STRUCTURAL DESIGN: SIMPLIFIED MODULAR APPROACH OF

TIMBER DESIGN
Overview

Simplified modular approach of timber design is made to provide you the

fundamental and simplest way of understanding the basic concept, and the
intricacies of timber design and the principles of timber design. This module was
basically focused for your assistance and every design professionals interested to
learn more the intricacies of designing timber structures.

In this module also is basically anchored with Timber Design using

Philippine Structural Timber and the National Structural Code of the Philippines
(NSCP) which is intended to supplement the instructional means and processes of
designing for Timber Design in both Civil Engineering Students and Professionals
as a reference.

Furthermore, this module discussed the properties of woods, the pros and
cons of timber as a structural materials, the method and procedural approach in
the analysis and designing the structural members of timber design which is
subject to flexure, compression, tension, combination of design of compression
and tension members, design of combined flexural and axial members, and the
timber connectors and fasteners.

Purpose of the Module

After the comprehensive readings and solving analytical cases and problems of
Structural Design (Timber Design) of this module, you will be able to:

1. Identify the constituent materials of timber and understand their behavior.

2. Apply the fundamental principles of Timber Design.
3. Formulate correct design strategies based on theoretical and situational
experiences.
4. Understand and apply the different types of loads to structures using National
Structural Code of the Philippines
5. Apply techniques in structural design and analysis of structural wood.
6. Appraised the local code of practice, i.e., the National Structural Code of the
Philippines.
7. Identify advanced design methods.

Module Title and Description

CE 512: Structural Design II – Timber Design

This module is concerned with the design of structural members subjected

to flexural, compression and tension members, combined stresses and
connections. The presentation of the course is aligned with the provisions of the
National Structural Code of the Philippines.

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Module Guide

This module provides you a discussion of the preliminary to other

intricacies, aspects of structural design – timber design and its analysis of
structural members subjected to flexural, compression and tension members,
combined stresses and connections. The phases of activity necessary to
introduce the meaning of the different terms applicable in the learning lesson of
this module are presented first, followed by an introduction to the fundamental
aspect of the basic type of structures, their components, and supports. Finally, a
case study and the procedural approach of the different structural elements and
the analysis of the structure. Thus, Deductive Method of Presentation will be
made in this module. A Deductive Method contains the following:
The Introduction
Giving the Concept or principle
The Explanation
Illustrative Problems
Application
Case study

Module Outcomes
In this module, after a comprehensible readings and analysis you will be
able to come up a complete set of computation for structural design – timber
design of the structure. You can produce Case Study/ies comprises in the
different learning lessons of this module.

Module Requirement
You should submit all the Examinations such as Midterm exam, Final
Examination, Quizzes, Assignments, and Requirements through online and
offline process of submitting the Evaluation/Assessment through an my account
in e-mail/messenger, or in the Moodle, and municipal link. And after computing
the ratings of the examinations and requirements you should have obtained an
average rating of 75% in all examinations and requirements.

Key Terms

Timber, Wood, Structural Design, Timber Design, Design

LEARNING PLAN

In this module, you will learn on how to apply the structural timber design through
deductive method which focuses in the learning lesson for every module.

The Introduction Provides the overview of the topic or the

learning lesson of the module

Giving the concept of Learn the principle on what formula,

Principle equation, and methods to be used

The Explanation Discuss the process of the given sample

problem in response to the given example
or sample problem/s.

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Illustrative Problems Show on how to give solution to the given
problem

Application Apply the different approach of solving the

problem to provide application in various
structural members of the structure.

Case Study Learn to provide showcase application to

the structural members of the structure.

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MODULE I: PROPERTIES OF PHILIPPINE WOOD LUMBER

The following topic to be discuss in this module, to wit:

Properties of the Philippine Lumber, Engineering Structures, Structural
Design and Procedure, application of wood as structural materials

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the module, you will be able to:
1. Define the wood, structure, and engineering structure
2. Identify the wood lumber in the Philippines
3. Classify the different wood defects
4. Determine the pros and cons of wood as structural materials
5. Know-how the procedure in structural design for timber.

LEARNING LESSON

1.1 Introduction

The term structural design has various definitions and different

applications. This means that it is roughly something constructed or built. The
major structures that the civil engineers is concerned are the buildings, bridges,
walls, dams, towers and other related structures. Structures are composed of one
or more solid elements to arranged that the whole structures as well as the
components. In this module you will the introduction and concepts of structural
design - timbers design in preparation for succeeding discussion of the modules.
The basic terms that are significantly identifying the word are the following:

Blocked Diaphragm is a diaphragm in which all sheathing edges not

occurring on framing members are supported on and connected to
blocking.

