Learning Objectives for this Chapter

1. Understand How to Measure Angles and Direction

2. Understand How to Solve Angles using Different Formula
3. Understand How to Convert Units Regarding Angles and
Directions

INSTRUCTOR – ENGR. JESSIE Y. LABASO, ASEAN ENGR. 47

4. Measurement of Directions and Angles

4.1. Meridian
The direction of a line is usually defined by the horizontal angle it makes with a fixed reference
line or direction. In surveying, this is done with reference to a meridian which lies in a vertical plane
passing through a fixed point of reference and through the observer’s position. There are four types of
meridians: true, magnetic, grid and assumed.

4.1.1. True Meridian

The true meridian is sometimes known as the astronomic or geographical meridian. It is generally
adapted reference line in surveying practice. This line passes through the geographical north and South
Pole of the earth and the observer’s position. Since all true meridians converge at the poles, they are not
parallel to each other. The direction of true meridian at a survey station is invariable and any record of
true directions taken remains permanent and unchanged regardless of time. Lines in most extensive
surveys are usually referred to the true meridian. This meridian is also used for making the boundaries of
land.

4.1.2. Magnetic Meridian

A magnetic meridian is a fixed line of reference which lies parallel with the magnetic lines of force
of the earth. Its direction is defined by a freely suspended magnetic needle of a compass held at the
observer’s position. Magnetic meridians are not parallel to the true meridians since they converge at a
magnetic pole which is located some distance away from the true geographical poles. Since the location
of the magnetic poles changes constantly, the direction of the magnetic meridian is not fixed. As a line of
reference, the magnetic meridian is employed only on rough surveys where a magnetic compass is used
in determining directions.

4.1.3. Grid Meridian

A grid meridian is a fixed line of reference parallel to the central meridian of a system of plane
rectangular coordinates. One central meridian, which coincides with a true meridian, is usually selected
and all other meridians are made parallel to this meridian. In this process, the need to calculate the
convergence of meridians when determining position of points in the system is eliminated. The use of grid
meridian is applicable only to plane surveys of limited extent. In such types of survey, it is assumed that
all measurements are all projected to a horizontal plane and that all meridian are parallel straight lines.

4.1.4. Assumed Meridian

An assumed meridian is an arbitrary chosen fixed line of reference which is taken for convenience.
This meridian is usually the direction from a survey station to an adjoining station of some well-defined
and permanent point. It is used only on plane surveys of limited extent since they are difficult of maybe
impossible to re-establish if the original reference points are lost or obliterated.

UNITS OF ANGULAR MEASUREMENT

The magnitude of an angle can be expressed in different units, all of which are basically derived
from the division of the circumference of a circle (Fig 4.1-1). A purely arbitrary unit is used to define the
value of an angle. The principal system of units are:

1. The Degree. The sexagisimal system is used in which the circumference of a circle is divided
into 360 parts or degrees. The angle of one degree is defined as the angle which requires 1/360 of the
rotation needed to obtain one complete revolution. The basic unit is the degree, which is further divided
into 60 minutes, and the minute is subdivided into 60 seconds. The ⁰, ′ and ″ are used to denote degrees,
minutes, and seconds respectively. Thus an angle 26 degrees, 32 minutes, and 15 seconds may be written
as 26⁰32′15″. If decimal parts of degree is desired the above value may be written as 26.5375 degrees.
This system is used extensively in surveying practice.

2. The Grad. The grad is the unit of measure in the centesimal system. In this system, the
circumference of a circle is divided into 400 parts called grads. The grad is subdivided into 100 centesimal
minutes and a centesimal minute is further subdivided into 100 centesimal seconds. The symbols g, c, and
cc are used to denote grads, centesimal minutes, and centesimal seconds respectively. This system is a
decimal one which is of some advantage when mathematical calculations are required. It is a standard unit

INSTRUCTOR – ENGR. JESSIE Y. LABASO, ASEAN ENGR. 48

used in Europe. An angle may be expressed as 235.2618g where the first pair of digits to the right of the
decimal point represents centigrads and the last pair of digits farther to the right of the decimal point
represents the decimilligrads. The preceding value may also be written as 235g26c18cc.

