MODULE 1

INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS
ENGR. YOSHIHIRO C. ITABASHI JR.

CONTENTS
1. Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics 2
2. Units and Dimensions 4
3. Properties of a System 5
4. Closed and Open Systems 8
5. Energy 8
6. Work 9
7. Processes and Cycles 9

OVERVIEW
In this module, we will be introducing the basics concepts of thermodynamics and its
different laws, systems, properties, processes and cycles.
OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this module, you are expected to;
1. Identify the unique vocabulary associated with thermodynamics through the precise
definition of basic concepts to form a sound foundation for the development of the
principles of thermodynamics.
2. Describe the co-relations of the different properties of thermodynamics to each other.

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BASIC CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMICS
Science has several unique forms of study, with their own different structure. The exact
definition of basic concepts lies on how solid one’s foundation in the development of this
scientific structures as to limit or even prevent misunderstandings. Studying these basic
concepts will help to get a better understanding of the topics in thermodynamics.
THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics can be defined as the study of energy, and the ways of transforming this
energy from one form to another and utilizing it for the improvement of the life of human kind.
The word thermodynamics comes from the Greek words θερμη
(therme, meaning “heat”) and δυναμις (dynamis, meaning “power”).
Thermodynamics is the study of the various processes that change
energy from one form into another (such as converting heat into work)
and uses variables such as temperature, volume, and pressure. 1

ENERGY

A fundamental entity of nature that is transferred between parts of a system in the production
of physical change within the system and usually regarded as the capacity for doing work
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS.
1st Law of Thermodynamics: deals with one of the most fundamental law of nature, stating that energy
can neither be created nor it can be destroyed, it can only be converted from one form into another,
which is the principle of conservation of energy.
In simply said that when an energy changes its form from one form to another, the total amount of
energy remains constant. In formula basis it will simply be, Energy entering as system is equal to the
Energy leaving the system.
Energy entering the system = Energy leaving the system
Or
Ei = Ee

Fig. 1.1 energy entering and leaving a system

2nd Law of Thermodynamics: It gives an upper limit to the efficiency of a system. It is

common sense that heat will not flow spontaneously from a body at lower temperature to a
body at higher temperature. In order to transfer heat from lower temperature to higher
temperature continuously (that is, to maintain the low temperature) a refrigeration system is
needed which requires work input from external source.

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Clausius’ statement of second law
It is impossible to transfer heat in a cyclic process from low temperature to high temperature
without work from external source.

fig. 1.2 Energy won’t transfer from a cool system to a hot system.
Kelvin-Planck statement of second law
It is impossible to construct a device (engine) operating in a cycle that will produce no effect
other than extraction of heat from a single reservoir and convert all of it into work.

fig. 1.3 Steam engine.

3rd Law of Thermodynamics: States that “the entropy of a perfectly crystalized solid is zero
at temperature of absolute zero.” This co-relates to the concept that entropy is the measure of
disorder of a system, which when a system approach absolute zero temperature movement of
molecules will cease as show in fig 1.4.

fig. 1.4 Movement of molecules at different temperature

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 For imperfect crystals however there is some entropy associated with configuration of
molecules and atoms even when all motions cease, hence the entropy in this case does not tend
to zero as T → 0, but it tends to a constant called the entropy of configuration.
UNITS AND DIMENSIONS
While most of the world is currently using SI (Système International) units, leaving the United State
of America, Liberia and Myanmar the only countries mainly relying on using imperial system, it
certainly doesn’t hurt to learn both systems of unit.

Quantity Symbol SI Units English Units

Length L m ft
Mass m kg lbm
Time t s s
Area A m2 ft2
Volume V m3 ft3
Velocity v m/s ft/s
Acceleration a m/s2 ft/s2
Force, Weight F, W N lbf
Density ρ Kg/m3 lbm/ ft3
Specific weight γ N/m3 lbf/ ft3
Pressure, Stress P kPa lbf/ ft2
Work W J ft-lbf
Heat transfer Q J Btu
Power Ẇ W ft-lbf/s
Heat flow q W Btu/s
Mass flow 𝑚̇ kg/s lbm/s
Flow rate V̇ m3/s ft3/s
Specific heat c kJ/kg · K Btu/ lbm · oF
Specific enthalpy h kJ/kg Btu/ lbm
Specific entropy s kJ/kg · K Btu/ lbm · oF
Specific volume v m3/kg ft3/kg
Table 1.1
There are two types of dimensions, primary or fundamental and secondary or derived
dimensions.
Primary dimensions are: mass, m; length, L; time, t; temperature, T. Primary dimension can be
defined as independent unit.
Secondary dimensions are the ones that can be derived from primary dimensions such as:
velocity (m/s), acceleration (m/s2), etc.
The most important thing to remember in engineering is that all equations used in computing
must be in dimensional equilibrium. This means that every term in the equation must have the
same units.
Multiple 1012 109 106 103 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12
Prefix tera, T giga, G mega, M kilo, k centi, c milli, m micro, µ nano, n pico, p
Table 1.2 Standard prefix in SI units.