Convention Light-Frame Construction is a type of construction whose

primary structural elements are formed by a system of repetitive
wood-framing members.

Diaphragm is a horizontal or nearly horizontal system acting to transmit

lateral forces to the vertical resisting element. When the term
diaphragm is used, it includes horizontal bracing system.

Fiberboard is a fibrous-felted, homogenous panel made from

lignocelluloses fiber (usually wood or cane) having a density of
less than 479 km/m3 but more than 160 kg/m3

Glued Built-up Members are structural elements, the section of which

are composed of built-up lumber, wood structural panel or wood
structural panel in combination with lumber, all parts bonded
together with adhesive.

Grade (lumber) the classification of lumber in regard to strength and utility

in accordance with the grading rules of an approved lumber
grading agency.

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Hardboard is a fibrous-felted, homogenous panel made from
lignocellulosic fibers consolidated under heat and pressure in a
hot press density not less than 497 kg/m3.

Nominal Size (Lumber) the commercial size designation of width and

depth, in strand sawn lumber grades; somewhat larger than the
strand net size of dressed lumber. In accordance to Philippine
National Standard (PNS).

Normal Loading a design load that stressed a member or fastening to

the full allowable stress. This loading may be applied for
approximately 10 years, either continuously or cumulatively,
and 90 percent of this load may be applied for the remainder of
the life of the member or fastening.

Particleboard is a manufactured panel product consisting of particles of

wood or combination of wood particles and wood fibbers bonded
together with synthetic resins or other suitable bonding system by
as bonding process, in accordance with approved nationally
recognized standard.

Plywood is a panel of laminated veneers confirming o Philippine Nation

standards (PNS) “Construction and Industrial Plywood” and UBC
standard 23-3, “performance standard for wood based Structural
used Panels”.

Rotation is the tensional movement of a diaphragm about a vertical axis.

Subdiaphragm is a portion of a larger wood diaphragm designed to

anchor and transfer local forces to primary diaphragm struts and
the main diaphragm.

Treated Wood is wood treated with an approved preservative under

treating and quality control procedures.

Wood on Natural Resistance to Decay or Termites is the heart wood of

the species set forth below. Corner sap wood is permitted on 5
percent of the pieces provided 90 percent or more of the width of
each side on which it occurs is heartwood. Recognized species
are:

Decay resistant: Narra, Kamagong, Dao, Tangile.

Termite resistant: Narra, Kamagong.

Wood Structural Panel is a structural panel product composed primarily

of wood and in meeting the requirements o Philippine National
Strad (PNS). Wood structural panel include all-veneer plywood,
composite panel containing a combination of veneer and wood-
based material, and mat-formed panel such as oriented stranded
board and waferboard.

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ACTIVITY # 1

TRUE OR FALSE. Write TRUE if the statement is true. If not change the underlined word or
phrases that makes the statement erroneous with the correct one. Write your
answers on this activity box.

1. A panel of laminated veneers confirming of

Industrial Standards for Plywoods (ISP)
“Construction and Industrial Plywood” and UBC
standard 23-3, “performance standard for wood
based Structural used Panels”.
2. A fibrous-felted, homogenous panel made from
lignocellulosic fibers consolidated under heat
and pressure, it known as the Softwood.
3. Diaphragm is a portion of a larger wood
diaphragm designed to anchor and transfer
local forces to primary diaphragm struts and the
main diaphragm.
4. Plyboard is a fibrous-felted, homogenous panel
made from lignocelluloses fiber (usually wood
or cane) having a density of less than 479
km/m3 but more than 160 kg/m3.
5. Structural Designs are composed of one or
more solid elements to arranged that the whole
structures as well as the components.

1.2 WOOD

WOOD is an anisotropic and orthotropic material. It is divided into two

distinct kinds called hardwood and softwood, though confusingly the names don't
always refer to its actual hardness or softness.

It is a traditional building material, as popular today as ever. Because

wood is anisotropic, natural wooden beams work better as vertical posts (where
they are in compression) than horizontal beams (where they are in tension).