3. The Mil. The circumference is divided into 6400 parts called mills, or 1600 mils, or 1600 mils
is equal to 90 degrees. The mil will subtend very nearly one linear unit in a distance of 1000 such units. It
is commonly used in military operations as in fire direction of artillery units.

4. The Radian. The radian is another measure of angles used frequently for a host of calculations.
One radian is defined as the angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc length exactly equal to the
radius of the circle. One radian equals 180/𝜋 or approximately 57.2958 degrees and, one degree equals
𝜋/180 or approximately 0.0174533 radians. The radian is sometimes referred to as the natural unit of angle
because there is no arbitrary number in its definition. It is used in computations such as determining the
length of circular arcs and where high speed electronic digital computers are used.

Fig.4.1-1
Units of Angular Measurement

DESIGNATION OF NORTH POINTS

There is always a starting or reference point to define directions. Map users are primarily
concerned with north points for the determination of directions and the following are the commonly used
reference points.

1. True North - is the north point of the true meridian. In maps and sketches, it is portrayed in
the direction of the actual location of the earth’s north geographic pole and is always shown along a
vertical line. It is symbolized by a star, an asterisk, or the letters TN (Fig. 4.1-2a).

2. Magnetic North - a north point that is established by means of a magnetized compass needle
when there are no local attractions affecting it. At any point on the earth’s surface its direction is indicated
by the direction of the magnetic lines of force passing through the point at a particular time. Magnetic
north may be located either east or west of true north. The point is usually symbolized by a half arrowhead
or the letters MN (Fig. 4.1-2b).

3. Grid North - a north point which is established by lines on a map which are parallel to a
selected central meridian. It may coincide with lines directed toward true north. Grid north may be
symbolized by a full arrowhead or the letters GN or Y (Fig. 4.1-2c).

4. Assumed North - is used to portray the location of any arbitrarily chosen north point. It may
be symbolized by a small blackened circle or the letters AN (Fig. 4.1-2d).

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 Fig.4.1-2
Symbols used for north points

Illustrative Problems

1. CONVERSION OF AN ANGLE TO DECIMAL DEGREES.

Convert the angle 238°25′50″ into its equivalent in decimal degrees.

Angle = 238°25′50″
Decimal equivalent = Deg + Min/60 + Sec/3600
= 238° + 25′/60 + 50″/3600
= 238° + 0.4167° + 0.0139°
Decimal equivalent = 238.4306°

2. CONVERSION OF AN ANGLE TO DEGREES, MINUTES, AND SECONDS.

Convert to degrees, minutes, and second the decimal angle 325.7541667 degrees.

a) Deg = 325.7541667⁰ (decimal degrees)

Deg = 325⁰ (integral portion of the angle in degrees)

b) Min = (Deg-D) (60′/deg)

= (325.7541667⁰ - 325⁰) (60′/deg)
= 45.250002′ (decimal minutes)
Min = 45′ (integral portion of the angle in minutes)
c) Sec = (Min – M) (60″/min)
= (45.250002′ - 45′) (60″/min)
= 15.00012″ (decimal seconds)
Sec = 15″ (integral portion of the angle in seconds)

d) Therefore, 325.7541667 = D + M + S = 325⁰45′15″

3. CONVERSION FROM DEGREES TO GRADS, MILS, AND RADIANS.

Convert 270⁰ into its equivalent value in grads, mils, and radians.

a) Angle in Grads = 270⁰ (400g / 360⁰) = 300g

b) Angle in Mils = 270⁰ (6400 mils / 360⁰) = 4800 mils
c) Angle in Radian = 270⁰ (2𝜋 rad / 360⁰) = 4.7124 radians

4.2. Interior Angles / Exterior Angles

The angles between adjacent lines in a closed polygon are called interior angles. In Figure 4.2-1a,
the interior angles are ∅a, ∅b, ∅c, ∅d, and ∅e. These angles may be measured clockwise or
counterclockwise. When the value of the interior angle is greater than 180 degrees it is referred to as a re-
entrant angle. Once such example is the interior angle at station E or ∅e. It should be remembered that for
any closed polygon the sum of the interior angles is equal to (n-2)180 degrees, where n is the number of
sides. For the polygon shown in Figure 4.2-1a, the sum of the interior angles is (5-2)180 degrees or 540
degrees.