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Example 1: Unit conversion
A turbine to be used in a hydro-electric power plant is tested by the manufacturer and it
produce an average power output of 1 MW. Convert this to kJ/hr.
𝑘𝐽
1𝑥103 𝑘𝑊 1 ⁄𝑠 3600𝑠 𝑘𝐽
1 𝑀𝑊 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 = 3.6 𝑥 106
1 𝑀𝑊 𝑘𝑊 1ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟
PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
A system has several different characteristics and any one of this is called a property. There
are two classification of properties, which are; intensive properties and extensive properties.
Intensive properties is a property of matter that does not change as the amount of matter
changes. It is a bulk property, which means it is a physical property that is not dependent on
the size or mass of the system.
Extensive property is a property of matter that is dependent on the system size.
MASS AND WEIGHT
Mass (m) is the absolute quantity of matter in an object. Mass is measured by the amount of
matter is a body, thus it will remain constant as long as the body or system is not subjected to
erosion or damages.
Weight (W) is the force applied to a certain mass/object in respect to the gravitational
acceleration its subjected to.
W = mg
Where g is the gravitational acceleration.
Note: the gravitational acceleration differs as elevation changes.
Example 2: Mass and Weight
A 75 kgm man climb a mountain 1753 meters above sea level, what is his weight at the peak
of the mountain, assume that the decrease in gravitational acceleration is 1.023 m/s2 per 1000
m.
m = 75 kgm z = 1753 m
gat sea level = 9.8066 m/s2 -a = - 1.023 m/s2 per 1000 m
W = mgat peak
gat peak = z (-a) + gat sea level

−1.023 m/s2
= 1753 m ( ) + 9.8066 m/s2
1000 m
= 8.013 m/s2
(75 𝑘𝑔𝑚 )(8.013 𝑚/𝑠 2 )
W =
𝑘𝑔𝑚 ·𝑚
(9.8066 )
𝑘𝑔𝑓 · 𝑠2

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W = 61.2827 kgf
DENSITY, SPECIFIC VOLUME AND SPECIFIC WEIGHT
Density (ρ) is the ratio of mass per unit volume of any substance. It is the ratio of
compactness of the molecules of any substance relative to a certain given space.
m
ρ= (kg/m3)
V
Specific volume (v) is the ratio of volume per unit mass of any substance.
V 1
v= = (m3/kg)
m ρ
Specific weight (γ) is the ratio of weight per unit volume.
W Fg
γ= = (N/m3)
V V
By co-relating density and specific weight, the formula;
𝛾
ρ= or γ = ρg
𝑔
as specific weight can be interpreted as density that is subject to gravitational force.

PRESSURE
Pressure (p) is the ratio of force per unit area. It is measure using the unit Pascal (Pa) in SI
unit system or Pound per square inch (psi) in English unit.
F
p= (N/m2) (Pa)
A
Atmospheric pressure (patm) also known as barometric pressure is the pressure of the earth’s
atmosphere. At standard condition the atmospheric pressure is 101.325 kPa, 760 mmHg, 29.92
in. Hg, 14.696 psia, 1 atm and 1.01325 Bar.
Gauge pressure (pgage) is the pressure relative to the atmospheric pressure. Gauge pressure is
positive when greater than atmospheric pressure, when less than atmospheric pressure it is
negative and is referred as vacuum pressure (pvac).
Absolute pressure (pabs) is the sum of the atmospheric pressure and gauge pressure.
pabs = patm + pgage (when pgage > patm)
pabs = patm – pvac (when pgage < patm)
Manometer is a device used to measure pressure using a column of liquid (most of the time
it uses liquid mercury). It is used to measure gauge pressure.
Barometer is a device used to measure the atmospheric pressure.