There are qualities that you need to consider for a good timber. Good
Timber has the following qualities, to wit:

QUALITIES OF A GOOD TIMBER:

Appearance A freshly cut surface of timber should exhibit hard and

shining appearance.
Color The timber should preferably be dark. The light color
usually indicates timber with low strength.
Durability A good timber should be durable. It should be capable of
resisting the actions of fungi, insects, chemicals, physical
agencies, and mechanical agencies.
Elasticity A good timber should preferably return to its original
shape when load causing its deformation is removed.
Fibers The timber should have straight fibers.
Fire Resistance The timber should be a bad conductor of heat. A dense

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 wood offers good resistance of fire.
Smell A good timber should have sweet smell. An unpleasant
smell indicates decayed timber.
Strength or toughness A good timber should be string and tough, i.e., it should be
capable of taking loads slowly or suddenly. It should also
be capable of offering resistance to shocks due to
vibrations.

PROPERTIES OF WOOD

MACROSTRUCTURE MICROSTRUCTURE

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 PRINCIPAL AXES OF WOOD

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF TIMBER

The Mechanical properties of timber are the following:

TENSILE STRENGTH Timber is stronger in tension along

the grain but it’s quite difficult to
determine this because of the
difficulties in conducting test.

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH The strength along the grain is

important for column and beam.

SHEAR STRENGTH It is important in the case of the beam

and slabs.

BENDING STRENGTH This refers as the strength of the

timber as a beam.

CLEAVABILITY High resistance for cleavage is

important for nailing and screwing
while low splitting strength is
important for used as firewood.

TORSION STRENGTH Is used to determine the torsion

strength of the timber and the
specimen is loaded up to failure.

HARDNESS Is important in case of timber for

paving blocks flooring bearings and
other similar purposes.

STIFFNESS This property is important to

determine the deflection of a timber
under a load.

STRENGTH

Physically, wood is strong and stiff but, compared to a material like steel,
it's also light and flexible. It has another interesting property too. Metals, plastics,
and ceramics tend to have a fairly uniform inner structure and that makes
them isotropic: they behave exactly the same way in all directions. Wood is
different due to its annual-ring-and-grain structure. You can usually bend and
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snap a small, dead, tree branch with your bare hands, but you'll find it almost
impossible to stretch or compress the same branch if you try pulling or pushing it
in the opposite direction. The same holds when you're cutting wood. If you've ever
chopped wood with an ax, you'll know it splits really easily if you slice with the
blade along the grain, but it's much harder to chop the opposite way (through the
grain). We say wood is anisotropic, which means a lump of wood has different
properties in different directions.

DURABILITY

One of the best things about wood is how long it lasts. Browsing through
the daily news, you'll often read that archeologists have unearthed the buried
remains of some ancient wooden article—a wooden tool, perhaps, or a simple
rowboat or the remnants of a huge building—that are hundreds or even thousands
of years old. Providing a wooden object is properly preserved (something else we
discuss later), it will easily outlast the person who made it. But just like that
person, a wooden object was once a living thing—and it's a natural material. Like
other natural materials, it's subject to the natural forces of decay through a
process known as rotting, in which organisms such as fungi and insects such as
termites and beetles gradually nibble away the cellulose and lignin and reduce
wood to dust and memories.

Source: Photo by Scott Bauer courtesy of US Department of Agriculture/Agricultural Research

Service.

GRADING LUMBER

LUMBER GRADING refers to the process of sorting sawmill production

according to certain classifications. Grading is either done through:

 Visual Stress Grading (VSG)

 Machine Stress Grading (MSG)

In the Philippines, the virtual grading rules of the National

Hardwood Lumber Association (NHLA) of the United Stated of America
(USA) is used.

Visual Stress Grading is based on the premise that woods

properties are affected by growth characteristics that can be easily seen by
the eye. These growth characteristics or wood defects are used to sort the
lumber into stress grades. Each stress grade has a pre-assigned strength
and stiffness values.

The Philippine Wood species are grouped into four:

I. High Strength Group (e.g. Yakal, Molave)

II. Moderately High Strength (e.g. Guijo, Narra)
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 III. Medium Strength (e.g. Apitong, Lauan)
IV. Moderately Low Strength (e.g. Barok, Raintree)

Each strength grouped or wood species is then graded into three stress
grades: 80%, 63%, and 50%.

Disadvantages of VISUAL STRESS GRADING:

 Species identification is required to determine the

value of working stress.
 Absence of labels to differentiate stress grades.
 Problem in identifying the wood species have
prompted designers to use 50% stress grades.
 Some grades and sizes may not be available in the
market. Check availability of construction material
prior to design.