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 Exterior angles are located outside a closed polygon and are referred to as explements of interior
angles. An explement is the difference between 360 degrees and any one angle. These angles are often
measured in surveying work and used as a check, since the sum of the interior and exterior angles at any
station or point must equal to 360 degrees. In Figure 4.2-1b, the exterior angles are 𝛿 a, 𝛿 b, 𝛿 c, 𝛿 d, and 𝛿 e.

Fig.4.2-1a Fig.4.2-1b
Interior angles Exterior angles

4.3. Deflection Angles

The angle between a line and the prolongation of the preceding line is called a deflection angle. It
may be turned to the right (clockwise) or to the left (counterclockwise) and it is always necessary to
append the letters R or L to the numerical value to define the direction in which the angle has been turned.
Right deflections are considered to have signs opposite to left deflections. Usually, a positive sign is used
to define deflection angle to the right and a negative sign for deflection angles to the left.
In Figure 4.3-1, the deflection angles at stations B, C, and D are 𝜔b (R), 𝜔c (L) and 𝜔d(R),
respectively. These angles may have values between 0 and 180 degrees, but often they are not used for
angles greater than 90 degrees. In any closed polygon the algebraic sum of the deflection angles should
always equal to 360 degrees.

Fig. 4.3-1
Deflection Angles

4.4. Angles to the Right

Angles to the right are measured clockwise from the preceding line to the succeeding line. In
Figure 4.4-1, the angles to the right at stations B, C, and D are 𝛽b, 𝛽c, and 𝛽d, respectively. These angles
are also referred to as azimuths from back line.

Fig. 4.4-1
Angles to the Right

4.5. Bearings

INSTRUCTOR – ENGR. JESSIE Y. LABASO, ASEAN ENGR. 51

 The direction of a line may be described by giving its bearing. The bearing of a line is the acute
horizontal angle between the reference meridian and the line. A quadrantal system (Fig. 4.5-1) is used to
specify bearings such that a line may fall under one of the following quadrants: NE, SE, NW, and SW.
Each quadrant is numbered from 0 to 90 degrees from either the north or south end of the meridian to the
east or west end of the reference parallel (or the E-W Line). The fact that bearing angles never exceed 90
degrees is an advantage when extracting values of their trigonometric functions for use in computations.

Fig. 4.5-1
Quadrantal system for defining bearings

Either the letters N or S precedes the bearing angle and the letter E or W follows the indicated
value of the angle. It is never done the other way around. Therefore, to locate a line it is always necessary
to know the directional quadrant in which it lies as well as the angle it makes with reference meridian.
The line could lie in any of the four quadrants if only the bearing angle of the line is known.
Bearings may also be designated in a different manner when the direction of a line lies in the same
direction as the reference meridian or reference parallel. If the line lies parallel to the meridian and south,
it is written as due south; if perpendicular to the meridian and east, it is written as due east. In Figure 4.5-
2, the bearings of six lines originating from point P are given.

Fig.4.5-2
Determining bearings

When bearings are employed to define the direction of lines it is important to identify the meridian
used as reference. Depending, therefore, on the reference meridian being used, bearings may be true,
magnetic, grid, or assumed.
True bearings are measured form the local astronomic or true meridian. When directions are
measured from the local magnetic meridian, they are called magnetic bearings. Such bearings can be
obtained in a field by observing a magnetic needle in a compass box. Most of our early land surveys were
made in terms of magnetic bearings. They are used only of time and when only a low order of precision
is required. In addition, magnetic bearings may be used for rerunning old property lines whose directions
were originally determined by compass, or for checking more precise surveys. Grid bearings are measured
from the appropriate grid meridian whereas assumed bearings are measured from an arbitrarily chosen
meridian.

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FORWARD AND BACK BEARINGS
Using the quadrantal system, any line on the surface of the earth may be defined by two directions
which differ from each other by exactly 180 degrees. The direction will depend on which end line is
observed. When the bearing of a line is observed in the direction in which the survey progresses, it is
referred to as forward bearing, if the bearing of the same line is observed in an opposite direction, it is
called the back bearing. In Figure 4.5-3, assume a compass is set up successively at stations A, B, C, D,
and E, and bearings read on lines AB, BA, BC, CB, CD, DC, DE, and ED. The observed bearings of lines
AB, BC, CD, and DE are called back bearings. From the illustrated directions given in Figure 4.5-3, it can
be readily seen that back bearings can be obtained from the forward bearings by simply changing the letter
N to S and also changing E to W, and vice versa.