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TEMPERATURE
Temperature (t) is the degree or intensity of hotness and coldness of any substance/object.
Absolute temperature (T) is the temperature measure from absolute zero.
Absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature in thermodynamics, in which the motion of
molecules stops. It is measure at 0 degrees Kelvin in SI unit and 0 degrees Rankine in English
unit.
Units of temperature
Celsius, also called centigrade, invented by the Swedish astronomer Andres Celsius in 1742,
is a scale based on 0° for the freezing point of water and 100° for the boiling point of water.
5
o
C = 9 (o F – 32)

Fahrenheit, named after the 18th century German physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, is a
scale based on 32° for the freezing point of water and 212° for the boiling point of water, the
interval between the two being divided into 180 equal parts.
o 9o
F= C + 32
5

Kelvin, named for the British physicist William Thomson (also known as Lord Kelvin), is an
absolute temperature scale.
K = o C + 273.15
Rankine is an absolute temperature scale.
o
R = o F + 459.67
CONSERVATION OF MASS
The law of conservation of mass states that mass can never be destroyed, base on this law it
can be said that any form of mass entering a system would be equal to the mass leaving a
system.

V̇ = Av
V̇ A𝑣
ṁ = = = Avρ
v v

Where V̇ = Volume flow rate (m3/s)

A = Cross sectional area (m2)
v = Average velocity (m/s)
ṁ = Mass flow rate (kg/s)

By applying the law of conservation of mass

ṁ1 = ṁ2
A1vρ = A2vρ

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CLOSED AND OPEN SYSTEMS
In thermodynamics a system is defined as the matter or region of space that is chosen for study.
The region outside the system is referred to as the surrounding and the surface separating the
system from its surroundings is called the boundary. The boundary of a system can either be
fixed or movable.
Note: The boundary has zero thickness, mass and volume.
An open system is a system where mass flow occurs in a system, making it so that both mass
and energy flow through the system consistently. Some example of an open system are jet
turbines, compressor, pumps etc.
A closed system is a system where no mass can cross its boundary. A closed system doesn’t
allow the flow of mass through its boundary, but energy can cross in and out its borders. An
example of a closed system is reciprocating engine.
An isolated system is a system where neither mass nor energy are able to cross its boundary.
An adiabatic system is a system which no energy transfer occurs in its boundary. There is no
interaction with the heat or energy in the system and its surrounding.
ENERGY
Energy, in the simplest term of its definition is the ability to do work. It may exist in potential,
kinetic, thermal, electrical, chemical, nuclear, or other various forms. As discuss in the 1st law
of thermodynamics, energy cannot be destroyed or created, that is why in thermodynamics, we
deal with the changes in total energy of a system. The forms of energy can be divided into two
broad groups: macroscopic and microscopic.
Macroscopic forms of energy referred to the forms of energy you can see, in example kinetic
and potential energy.
Potential Energy (PE) is the energy of a body as it reacts to the gravitational field relative to
its elevation. Its represented by the formula;
PE = mgz (kJ)
Where m is the mass of the object/body, g is the gravitational acceleration and z is the elevation
of the center of gravity of the system relative to the datum plane/line.
Kinetic Energy (KE) is the energy of a body relative to the motion relative to a reference
point.
𝑚𝑉 2
𝐾𝐸 = (kJ)
2

Where m is the mass of the object/body and V it the velocity of the system in (m/s)
Microscopic forms of energy referred to the forms that are hidden, it relates to the energy in
molecular basis. The sum of microscopic forms is called the internal energy (U) with the unit
(kJ).
Internal Energy (U) is energy stored within a system by the random, disorderly motion of
molecules within the system.