In Mechanical Stress Grading:

- Uses non-destructive evaluation

- Material is tested to get modulus of elasticity, E (E can be
known when the stress and strain of the materials are
known given a force).
- The forest Products Research and Development Insitutte
(FPRDI) proposed MSG in sorting structural lumber into
groups according to strength, with each group having a set
of predetermined structural design properties.
- The MSG stress groups are M5, M10, M15, M20, and M25.
e.g. M5 – which means that the allowable bending
strength is 5 MPa
- No need to identify wood species.

ACTIVITY # 2

Match the concept. Match the concept found in Column A with the concepts in Column B. Write your answers on your in
the space provided.
COLUMN A COLUMN B
1. Wood a. An anisotropic and orthotropic material.

2. Tensile Strength b. Timber is stronger in tension along the

grain but it’s quite difficult to determine
this because of the difficulties in
conducting test.
3. Radial Axis c. Normal to the growth rings.
4. Stiffness d. A mechanical property of a timber which
5. Macrostructure determine the deflection of a timber
under a load.
e. A structure of wood visible by the naked
eye or at a small magnification.

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1.3 DEFECT OF TIMBER

Timber is far from being a stable and consistent material. One of the biggest
challenges of working with timber is learning to work within the constraints of a timber’s.

Defects in lumber are faults that detract from the appearance and utility of the
wood. Some are present when the wood is produced and others develop or become more
severe as the wood ages. As a general rule, you can reduce the amount of defects by
purchasing higher-grade materials at the outset.

Properly drying the wood before it is installed will also help. Using protective
stains on your deck can prevent some damage to the wood by slowing down the drying
process in order to limit checking. Stains can also conceal visual defects by covering
them with a consistent color throughout the deck.

Warping is any variation from a true plane surface on a piece of lumber. This
occurs due to the differences between radial, tangential and longitude shrinkage in a
piece of wood or growth stresses that encourage the board to reform its original shape.

What is defect in timber?

Defect is an irregularity or abnormality in or on wood which is responsible for the

strength reduction, lowing of durability, lowering of utility, poor appearance, and decay.

COMMON DEFECTS IN TIMBER

DUE TO
DUE TO DUE TO DUE TO DUE TO
NATURAL
INSECTS SEASONING FUNGI CONVERSION
FORCES
 Termites  Chemical  Bow  Blue Stain  Chip Mark
 Beetles Stain  Cup  Brown Rot  Diagonal
 Marine  Knots  Check  Dry Rot Grain
Boarers  Shake  Split  Heart Rot  Wane
 Twisted  Twist  Wet Rot  Torn Grain
Fibers  Honey  White Rot
 Rind Galls Combing
 Upsets  Diamond
 Burls  Boxed Heart

COMMON DEFECTS IN TIMBER

DEFEC/S DESCRIPTION PICTURE/IMAGE

 Termites/ Eat away wood from core of the

White Ants cross-section

DUE TO
INSECTS

Form pin holes of about 2 mm

 Beetles diameter

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  Marine Diameter of the holes made by them
Boarers is about 25 mm

 Chemical The wood is sometimes discolored

Stain by the chemical action caused with it
by some external agency.

Created where branches grew from

the stem of the tree. Size and
number of knots affects the grade of
the lumber. Additionally, the wood of
 Knots the knot may fall out and leave a
hole. This happens when the branch
forming the knot dies and the wood
is not bonded to the trunk wood
A lengthwise separation of the
wood. It is most likely caused by
wind damage. When the tree tissue
are not elastic enough to withstand
the stress as the tree bent by wind,
 Shake the tissue separate. If the separation
is between or along the annual
rings, it is known as cup shake. If
the separators radiate from the
DUE TO heartwood, they are known as heart
NATURA or star shake
L These are known as wandering
FORCES hearts and caused by twisting of
 Twisted
young trees by fast blowing wind.
Fibers The timber with twisted fibers is
unsuitable for sawing.

The rind means bark and gall

 Rind Galls indicates abnormal growth. Hence
peculiar curved swelling found on
the body of tree.

These indicate wood fibers which

are injured by crushing or
compression. The upsets are mainly
 Upsets due to improper felling of tree and
exposure of tree in its young age to
fast flowing wind.
A defect caused by an injury in the
living tree. This causes distortion of
the grain and affects the strength of
 Burls the lumber

The curvature of a piece of sawn

timber in the direction of its length,
Bow Spring and Curvature.
DUE TO
SEASONI
NG The curvature of a piece of sawn
Cup timber across its width.