Fig.4.5-3
Forward and back bearings

4.6. Azimuths
Another common method used in designating the direction of a line is by the use of azimuths. The
azimuth of a line is its direction as given by the angle between the meridian and the line measured in a
clockwise direction from either the north or south branch of the meridian. Azimuths are usually preferred
over bearings by most surveyors because they are more convenient to work with such as in computing
traverse data by electronic digital computers.
The azimuth of a line may range from 0 to 360 degrees and letters are not required to identify
quadrants. For any particular survey the direction of zero azimuth is either always north or always south.
Some surveyors reckon azimuths from the south and some from the north branch of particular agency or
organization will consistently use one or the other. Since both the north and south branches of the meridian
are used, it is important to always specify and record which branch is used whenever azimuths are
recorded.
In practice, azimuths are generally measured from the north branch of the reference meridian for
ordinary plane surveys. For large scale geodetic surveys and in astronomical observations azimuths are
measured form the south branch of the meridian. Figure 4.6-1 shows different lines whose azimuths are
measured from the north branch of the reference meridian. Azimuths measured from the south branch of
the meridian are shown in Figure 4.6-2.

INSTRUCTOR – ENGR. JESSIE Y. LABASO, ASEAN ENGR. 53

 Fig. 4.6-1 Fig. 4.6-2
Azimuths from north Azimuths from south

Azimuths may be called true, magnetic, assumed, or grid, depending on the reference meridian
from which they have been measured. They are referred to as true azimuths when measured from the true
or astronomic meridian, magnetic azimuths when measured form the magnetic meridian, grid azimuths
when referred to the central meridian in a grid system, and assumed azimuths when referred to an
arbitrarily selected line. To avoid confusion in the interpretation and use of observed directions, it is
important to always clearly specify in the field notes the type of reference meridian used.

FORWARD AND BACK AZIMUTHS

Any line established on the earth’s surface has two azimuths – a forward azimuth and a back
azimuth. Depending on which end of the line is considered, these directions differ by 180 degrees from
each other since the back azimuth is the exact reverse of the forward azimuth. To determine the back
azimuth when the forward azimuth is known, the following rules are used:

RULE 1: If the forward azimuth of the line is greater than 180 degrees, subtract 180 degree to
obtain the back azimuth.
RULE 2: When the forward azimuth of the line is less than 180 degrees, add 180 degrees to
determine the back azimuth.

Shown in Figure 4.6-3 are four successive lines whose azimuths have been observed. Tabulated
immediately below the figure are the observed forward and back azimuths (reckoned from south) of lines
AB, BC, CD, and DE. The tabulation also shows the calculated forward and back azimuths of each line
as reckoned from the north branch of the reference meridian. By applying Rules 1 and 2, the student should
be able to determine how the tabulated back azimuths have been determined.

Fig. 4.6-3
Forward and back azimuths

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 It should, however, be understood that although the above stated rules are useful, there are actually
no hard and fast rules to observe in determining back azimuths or when converting azimuths from one
branch of the meridian to the other. To visualize the needed computation, the most important thing to do
is just to make a good sketch which will show the related quantities. The rest will require only simplified
analysis.

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

1. DETERMINING ANGLES FROM BEARINGS. Compute the angles AOB, COD, EOF, and GOH
from the following set of lines whose magnetic bearings are given.

a) OA, N39°25'E and OB, N75°50'E

b) OC, N34°14'E and OD, N53°22'W
c) OE, S15°04'E and OF, S36°00'W
d) OG, N70°15'W and OH, S53°05'W

