MODULE 4

MEASUREMENTS OF ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS (1)

Introduction

In surveying, the direction of a line is described by the horizontal angle it makes with a
reference line or direction. Usually, this is done by referring to a fixed line of reference called the
meridian. There are three types of meridians: astronomic, magnetic and assumed. An
astronomic meridian is the direction of a line passing through the astronomic north and south
poles and the observer’s position.
Astronomic north is based on the direction of gravity and the axis of rotation of the
earth. It is determined from observations of the sun or other stars whose astronomical positions
are known (the sun and the north star, Polaris, being the most common). Sometimes the term
geodetic north is used. It is a direction detrmined from mathematical approximation of the earth’s
shape. It is slightly different from astronomic north and that difference can be as much as 20 arc
seconds in some parts of the western United States. A magnetic meridian is the direction taken
by the magnetized needle of a compass at the observer’s position: an assumed meridian is an
arbitrary direction taken for convenience.(McCormac, Surveying p. 133)

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the session, learners of this program are expected to:

a. Define the different systems of angular measurements

b. Convert one system of angular measurements to other systems of angular measurements.
c. Determine the bearing and azimuth of a given line.

Lesson Proper/ Discussion

Measurements of Angles and Directions

Units of Angular Measurements:

1. The Degree- units of measure in the sexagesimal system, is used in which the circumference
of a circle is divided into 360 parts called degrees.

2. The Grad- units of measure in the centesimal system, is used in which the circumference is
divided into 400 parts called grads

3.The Mils- units of measure in which the circumference of a circle is divided into 6400 parts
called Mils. It is commonly used in military operations as in fire direction of artillery units.
4. The Radian- is another measure of angles used frequently for a host of calculations. One radian
is defined as the angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc length exactly equal to radius
of the circle. One radian equals 180/л

To sum it up:

360 degrees = 400 grads 1 degree ( 0

) = 60 minutes ( ‘ )

360 degrees = 6400 mils 1 min ( ‘ ) = 60 seconds ( “ )

360 degrees = 2 л rad

360 degrees = 1 revolution

Enrichment Activities:

1. Convert the following angles:

a. 450 to grads; mils; rad; rev
b. 1200 mils to grads; deg; rad; rev
c. 0.75 rev to deg; mils; grad; rad

Solutions:
a) 45 0 x 400 grads/3600 = 50 grads Answer

450 x 6400 mils/3600 = 800 mils Answer

450 x 2𝜋 rad/3600 = 0.785 rad Answer

450 x 1 rev/3600 = 0.125 rev Answer

b) 1200 mils x 400 grads/6400 mils = 75 grads Answer

1200 mils x 360 0/6400mils = 67.50 Answer

1200 mils x 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 /6400 mils = 1.178rad Answer

1200 mils x 1rev/6400 mils = 0.1875 rev Answer

c) 0.75 rev x 3600/ 1 rev = 270 0 Answer

0.75 rev x 6400 mils/ 1 rev = 4800 mils Answer

0.75rev x 400 grad/1 rev = 300 grad Answer

0.75 rev x 2𝜋 rad/ 1 rev = 4.71 rad Answer

 Direction of a Line/Bearing and Azimuth of a Line

Direction of a Line- is defined as the horizontal angle the line makes with an established line of
reference.

Bearing- of a line is the acute horizontal angle between the reference meridian and the line.

Forward Bearing-of a line is observed in the direction in which the survey progresses.

Example: N 30 0
45 ’ E

Back Bearing- if the bearing of the same line is observed in an opposite direction.

Example : S 30 0 45 ’ W

Bearings may also be designated in a different manner when the direction of a line lies in
the same direction as the reference meridian or reference parallel. If the line lies parallel to the meridian
and south, it is written as due south; if perpendicular to the meridian and east, it is written as due east

Quadrantal System for defining BEARINGS

From the figure below:

Examples of Bearings of the Lines

1. Bearing of A-B = N 30000’ E

2. Bearing of A-C = S 25030’ E
3. Bearing of A-D = S 70045’ W
4. Bearing of A-E = N 60000’ W
5. 000N = Due North
6. 900E = Due East
7. 000S =Due South
8. 900W = Due West
Notice that in writing the bearing of a line, the primary meridian, N or S comes first, next is the angle, then
the secondary E or W parallel follows. If the angle lies exactly at the meridian or parallel, use the word
“due” and the direction. Therefore, the bearing angle ranges from 00000’ 59” to 89059’59”.
Azimuth of a line is the horizontal direction expressed as the angular distance between the direction of a
fixed point (such as the observer’s heading) and the direction of the object. It is either reckoned from North
or South meridian to the line measured in a clockwise direction only.