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 Are small separations of the wood
fibers in a longitudinal Wood Defects
direction, not penetrating as far as
the opposite or adjoining side of a
piece of sawn timber; they usually
Check result from strains developing during
seasoning; Surface (or Seasoning)
Checks, and End (or Heart) Checks
are distinguished.

Is a longitudinal separation of the

fibers which extends to the opposite
Split face or adjoining edge of a piece of
sawn timber.

Is the spiral distortion of a piece of

sawn timber; it may be accompanied
Twist by either bowing or spring, or both.

A distortion due to differential

shrinkage in drying that causes a
piece of timber originally square (or
rectangular) in cross section to
become diamond shaped. This
defect occurs when the rays pass
Diamond through diagonal corners of the
square (or rectangle) and is caused
by the difference between tangential
and radial shrinkage which in many
timbers is in the proportion of about
2:1.

(Internal Checks) The development

of checks in the interior of a piece of
wood due to drying stresses, usually
Honey along the wood rays, often not
Combing visible at the surface. This defect
occurs when thick timber is dried too
quickly in a seasoning-kiln.

A defect of seasoning, where the

surface of the wood dries faster
than the core. This cases
Case- permanent stresses and ‘set’
hardening (deformation) that are released
when the wood is cut, resulting in
severe distortion.
A term used when the heart is
enclosed within the four surfaces of
a piece of sawn timber. Well boxed
Heart means that the heart is
enclosed within the four surfaces of
Boxed Heart piece of sawn or hewn timber
throughout its entire length, and is
reasonably well centered at both
ends.

Stain is a discoloration or
variation from the natural color of the
 Blue Stain wood, generally caused by sap-stain
fungi
DUE TO
FUNGI
Stain is a discoloration or
 Brown Rot variation from the natural color of the
wood, generally occur during drying.

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 Occurs at the places where
there is no free circulation of air
such as improperly ventilated
basements, rooms, etc. and damped
 Dry Rot situation like kitchen, toilets, etc. it is
also caused by charring, painting,
and tarring the unseasoned timber

Some fungi cause chemical

 Wet Rot decomposition of wood; convert
timber into grayish brown powder.

This is formed when branch has

come out of the tree in such case
the heart wood is exposed to attack
 Hearth Rot of atmospheric agents ultimately the
tree becomes weak and it gives
hollow sound when struck with
hammer.

Certain types of fungi attack

lignin of wood; wood assumes
 White Rot appearance of white mass
consisting of cellulose compounds.

Indicated by marks or signs placed

by chips on the finished surface/s of
the timber
 Chip Mark

Formed due to improper sawing of

timber
 Diagonal
DUE TO Grain
CONVER
SION Denoted by presence of original
rounded surface on the
 Wane manufactured piece of timber

Defect is caused when small

 Torn Grain depression is formed on the finished
surface of timber by falling of a tool

COMMON DEFECTS IN WOOD | WOOD DEFECTS

A piece of bark wholly or partially enclosed within the wood, which is weakened as bark
Bark inclusion or
pocket a result.

Abnormal black or brown discoloration of the heartwood, which is not necessarily

Blackheart decayed. Ash (Fraxinus spp.) can be prone to this.

Blue stain, sap A bluish or light grey discoloration of sapwood, brought about by the growth of dark-
stain or sapwood coloured fungi in the interior and on the surface of the wood.
stain
The form of warping in which a board is bent or bowed lengthwise.
Bow
Heartwood that snaps easily across the grain as a result of compression failure in fibres
Brittleheart during growth.

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 A disease-damaged area of a tree, usually caused by bacteria or fungus.
Canker

A defect of seasoning, where the surface of the wood dries faster than the core. This
cases permanent stresses and ‘set’ (deformation) that are released when the wood is
Case-hardening
cut, resulting in severe distortion.

A longitudinal crack that does not go through the whole log or plank; usually caused by
Check too-rapid seasoning.

Torn grain due to poor machining or finishing.

Chipped grain
A caved-in cell structure, caused during drying, giving a shrivelled or irregular
Collapse appearance.

Anobium punctatum, commonly known as ‘woodworm’, one of the most widespread

Common furniture insect pests. The damage is done by the grub, which can live in the wood for up to two
beetle years before emerging as an adult.

See reaction wood

Compression wood

Crack A large radial check, cause by tangential shrinkage being grater than radial shrinkage.

Similar to bow, but curving in the plane of the thin edge, rather than the wide side of a
Crook board. Also can be a tree typified by a sharp bend in the stem.

Bending as a result of shrinkage across the width of a board.