Solution:
a) Determining Angle AOB
Let θ1 = Bearing angle of OA or 39°25'
θ2 = Bearing angle of OB or 75°50'
δ = Angle AOB
δ = θ2 - θ2 = 75°50' - 39°25'
δ = 36°25'

b) Determining Angle COD

Let θ1 = Bearing angle of OC or 34°14'
θ2 = Bearing angle of OD or 53°22'
δ = Angle COD
δ = θ2 + θ2 = 34°14' + 53°22'
δ = 87°36'

c) Determining Angle EOF

Let θ1 = Bearing angle of OE or 15°04'
θ2 = Bearing angle of OF or 36°00'
δ = Angle EOF
δ = θ2 + θ2 = 15°04' + 36°00'
δ = 51°04'

d) Determining Angle GOH

Let θ1 = Bearing angle of OG or 70°15'
θ2 = Bearing angle of OH or 52°05'
δ = Angle GOH
δ = 180° - (θ2 + θ2)
= 180° - (70°15' + 52°05')
δ = 57°40'

INSTRUCTOR – ENGR. JESSIE Y. LABASO, ASEAN ENGR. 55

2. DETERMINING ANGLES FROM AZIMUTHS. Compute the angles APB, CPD, and EPF from the
following set of lines whose azimuths are given:

a) AZIMn of Line PA = 39°48' ; AZIMn of Line PB = 115°29'

b) AZIMs of Line PC = 320°22' ; AZIMs of Line PD = 62°16'
c) AZIMn of Line PE = 219°02' ; AZIMs of Line PF = 154°16'

Solution:
a) Let λ1 = Azimuth from north of Line PA or 39°48'
λ2 = Azimuth from north of Line PB or 115°29'
θ = Angle APB
θ = λ2 - λ1
= 115°29' - 39°48'
θ = 75°41'

b) Let λ1 = Azimuth from south of Line PC or 320°22'

λ2 = Azimuth from south of Line PD or 62°16'
θ = Angle CPD
θ = λ2 + (360° - λ1 )
= 62°16' + (360° - 320°22')
θ = 101°54'

c) Let λ1 = Azimuth from north of Line PE or 219°02'

λ2 = Azimuth from south of Line PF or 154°16'
θ = Angle EPF
θ = λ2 - (λ1 - 180°)
= 154°16' - (219°02' - 180° )
θ = 115°14'

INSTRUCTOR – ENGR. JESSIE Y. LABASO, ASEAN ENGR. 56

Name: ________________________________________________ Yr. and Section: ________________
Instructor: _____________________________________________ Score: ________________________
Date of Submission: ________________

ASSESSMENT No. 4

Solve the following problems. Write your answer on the space provided below.

1.CONVERSION OF ANGULAR UNITS. Convert the following angles into their equivalent values in
grads, mils, and radians.
a) 29°53'54" d) 233°30'56"
b) 110°03'46" e) 341°43'05"
c) 278°55'55.5" f) 12°16'15"

2.CONVERSION OF ANGULAR UNITS. Convert the following angles into their equivalent values in
grads, degrees, and radians.
a) 420 mils d) 4400 mils
b) 1885.50 mils e) 5632.158 mils
c) 2908.75 mils f) 3200 mils

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3.CONVERTING BEARINGS TO AZIMUTHS. Convert the following bearings to equivalent
azimuths.
a) AB, N25°25'W c) CD, S50°10'E e) EF, N66°30'W
b) BC, Due East d) DE, S45°50'W

4.CONVERSION OF ANGULAR UNITS. The interior angles of a quadrilateral are: 122.32, 95.39,
84.70, and 97.59 grads. Convert the given angles into their equivalents in degrees and show a
computational check.

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5.DETERMINING BEARINGS AND AZIMUTHS. In the accompanying sketch, the bearing of line
AB is N52°33'E. Determine the bearing and the azimuth from south of lines BC, BD, BE, and BF.

INSTRUCTOR – ENGR. JESSIE Y. LABASO, ASEAN ENGR. 59

6.DETERMINING BEARINGS. Side AB of an equilateral triangle (see accompanying sketch) has a
bearing of N83°40'E. If the vertex C lies somewhere north of side AB, determine the bearings of sides BC
and CA.

INSTRUCTOR – ENGR. JESSIE Y. LABASO, ASEAN ENGR. 60

7.DETERMINING AZIMUTHS. In the accompanying figure, determine the azimuth from north of lines
BC, CD, DE, and EF if the azimuth from south of line AB is 325°22'.

INSTRUCTOR – ENGR. JESSIE Y. LABASO, ASEAN ENGR. 61