From the figure above, the azimuth of the line is

1. 2250 from North
2. 2250 from South

Enrichment Activities:

Bearing to Azimuth Conversion

Convert the following bearing to azimuth from North and South:

1.N45030’E
2.S55015’W
3.S30030’E
4.N65045’W
5. Due East
Solution:

Azimuth from North

1. N 45030’E, since the angle is reckoned from north therefore the azimuth is the same as the
bearing which is 45030’ and can be written as 𝜙N = 45030’ (note that the subscript N states that
the angle is reckoned from North).

2. S55015’W

𝜙N = bearing of the line + 1800

𝜙N =55015’ + 1800
𝜙N = 235015’ Answer
 3. S30030’E

𝜙N = 1800 – bearing of the line

𝜙N = 1800 – 30030’
𝜙N = 149030’ Answer

4. N65045’W

𝜙N = 3600 – bearing of the line

𝜙N = 3600 – 65045’
𝜙N = 294015’ Answer

5. Due East
𝜙N = 900 Answer
 Solution:
Azimuth from South

1. N45030’E

𝜙S = 1800 + bearing of the line

𝜙S = 1800 + 45030’
𝜙S = 225030’ Answer

2. S55015’W , since the angle is reckoned from south therefore the azimuth is the same as the
bearing which is 55015’ and can be written as 𝜙S = 55015’’ (note that the subscript S states
that the angle is reckoned from South)

3. S30030’E

𝜙S = 3600 – bearing of the line

𝜙S = 3600 – 30030’
𝜙S = 329030’ Answer
 4. N65045’W

𝜙S = 1800 – bearing of the line

𝜙S = 1800 – 65045’
𝜙S = 1140 15’ Answer

5. Due East
𝜙S = 1800 + 900
𝜙S 2700 Answer

Self-Assessment Questions:

1. Convert the following system of angular measurements:

a. 65030’ to grad, rad, mils and rev
b. 3600 mils to deg, grad, rad and rev
c. 250 grad to deg, mils, rad and rev
d. 250 rad to deg, grad, mils and rev
2. Convert he following bearings to azimuth from north and south (Illustrate your solutions)
a. N 25045’W
b. S 85025’E
c. S60050’W
d. N75045’E
3. Convert the following azimuth from north to bearings. (Illustrate your solutions)
a. 175030’
b. 65015’
c. 328010’
d. 180000’
4. Convert the following azimuth from south to bearings. (Illustrate your solutions)
a. 175030’
b. 65015’
c. 328010’
d. 180000’
.
MEASUREMENTS OF ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS USING THE ENGINEER’S TRANSIT,
THEODOLITE AND TOTAL STATION

Introduction

The invention ofthe first transit has been credited to Roemer, a Danish astronomer, who in 1690
used the instrument to observe the passage (transit) of stars across the celestial meridian. A similar
instrument was used in surveying work about a century later. The instrument then consisted of a
telescope mounted on a horizontal axis which was supported by vertical uprights, and could be moved
around graduated circles. It was only in 1830 when the instrument became known as the engineer’s
transit.
In principle, the engineer’s transit is essentially a telescope and two large protractors. One of the
protractors is mounted in a horizontal plane and the other in a vertical plane. It is so designed to
measure the angle of rotation of the telescope about its horizontal and vertical axes.(La Putt, Elementary
Surveying 3rd Edition p. 322)
Although the use of global positioning systems (GPS) for surveying purposes is becoming more
common, the most commonly used surveying instrument is the total station. It is a device that is a
combination of a digital theodolite and an EDM (electronic distance meter) together with an inboard
computer microprocessor, which has the capability of storing data, making mathematical computations
such as determining horizontal and vertical components of slope distances, computing elevations and
coordinate calculation. The original name for instruments of this type aws tacheometer or tachymeter or
electronic tacheometer. However, Hewlett-Packard introduced the name total station over 40 years ago
and refinements to this modern surveying instrument have been occurring since. Advancements now
include imaging total stations, robotic total stations, and GPS total stations.(McCormac, Surveying p.149)

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the session, learners of this program are expected to:

a. Identify the different parts and functions of an Enginners transit, theodolite and total station.
b. Read the horizontal and vertical angles from the instruments.