Cupping

Xestobium rufovillosum, a beetle that is about 6mm long and very destructive to
Death-watch beetle structural beams. The adults make a ticking noise.

The separation of wood cells along the grain at the end of a piece of wood, cause by
End check uneven drying.

Resinous liquids found on the surface or in pockets in the interior of certain woods.
Gum, sap and pitch

Gum canal Resinous liquids found on the surface or in pockets in the interior of certain woods.

The soft, spongy heart of a tree, which may appear on the surface of sawn timber.
Hearth pith

Heart shake A split that starts at the heart of a log.

A network of checks in the interior of timber, not seen on the outside.

Honeycombing
A section through a branch or twig which became embedded in the tree as the trunk
Knot continued to grow around it. Several types may be distinguished.

Two or more knots coming from a common centre.

Branched knot

Dead, encased or Formed when the trunk grew round a dead branch. The knot is surrounded by a ring of
loose knot bark and is often decayed. It may fall out, leaving a knot hole.

Live, inter-grown or The base of a living branch, surrounded by growth rings and firmly fixed in the
15
tight knot surrounding wood.

Pin knot A knot whose diameter does not exceed 13mm.

A knot which has been sawn lengthwise when the wood was converted. It may be tight
Spike or splay knot at the base, but loose near the surface of the log.

Lyctid borer See powder-post beetle.

Burn marks on the surface of converted wood as a result of poor sawing or machining.
Machine burn

Pitch pocket Burn marks on the surface on converted wood as a result of poor sawing or machining.

A beetle (Lyctus spp.) which attack the sapwood of hardwoods with large pores,
Powder-post beetle including ash (fraxinus spp.) and oak (Quercus spp.).

Abnormal wood formed under the stress of compression or tension during growth, such
as on the underside of a branch or learning trunk (compression wood), or the upper
Reaction wood side of a branch near the trunk (tension wood). The cells are typically shorter and
thicker-walled, with spiral markings. The wood tends to be a poorer quality and not
desirable for commercial purposes.

Ring check, ring A separation of the wood fibres parallel to and between annual rings in the growing
failure or ring tree.
shake
Rot A generic term for several types of fungal decay, such as:

The cellulose and associated carbohydrates are attacked, but not the lignin. This
usually gives a light brown stain and a friable texture. At an advanced stage the wood
Brown rot
will split along rectangular planes as it shrinks; this is referred to as cubical rot.

A common disease in which fungal infection degrades the roots and steam of a living
Butt rot tree. Frequently caused by the fungus Heterobasidion annosum.

A general term applying to any crumble rot, but particularly one in which of the wood is
Dry rot easily crushed into powder; typically caused by Heterobasidion annosum.

This occurs in the outer layers of wood in very wet conditions, such as in boats. The
secondary cell walls are attacked by microfungi that destroy the cellulose content.
Soft rot
Typically caused by the fungus chaetomium globosum.

Usually occurs in persistently damp conditions, and can be caused by a wide variety of
Wet rot fungi.

A variety of fungus that attack lignin and cellulose, creating a spongy, stringy mass,
White rot which is usually whitish, but may have shade of light brown, yellow or tan.

Sap or sapwood See blue stain.

stain
Shake A split in wood, normally parallel to the growth rings.

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 An area of a board that the planer has failed to surface.
Skip

Partial fungal decay that often causes discoloration or fine irregular lines. It can be
Spalting attractive for decorative turnery and the like, but the wood has lost its strength qualities.

Twist A type of warping in which the ends twist in opposing directions.

Wane or waney The presence of the outer surface of the trunk on the edge or corner of a board; bark
edge may be present, or part of the edge may be missing.

Any deviation from a true or flat surface. This can include bowing, crooking, cupping,
Warping twisting or a combination of these.

Wormhole Any hole made by boring insects of their larvae.

ACTIVITY # 3

INSTRUCTION: Read comprehensively and following the instruction carefully.

