571.188 0.00131 582716.625 1 571.188
Tape
Total 3 1713.554 Distance No. of Measurements
740.53 4
740.59 3
1713.554 740.57 6
𝑀𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 = 3
= 𝟓𝟕𝟏. 𝟏𝟖𝟓
740.53 7
2(0.00093)2 g. Determine the most probable value of the measurement.
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = √ 3
= ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟔 h. Calculate the standard deviation of any single observation.
i. Calculate the standard error of the mean.
1(0.00131)2 j. Calculate the probable error of any single measurement.
Or 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = √ 3
= ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟔
k. Calculate the probable error of the mean.
1.4. Two angles AOB and BOC and a single angle AOC are measured at the same l. Calculate the relative error or precision of the mean.
point O. Determine the most probable value. 1.16. The following data are the observed elevation of a point by running a line
of levels over four different routes.
Angle Observed Value No. of Measurement
AOB 33°46’00” 1 Route Elevation Probable Error
BOC 63°14’00” 3 1 521.22 m ±0.01
AOC 97°00’30” 6 2 520.80 m ±0.02
1.13. Three independent line of level are run from BM1 to BM2. Route A is 6 km 3 521.36 m ±0.03
long, route B is 4 km long and route C is 8 km long. By route A, BM2 is 82.27 4 521.32 m ±0.06
 d. Using the method of least square, determine the weight of elevation
taken from route 4.
e. Determine the corresponding relative weight of the elevation taken
from route 2 if the relative weight of route 4 is set as 1.0.
f. Determine the most probable value of the elevation of the observed
point.
1.17. The two sides of a rectangular lot were measured with certain estimated
probable errors as follows: W = 312.755 ±0.050 m and L = 721.550 ±0.025 m.
Calculate the probable error in the area of the rectangle.
1.18. The sides of a container in a form of a rectangular prism were measured
with certain estimated probable errors as follows: L = 23.575 ±0.030 m, W =
12.455 ±0.015 m and H = 5.025 ±0.010 m. Calculate the probable error in the
volume of the container.
1.19. For the rectangular lot observations of sides, A and B with their 95% errors
are (252.46, ±0.053) and (605.08, ±0.072) ft, respectively. Calculate the parcel
area and the estimated error in the area.
1.20. Assume that a line is observed in three sections, with the individual parts
equal to (753.81, ±0.012), (1238.40, ±0.028), and (1062.95, ±0.020) ft,
respectively. Determine the line’s total length and its anticipated standard
deviation.