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WORK
Work is the product of the displacement of the body and the component of the force in the
direction of the displacement. Work can be said to only occurs when force is moving through
a distance.
In thermodynamics, there is work in a non-flow system and flow work. Non-flow work means
work within a cylinder due to the motion of a piston during which no inflow or outflow of the
gas is taking place.
The work done by gas on the piston is
dW = F d = p A dL = p dV
The total non-flow work is

𝑊 = ∫ 𝑝 𝑑𝑉

Flow work is the total work obtained during complete from inlet to outlet of a thermodynamic
system.
Wf = FL = pAL
The total flow work is
Wf = pV
Where p is the pressure of the fluid and V is the volume of the fluid.
HEAT
Heat (Q) is energy that move from one body/system to another solely because of the
difference in temperature between the bodies/systems.
Heat is positive when heat is added to the system.
Heat is negative when heat is lose/rejected by the system.
ENTHALPY
Enthalpy (H) is equal to the internal energy of the system plus the product of the pressure
and volume.
H = U + pV (kJ)
STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION
By the law of conservation of energy, there will be neither accumulation nor diminution of
mass and energy within the system.
The state of any substance in the system remains constant.
Energy entering the system = Energy leaving the system
E1 = E 2
PE1 + KE1 + Wf1 + U1 + Q = PE2 + KE2 + Wf2 + U2 + W

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As Wf = pV the equation will be,
PE1 + KE1 + p1V1 + U1 + Q = PE2 + KE2 + p2V2 + U2 + W
By substituting pV + U with enthalpy (H)
PE1 + KE1 + H1 + Q = PE2 + KE2 + H2 + W
Q = ΔPE + ΔKE + ΔH + W
IDEAL GAS
Ideal gas is the theoretical gas composed of molecules that do not attract or repel each other.
Bolye’s Law, is a gas law observe by Robert Boyle, that the product of the pressure (p) and
volume (V) is constant.
1 𝐶
𝑉∞ or 𝑉 =
𝑝 𝑝

𝑝𝑉 = 𝐶 or 𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑝2 𝑉2
Charles’ law, (Jacques Charles) states that the Volume (V) of a gas is directly proportional
to the temperature (T).
𝑉 ∞ 𝑇 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = 𝐶𝑇
𝑉 𝑉1 𝑉2
= 𝐶 𝑜𝑟 =
𝑇 𝑇1 𝑇2
Equation of state or characteristic equation of a perfect gas
Combining Boyle’s and Charles’ Laws,
𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑝2 𝑉2
= = 𝐶, a constant
𝑇1 𝑇2

𝑝𝑉
= 𝑚𝑅
𝑇
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇 𝑝𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇

(unit mass)
Where p = absolute pressure
V = volume
v = specific volume
m = mass
T = absolute temperature
R = specific gas constant or simply gas constant
SPECIFIC HEAT
The specific heat (c) of a substance is defined as the quantity of heat required to change the
temperature of unit mass through one degree.

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 (𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠)

𝑐 = (kJ/kg · K)
(𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠)(𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒)

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Constant volume specific heat (𝒄𝒗 )

𝑄𝑣 = ∆ 𝑈
𝑄𝑣 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1) (kJ)

Where Qv = Heat (kJ)

m = mass (m)
cv = Constant volume specific heat (kJ/kg · K)
T = Temperature (K)

Constant pressure specific heat (𝒄𝒑 )

𝑄𝑝 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1)

2
𝑄𝑝 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊 = ∆𝑈 + ∫1 𝑝𝑑𝑉
𝑄𝑝 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑝(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
𝑄𝑝 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 + 𝑝2 𝑉2 − 𝑝1 𝑉1
𝑄𝑝 = 𝐻2 − 𝐻1 = ∆𝐻

Where Qp = Heat (kJ)

m = mass (m)
cp = Constant pressure specific heat (kJ/kg · K)
T = Temperature (K)
U = Internal energy (kJ)
p = pressure (kPa)
V = Volume (m3)
H = Enthalpy (kJ)

Ratio of specific heat

the Ratio of specific heat, also known as the adiabatic index, the heat capacity ratio,
or Laplace's coefficient, is the ratio of the heat capacity at constant pressure (cp) to heat
capacity at constant volume (cv).
𝑐𝑝
𝑘= >1
𝑐𝑣

ENTROPY
Entropy (S) is that property of a substance which remains constant if no heat enters or leaves
the substance, while it does work or alters its volume, but which increases or diminishes should
a small amount of heat enter or leave.

2
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑄
𝑑𝑆 = 𝑜𝑟 ∆𝑆 = ∫
𝑇 1 𝑇

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 2
𝑚𝑐𝑑𝑇
∆𝑆 = ∫
1 𝑇
2
𝑑𝑇 𝑇2
∆𝑆 = 𝑚𝑐 ∫ = 𝑚𝑐 ln
1 𝑇 𝑇1

PROCESSES AND CYCLES

Constant Volume Process
An isometric process is a reversible constant volume process. A constant volume process
may be reversible or irreversible.