Indicate by the correct letter which of the following classes/types/descriptions
of defect of timber listed below belongs in:

a. Due to Insect b. Due to Seasoning c. Due to

Conversion
d. Due to Fungi e. Due to Natural Forces

1. Form pin holes of about 2 mm diameter

2. These are known as wandering hearts and caused by twisting of young trees
by fast blowing wind.
3. Bending as a result of shrinkage across the width of a board.
4. The cellulose and associated carbohydrates are attacked, but not the lignin.
5. Formed due to improper sawing of timber
6. The presence of the outer surface of the trunk on the edge or corner of a
board; bark may be present, or part of the edge may be missing.
7. A general term applying to any crumble rot, but particularly one in which of the
wood is easily crushed into powder; typically caused by Heterobasidion
annosum.
8. A longitudinal crack that does not go through the whole log or plank; usually
caused by too-rapid seasoning.
9. A defect caused by an injury in the living tree. This causes distortion of the
grain and affects the strength of the lumber.
10. Wormhole,

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1.4 WOODS AS STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

In the Philippines and other tropical countries, wood is significantly utilized

in construction industry, abundant, and commonly used as structural materials for
buildings, bridges, formworks for concrete construction, and other civil engineering
structures. But despite and inspite of the different laws govern in the wood
industry particularly in environmental concern and issues which constrain the
demand and supply. However, the utilization of wood has gained various pros and
cons on both architectural and structural aspects of design, which includes the
following:

UTILIZATION OF WOOD AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIALS

ADVANTAGES
 Not a processed material
 Organic Material
 Product of the saw and the
planning mill
 Cut to the proper length
 Extremely versatile
 Mechanical properties varies from
each species of wood
 Renewable resource
 Exceptional strength-to-weight ratio
 Building structures/products made
of wood requires less overall
energy.
DISADVANTAGES
 Susceptible to termite attack
 May not be suitable for
critical structures where
durability trough time is
required.
 Wood may be renewable but
cannot replenish fast enough
 Ductility in earthquakes may
be a problem if not detailed
properly

ACTIVITY # 4

TRUE OR FALSE. Write TRUE if the statement is true. If the statement/phrase is incorrect , write
FALSE. Write your answers on this activity box.

1. Wood as structural materials where it can be a

renewable resource.
2. In the Building Structures, the product made by
wood needs more overall energy.
3. The Structural material such as wood is
considered an extremely versatile.
4. Wood may be renewable but can’t replenish.
5. The physical property for timber/woods varies
from each species of wood.

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1.5 PROCESS OF STRUCTURAL TIMBER DESIGN

COMMON PARTS IN A STRUCTURE FOR TIMBER DESIGN

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 FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH OF TIMBER:

The strength of timber has an essential factor for any structural

member of the structure, but there factors that affects the strength of
timber, to wit:

1. Density
2. Moisture content
3. Temperature
4. Grain Structure
5. Position in tree
6. Condition of Growth
7. Defects
8. Creep

DURATION OF LOAD

Value for wood and mechanical fastening (when the wood determines the load
capacity) are subjected to the following adjustment for various duration of loading:

1. Where a member is fully stressed to the maximum allowable stress, either

continuously or cumulatively, for more than 10 years under the condition of
maximum design load, the values shall not exceed 90 percent of those in
the tables.
2. When the accumulated duration of the full maximum load during the life of
the member does not exceed the period indicated below, the values may
be increased in the table as follows:
25% for seven days duration, as for roof loads
33.33% for earthquake

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 33.33% for wind (for connections and fasteners)
60% for wind (members only)
100% for impact
The foregoing increases are not loadings the resultant structural
members shall not be smaller than the required for the longer duration of
loading.
The duration of load factors in this item shall not apply to comprehension-
perpendicular-to-grain design values based on a deformation limit, or to
modulus of elasticity.
3. Values for normal loading conditions may be used without regard to impact
if the stress induced by impact does not exceed the values for normal
loading.

In the process or procedure for the design and analysis of typical multi-storey
timber building, you should consider the following:

ANALYSIS TOP - BOTTOM

DESIGN
(Establish the Design ANALYSIS
Criteria)
Design of Roof System:
Indicte the Roof
Purlens Specifications System and Floor
Trusses System
Rafters References
Analyze Roof System
Roof Girts
Design of Beam and Floor
Design Stresses Analyze Floor
System: System
Flooring Seismic Stresses Analyze
Floor Joist Beam-Column
Stairs Design Loads
Girder/Beam Stringers

Design of Column/Post

Design of Foundation

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ACTIVITY # 5

ESSAY. Write your answer in the space provided

QUESTION: In the process of Design and Analysis, which do you prefer to design and
analyze the multi-storey timber building: The Foundation to Roof System or
the Roof System to Foundation?

SUMMARY

 Structural design has various definitions and different applications. This means
that it is roughly something constructed or built. The major structures that the civil
engineers is concerned are the buildings, bridges, walls, dams, towers and other
related structures. Structures are composed of one or more solid elements to
arrange that the whole structures as well as the components.