Lesson Proper/ Discussion

The Engineer’s Transit

Main parts of the transit.

The transit consists of three main parts: the upper plate or alidade, the lower plate, and the leveling
head assembly.

1. Upper Plate. Is also called the alidade, consists of the entire top of the transit. As a unit, the
entire assembly rotates about a vertical axis. It consiststhe following:

a. Telescope. The transit telescope is an optical typeand is similarto that of a dumpy level.
It is used for fixing the direction of the line of sight, viewing the objects and magnifying
their apparent size in the field of view. The telescope contains the objective lens, cross
hair ring, eyepiece and focusing screw.
 b. Standards. Two vertical standards, either the A or U type, whichare mounted on
trunnions, are integral parts of the upper plate. The standards are used to hold into position
the horizontal axle level so that the telescope can be elevated or depressed by rotating on
an axis perpendicular to the line of sight.

c. Compass Box. The transit is usually provided with a compass for establishing the
magnetic meridian and to allow rough checks on measured angles. It is found on the upper
plate between the standards.

d. Plate Level Vials. Attached to the upper plate are two level vials which are positioned at
right angles to each other. The plate levels areused to establish the upper and lower plates
in a horizontal plane.

e. Vertical Circle. The vertical circle is attached to the telescope and rotates with it. It is
uesd in measuring the vertical angles.

f. Plate Verniers. Two opposite verniers, called the A and B verniers, are provided for the
horizontal circle. The A vernier is located adjacent to the eyepiece where it is easily used
by the instrumentman. The B vernier is positioned 180 degrees from the A vernier. The
vernier segments are each about 5 cm long and fit close to the graduated circle as they
rotate around it.

g. Optical Plummet. The optical plummet is a small telescope through the vertical center
of the transit. This device enables the instrument to be centered over a given point quickly
and precisely by means of an optical system.

h. Telescope Clamp. To hold the telescope horizontal or at any desired inclination, the
vertical circle or telescope clamp is tightened.

i. Telescope Tangent Screw. This is also called the vertical circle slow-motion screw. It
allows the telescope to be rotated slightly or in small movements about the horizontal axis
after the telescope clamp is tightened.

j. Upper Clamp. Is a locking device which is attached to the upper plate and rotates with
it. When tightened it exerts pressure on the collar around the outer spindle causing the
upper and lower plates to lock together.

k. Upper Tangent Screw. When rotated, this screw allows a small range of movement
between the upper and lower plates even after the upper clamp istightened.

2. Lower Plate. The lower plate or horizontal circle is the scale with which horizotal angles are
measured. It is graduated on its upper face and divided around its circumference into 360 degrees.
 a. Lower Clamp. Although the lower motion clamp is attached to the horizontal circle, it
does not with it. This clamp is used to control the rotation of the horizontal circle.

b. Lower Tangent Screw. This screw is used to make precise settings after the lower clamp
is tightened. It moves the lower plate to a desired exact position using a small range of
movement.

3. Leveling Head Assembly. The leveling head assembly consists of a bottom horizontal foot plate,
four leveling screws and the plumb chain. It is the lower part of the transit. The assembly allows
the instrument to be leveled and centered over a point.

a. Leveling Screws. There are four leveling screwsthat are threaded into the leveling head
which bear against the foot plate. Each screw is set into a cup to protect the foot plate
fromcontinued scoring whenever the screws are turned. These screws are used for leveling
the instrument by the plate levels.

b. Plumb Bob Chain. In most conventional transits, a chain with a hook is suspended from
the bottom part of the leveling head assembly and hangs between the tripod legs. It is
used for attaching a strting and a plumb bob so that the instrument may be set exactly
over a selected point on the ground.
The Engineer’s Transit
The Electronic Total Station
Horizontal Angle Vernier Reading
 Basic Principles of Reading Horizontal and Vertical Angles

References:
1. Elementary Surveying 3rd edition by Juny Pilapil La Putt
2. Surveying by Jack McCormac Et. Al.
3. Surveying Theory and Practice By R.E Davis, F. S. Foote
4. The principles and Practice of Surveying by C. B. Breed; G.L. Hosmer and A. J. Bone