Fig
(a) Relation between p and T
𝑇2 𝑃2
=
𝑇1 𝑃1
(b) Nonflow Work
2
𝑊𝑛 = ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑉 = 0
1
(c) The change of internal energy
∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1)
(d) The heat transferred
𝑄𝑣 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1)
(e) The change of enthalpy
∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1)
(f) The change of entropy
𝑇2
∆𝑆 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 ln
𝑇1

(g) Reversible steady flow constant volume.

𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝐾 + ∆𝑊𝑓 + 𝑊𝑠 + ∆𝑃
𝑊𝑆 = −(𝛥𝑊𝑓 + 𝛥𝑘 + 𝛥𝑃)
𝑊𝑠 = − ∆𝑊𝑓 = 𝑉 (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )

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 (∆𝑃 = 0, ∆𝐾 = 0)
2
− ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑝 = 𝑊𝑠 + ∆𝐾
1
−𝑉(𝑝2 − 𝑝1 ) = 𝑊𝑠 + ∆𝐾
𝑉(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ) = 𝑊𝑠 + ∆𝐾
𝑉(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ) = 𝑊𝑠
(∆𝐾 = 0)
(h) Irreversible nonflow constant volume process
𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊𝑛
For reversible nonflow, 𝑊𝑛 = 0
For irreversible nonflow, 𝑊𝑛 ≠ 0
𝑊𝑛 = 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
𝑊𝑠 = 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
Constant Pressure Process
An isobaric process is an internally reversible process of a substance during which the pressure
remains constant.

(a) Relation between V and T at p = C

𝑇2 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑉1
(b) Nonflow Work
2
𝑊𝑛 = ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑉 = 𝑝(𝑉2 − 𝑉1)
1
(c) The change of internal energy
∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1)
(d) The heat transferred
𝑄𝑣 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1)
(e) The change of enthalpy
∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1)
(f) The change of entropy

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 𝑇2
∆𝑆 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 ln
𝑇1
(g) steady flow isobaric.
𝑄 = ∆𝐾 + ∆𝐻 + 𝑊𝑠 + ∆𝑃
𝑊𝑆 = −(𝛥𝑘 + 𝛥𝑃)
𝑊𝑠 = 𝛥𝑘
(∆𝑃 = 0)
2
− ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑝 = 𝑊𝑠 + ∆𝐾
1
0 = 𝑊𝑠 + ∆𝐾
𝑊𝑠 = ∆𝐾
Constant Temperature Process
An isothermal process is an internally reversible constant temperature process of a substance.

a) Relation between p and V

𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑝2 𝑉2
(b) Nonflow work
2 2
𝐶𝑑𝑉 𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑊𝑛 = ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑉 = ∫ = 𝐶𝑙𝑛 = 𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑙𝑛
1 1 𝑉 𝑉1 𝑉1
(c) The change of internal energy
∆𝑈 = 0
(d) The heat transferred
𝑉2 𝑝1
𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊𝑛 = 𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛
𝑉1 𝑝2
(e) the change of enthalpy
∆𝐻 = 0
(f) the change of entrophy
𝑄 𝑝1
∆𝑆 = = 𝑚𝑅 ln
𝑇 𝑝2
(g) Steady flow isothermal
𝑄 = ∆𝑃 + ∆𝐾 + ∆𝐻 + 𝑊𝑠
𝑊𝑠 = 𝑄 − ∆𝑃 − ∆𝐾
𝑊𝑠 = 𝑄
(∆𝑃 = 0, ∆𝐾 = 0)

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 2
− ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑝 = 𝑊𝑠 + ∆𝐾
1
− 𝑝𝑑𝑉
From pV = V, pdV + Vdp = 0, dp = 𝑉
2 2 2
𝑝𝑑𝑉
− ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑝 = − ∫ 𝑉 [− ] = ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑉
1 1 𝑉 1
𝑉2
𝑝1 𝑉1𝑙𝑛 = 𝑊𝑠 + ∆𝐾
𝑉1
𝑊𝑛 = 𝑊𝑠
(∆𝐾 = 0)
Constant Entropy Process
An isentropic process is reversible adiabatic process. Adiabatic simply means no heat. A
reversible adiabatic is one of constant entropy

Relation among p, V and T.