 WOOD is an anisotropic and orthotropic material. It is divided into two distinct

kinds called hardwood and softwood, though confusingly the names don't always
refer to its actual hardness or softness.

 Visual Stress Grading is based on the premise that woods properties are affected
by growth characteristics that can be easily seen by the eye. These growth
characteristics or wood defects are used to sort the lumber into stress grades.
 Each stress grade has a pre-assigned strength and stiffness values. The
Philippine Wood species are grouped into four: I - High Strength Group, II
- Moderately High Strength, III - Medium Strength, IV - Moderately Low
Strength.
 Each strength grouped or wood species is then graded into three stress
grades: 80%, 63%, and 50%.

 In Mechanical Stress Grade, The MSG stress groups are M5, M10, M15, M20,
and M25.

 Defect is an irregularity or abnormality in or on wood which is responsible for the

strength reduction, lowing of durability, lowering of utility, poor appearance, and
decay.
 Due to Insects: Termites, Beetles, and Marine Boarers.
 Due to Natural Forces: Chemical Stain, Knots, Shake, Twisted Fibers,
Ring Galls, Upsets, and Burls.
 Due to Seasoning: Bow, Cup, Check, Split, Twist, Honey Combing,
Diamond, and Boxed Heart
 Due to Fungi: Blue stain, Brown Rot, Dry Rot, Heart Rot, Wet Rot, and
White Rot
 Due to Conversion: Chip mark, Diagonal Grain, Torn Grain, and Wane.
 In the process or procedure for the design and analysis of typical multi-storey
timber building are design and analysis.
 In Design: Design of Roof System, Design of Beam and Floor System,
Design of Column, and Design of Foundation
 In Analysis: Specifications, References, Design Stresses, Seismic
Stresses, and Design Loads.

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 How Much Have you Learned?

SELF- ASSESSMENT EXAMINATION # 1:

INSTRUCTION: Read comprehensively and following the instruction carefully.

I. Match the concept. Match the concept found in Column A with the concepts in Column B. Write your
answers on your in the space provided.
COLUMN A COLUMN B
1. Organic Material a. An anisotropic and orthotropic material.

2. Medium Strength b. Timber is stronger in tension along the

grain but it’s quite difficult to determine
this because of the difficulties in
conducting test.
3. Knots c. Normal to the growth rings.
4. Defects d. A mechanical property of a timber which
5. 80%, 63%, and determine the deflection of a timber
50% under a load.
e. A structure of wood visible by the naked
eye or at a small magnification.
6. Macrostructure f. Stresses of Grades
7. Stiffness g. Factors affects the stress of timber
8. Radial Axis h. Due to Natural Forces
9. Tensile Strength i. In VSG, Group III of the Philippine wood
Species
10. Wood j. Advantage of wood as Structural Material
k. Disadvantage of wood as structural
materials

II. MULTIPLE CHOICE. Indicate the correct letter by which of the following word/phrases/statement in
structural design listed below belongs in:

a. Defects of Wood b. Wood as structural material c. Properties of

wood/Timber d. Parts of Timber Structure e. Design Process

1. It causes distortion of the grain and affects the strength of the lumber.
2. Extremely Versatile
3. The structure of wood visible to the naked eye or a small magnification.
4. Floor Joist
5. Design of Roof System
6. Seismic Stresses
7. Termite Shield
8. Microstructure
9. Renewable Resource
10. Diagonal Grain

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Feedback

How did you go on with this module? Are you already starting your
head STUMBLING? Relax…you better focus on the different aspects of
structural design for timber… Don’t turn to the next lesson until you
comprehensively solve the questions and problems given.
Did you have difficulty in answering the activities and self-
assessments?...I hope you’ve learned a lot in the introduction of the
structural design (Timber Design). Good luck to the next Lesson of this
Module.

ASSIGNED READINGS AND/OR ENRICHMENT SUGGESTED READINGS

https://www.slideserve.com/halima/characteristics-of-wood-materials

https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=defects+of+wood+with+description+and+pi
cture

https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=principal+axes+of+wood

https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=wood+as+a+structural+materials

REFERENCES/RESOURCES

 Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, National

Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP C101, Vol.1 Buildings
and Other Structural Vertical Structures), 7 th Ed. 2016

 Besavilla, Venancio I, Jr., Timber Design and Construction Methods

 Besavilla, Venancio I, Jr., Timber Design, Revised Edition., VIB

Publisher

 Parker, Harry and Ambrose, James. 1988. Simplified Design of

Structural Wood, 4th Edition. National Book Store, Manila

ANSWERS KEY

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