(a) Relation between p and V
𝑝1 𝑉1𝑘 = 𝑝2 𝑉2𝑘 = 𝐶
(b) Relation between T and V
𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑝2 𝑉2
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑝1 𝑉1𝑘 = 𝑝2 𝑉2𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = , 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑇2 𝑉1 𝑘−1
= [ ]
𝑇1 𝑉2
(c) Relation between T and p
𝑘−1
𝑇2 𝑝2 𝑘
= [ ]
𝑇1 𝑝1
(d) Nonflow work
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝑉 𝑘 = 𝐶, 𝑝 = 𝐶𝑉 −𝑘
2 2 2
𝑊𝑛 = ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 𝐶𝑉 −𝑘 𝑑𝑉 = 𝐶 ∫ 𝑉 −𝑘 𝑑𝑉
1 1 1
Integrating and simplifying,
𝑝2 𝑉2 − 𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑚𝑅(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑊𝑛 = =
1−𝑘 1−𝑘

(e) The change of internal energy

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 ∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
(f) The heat transferred
Q=0
(g) The change of enthalpy
∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
(h) The change of entropy
∆𝑆 = 0
(i) Steady flow isentropic
𝑄 = ∆𝑃 + ∆𝐾 + ∆𝐻 + 𝑊𝑠
𝑊𝑠 = −∆𝑃 − ∆𝐾 − ∆𝐻
𝑊𝑠 = −∆𝐻
(∆𝑃 = 0, ∆𝐾 = 0)
2
− ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑝 = 𝑊𝑠 + ∆𝐾
1
1 1
Let 𝐶 = 𝑝 𝑉 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = 𝐶𝑝
𝑘 𝑘
2 1
− ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑝 = ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝑘 𝑑𝑝
1
Integrating and simplifying,
2 2
𝑘 (𝑝2 𝑉2 − 𝑝1 𝑉1 )
− ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑝 = = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑉
1 1−𝑘 1
Polytropic Process

A polytropic process is an internally reversible process during which

p𝑉 𝑛 = 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝1 𝑉1𝑛 = 𝑝2 𝑉2𝑛 = 𝑝𝑖 𝑉𝑖𝑛
Where n is any constant.

1. Relation among p, V, and T

• (a) Relation between p and V
𝑝1 𝑉1𝑛 = 𝑝2 𝑉2𝑛
• (b) Relation between T and V
𝑇2 𝑉1 𝑛−1
= [ ]
𝑇1 𝑉2
• (c) Relation between T and p

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 𝑛−1
𝑇2 𝑝2 𝑛
= [ ]
𝑇1 𝑝1
2. Nonflow work
𝑝2 𝑉2 − 𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑚𝑅(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑊𝑛 = =
1−𝑛 1−𝑛
3. The change of internal energy
∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
4. The heat transferred
𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊𝑛
𝑚𝑅(𝑇2 −𝑇1 )
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) + 1 −𝑛
𝑐𝑣 −𝑛𝑐𝑣 +𝑅
𝑄 = 𝑚[ ] (𝑇2 − 𝑇1)
1 −𝑛
𝑐𝑝 −𝑛𝑐𝑣
𝑄 = 𝑚[ ] (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
1 −𝑛
𝑘 −𝑛
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 [1 −𝑛] (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝑛 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑘 −𝑛
𝑐𝑛 = 𝑐𝑣 [ ] , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
1 −𝑛
5. The change of enthalpy
∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
6. The change of entropy
𝑇2
∆𝑆 = 𝑚𝑐𝑛 ln
𝑇1
7. Steady flow isentropic
𝑄 = ∆𝑃 + ∆𝐾 + ∆𝐻 + 𝑊𝑠
𝑊𝑠 = 𝑄 − ∆𝑃 − ∆𝐾 − ∆𝐻
𝑊𝑠 = 𝑄 − ∆𝐻
(∆𝑃 = 0, ∆𝐾 = 0)
2
− ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑝 = 𝑊𝑠 + ∆𝐾
1
2 2
𝑛(𝑝2 𝑉2 − 𝑝1 𝑉1 )
− ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑝 = = 𝑛 ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑉
1 1−𝑛 1

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REFERENCES

Balmer, Robert T. (2011), Modern Engineering Thermodynamics, Oxford, UK, Elsevier

Inc.,
Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/science/energy
Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/technology/Celsius-
temperature-scale
Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/science/kelvin
Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/science/Rankine-
temperature-scale
Sta. Maria, Hipolito B. (1990), Thermodynamics, Mandaluyong City, National
Bookstore Inc.

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